Introduction to Kiln Control

Operator Development

Combustion
Presentation & Instructor Notes
Combustion
Learning Objectives

To understand the mechanism of combustion and be able to:

 discern between the 3 types of firing systems
 define combustion air and components of combustion air
 list 3 main flame characteristics and how they can be
controlled
 state importance of fuel/air mixing and variables to control
mixing
 list 3 main indicators of combustion state and how they can be
controlled
 state the main goal in combustion control

Kiln Control: Combustion 2

Combustion

Definition of combustion
 a rapid oxidation of a combustible with a release of heat
 a reaction between fuel and oxygen (air)
Requirements for combustion
 sufficient oxygen (combustion air) to mix with fuel
 efficient mixing of fuel and air
 heat to ignite fuel
fuel

heat
(ignition) air

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Combustion Air

The amount of air necessary to efficiently burn at a certain fuel rate.

Combustion air consists of primary air and secondary air.

Primary air Secondary air

 primary air fan  air from
cooler
 solid fuel
transport air
 inleakage

COMBUSTION AIR

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Combustion Air Needs

 Neutral combustion air

 practically impossible to achieve due to poor mixing
of fuel and air
 Excess combustion air
 complete combustion
 too much air results in heat loss
 Lack of combustion air
 incomplete combustion => CO
 loss of efficiency
 Adequate combustion air
 low CO and low O2 at kiln exit

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Types of Firing Systems

Direct Firing System

Semi-direct Firing System
Indirect Firing System (newest technology)

Kiln Control: Combustion 6

Direct Firing System

 One fan to vent the mill, convey the coal, classify the ground
coal and blow it into the kiln (no control of flame shape)
 All moisture goes to kiln
 High primary air (30-35% of combustion air) resulting in high
SHC.
 Relatively safe, simple operation and low capital cost

Kiln
Cooler

Kiln Control: Combustion 7

Semi-Direct Firing System

 Two fans to classify ground coal and to blow the fuel into the
kiln
 Can add additional fans for flame shaping
 All moisture goes to kiln
 Low primary air
 Higher capital cost than direct firing system

Kiln
Cooler

Kiln Control: Combustion 8

Indirect Firing System

 Coal is ground in a separate system

 Moisture removed from system
 Pulverized fuel bin with high precision metering system
 Primary air is low
 Blowers (low volume, high pressure) added to control flame
shape
 Highest capital cost; safety and environmental issues

Kiln
Cooler

Kiln Control: Combustion 9

Combustion Air in Indirect Firing
System

Primary air w. impulse Secondary air

 ~4% axial air  ~85%
 ~2% swirl air
 ~9% fuel transport air
 plus inleakage

COMBUSTION AIR

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Primary Air - MOMENTUM

 Required to “drive” flame

 High momentum shortens, stabilizes and
compacts the flame

momentum Turbulence at burner tip

Higher turbulence results in better mixing of

fuel and air

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Primary Air - Axial and Swirl Air

 Axial Air
 minimum flow to cool down the burner pipe
 increase or decrease the flame temperature which
changes flame length
 Swirl Air
 increase or decrease the mixing of air and fuel,
allowing a higher or lower flame temperature,
which changes the shape of the flame

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Primary Air - Transport Air

 Transport Air
 for solid fuel transport only
 does not vary with fuel flow
 must be at the minimum flow
 sufficient velocity at burner tip is required for flame
momentum
 for solid fuel transfer, velocity should be 24 to
30 m/s (too low => fuel deposition, too high =>
abrasion and wear)

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Primary Air - In leakage

 In leakage at the kiln hood

 an expensive nuisance
 significant impact on kiln production, kiln stability,
flame length, specific heat consumption and ID fan
capacity

Kiln Control: Combustion 14

Secondary Air

 Heat recuperation
 higher SAT => lower SHC (kcal/kg)
 Flow controlled by ID fan
 Temperature controlled by grate speed
 clinker bed depth
 Kiln hood pressure
 low is better for heat recuperation
 air inleakage increases with more negative
pressure
 constant kiln hood pressure => stabilizes flame

Kiln Control: Combustion 15

Secondary Air

 How much secondary air is required

 total combustion air required minus primary air
 Where is it coming from
 from the hottest cooler chambers
 Impact of secondary air on flame
 low SAT => long, lazy flame

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 Mixing of Fuel and Air

 Variables to control
 Pulverized solid fuel  Fuel oil atomization
 fineness  pressure

 moisture  temperature

 Natural gas  viscosity

 gas pressure

Faster, more effective mixing => efficient combustion

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Ignition

 Fuel ignition point fuel

 temperature at which fuel ignites

spontaneously and starts to burn
heat
(ignition) air
 Flame ignition point
 the point just after the plume where the brilliant part
of the flame starts
 Factors affecting flame ignition point
 secondary air temperature
 type of fuel min. ignition temp.
 design of burner diesel 225 C
 design of kiln hood coal 350 C
nat. gas 500 C
coke 800 C

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Flame

 Definition
 Temperature
 Heat transfer
 Shape

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Flame - Definition

 Controlled combustion (burning) of a

determined fuel
 All flames have a short plume of air and fuel
 Fuel ignites at end of plume and forms the
flame

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Flame - Definition

CO2 A large volume of very hot gases controllably generated

SO2
NOx
H2O

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Flame - Temperature

 Flame temperature is affected by:

 O2 level
 secondary air temperature
 type of fuel
flame temp.
nat. gas 1700 C
oil 1900 C
coal 2200 C

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Flame - Heat Transfer Rate

 Rate at which MJ (calories) are exchanged to

the material (load), coating and refractory
 Heat transfer mechanisms:
 radiation from flame to load
 convection from kiln gases to load
 conduction from refractory/coating to load

Kiln Control: Combustion 23

Flame - Shape

 Shapes:
 short
 long
 snappy
 lazy
 Shape controlled by:
 type and position of burner
 type of fuel
 primary air (axial, swirl air, impulse)
 ID fan flow, secondary air temp.
 O2

Kiln Control: Combustion 24

Flame - Shape

 Goal
 the shortest and highest temperature flame without
adversely affecting clinker quality, coating formation,
ring formation, refractory life or causing damage to
kiln discharge area
 A hot flame is always shorter than a cold flame
 Always wait for a stable kiln to make changes
to the flame shape and discuss changes with
other operators and Production management

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Combustion State

 Kiln exhaust gases:

 O2
 CO CO2
SO2
 SOx NOx
H2O

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Combustion State - O2

 Ideal O2 level determined from:

 clinker quality
 refractory protection requirements
 shell temperature
 Goals:
 keep O2 as low as possible
 maintain constant O2 (which maintains constant kiln
temperature profile)
 low CO

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Combustion State - CO

 Can we accept some CO?

 Most plants operate with some CO since it is difficult
to achieve complete combustion of fuel.
 CO caused by lack of combustion air and poor
fuel preparation (fineness, viscosity, mixing,
process of pulverization)
 Incomplete combustion => longer and colder
flame

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Combustion State - SOx (SO2/SO3)

 Represents sulfur oxidation from all fuel types

 SO2 formation decreases with more oxidizing
combustion
 SO3 volatilization increases with hotter burning
zone and length of flame
 SOx reacts faster than CO to changes in
combustion

Kiln Control: Combustion 29

 Summary

fuel + air => kiln flame + exhaust gases

C + S + O2 => heat + O2 + CO2 + SOx

 Combustion quality issues

 heat quality => calcination
 flame quality => clinkerization
 Keep O2 as low as possible, but too low O2 results in:
 kiln instability
 incomplete combustion, high CO
 sulfur volatilization
 short refractory life
 poor clinker quality
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Summary

 High O2
 high SHC (kcal/kg)
 long flame
 possible production limitation
 SO2 is inverse of O2

Combustion Goal:
short, hot flame (but beware of refractory life)
with low O2 and low CO

Kiln Control: Combustion 31