EC744 Wireless Communication

Fall 2008

Mohamed Essam Khedr

Department of Electronics and Communications

Wireless Communication
Fading Channel Overview
 Week 1 Overview wireless communications, Probabilities
Syllabus Week 2 Digital Communication fundamentals
Week 3 Channel characteristics (AWGN, fading)
Week 4 Modulation techniques
Demodulation techniques (coherent and non-
• Tentatively coherent)
Week 5 Source coding techniques
Week 6 Channel coding techniques
Week 7 Mid Term exam (take home), Diversity techniques
Week 8 Equalization techniques
Week 9 Spread spectrum, MIMO and OFDM
Week 10 Wireless networking: 802.11, 802.16, UWB
Week 11 Hot topics
Week 12 Presentations
Week 13 Presentations
Week 14 Presentations
Week 15 Final Exam
 Fading
Is due to multipath propagation.
With respect to a stationary base station, multipath
propagation creates a stochastic standing wave pattern,
through which the mobile station moves.
Caused by shadowing:
when the propagation environment is changing
significantly, but this fading is typically much slower than
the multipath fading.
 Multipath Propagation - Fading

a b
No direct path
Diffracted
wave Reflected
wave

a a
Antenna y=a+b Antenna y=0
b b

a & b are in phase a & b are out of phase by π

Complete fading when

2πd/λ = nπ, d is the path difference
 Fading - Types
• Slow (Long) Term
•Fast (Short) Term (Also known as Rayleigh fading)
Signal strength relative to 1uV (db)

30
Fast fading
20

10
Slow fading
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 Distance (λ)
Exact
Exact representation
representation of
of fading
fading characteristics
characteristics is
is not
not possible,
possible,
because
because of
of infinite
infinite number
number of
of situation.
situation.
 Fading - Slow (Long) Term
Slower variation in mean signal strength (distance 1-
2 km)
Produced by movement over much longer distances
Caused by:
Terrain configuration (hill, flat area etc.):
Results in local mean (long term fading) attenuation
and fluctuation.
The built environment (rural and urban areas
etc.), between base station and the mobile unit:
Results in local mean attenuation
 Fading - Slow (Long) Term
Receiver

τn,2 path n τn,3

θn
Transmitter
τn,1 d
τ or
LOS τk,4 vmR(t)
one
subpath
τk,3
τk,1 τk,2 path k

d(t)

C. D. Charalambous et al
 Fading- Fast (Short) Term
Describes the constant amplitude fluctuations in the received
signal as the mobile moves.
Caused by multipath reflection of transmitted signal by local
scatters (houses, building etc.)
Observed over distances = λ/2
Signal variation up to 30 dB.
Is a frequency selective phenomenon.
Can be described using Rayleigh statistics, (no line of sight).
Can be described using Rician statistics, (line of sight).
Causes random fluctuations in the received power, and also
distorts the pulse carrying the information.
 Fading- Fast (Short) Term - contd.
A received signal amplitude is given as the sum of delayed
components. In terms of phasor notation it is given as:
N
S r (t ) = ai cos (2πf c + φi )
i =1
Or
N N
S r (t ) = cos(2πf c t ) ai cos (φi ) − sin( 2πf c t ) ai sin(φi )
i =1 i =1

In-phase Quadrature
 Fading- Fast (Short) Term - contd.
The phaseφi can be assumed to be uniformly distributed in
the range (0, 2π), provided the locations of buildings etc. are
completely random.

This for large N, the amplitude of the received signal is:

S r (t ) = X cos(2πf c t ) − Y sin( 2πf c t )

N N
where X= ai cos (φi ), Y = ai sin(φi )
i =1 i =1

X and Y are independent, identically distributed Gaussian random

variables.
 Fading- Fast (Short) Term - contd.
The envelope of the received signal is:
2 2 0.5 Which will be Rayleigh distributed.
A = (X +Y )

Rayleigh
Probability
density
function
Exponential

A or power P
 {
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 Parameters of Mobile Multipath
Channels
• Time Dispersion Parameters
– Grossly quantifies the multipath channel
– Determined from Power Delay Profile
– Parameters include
– Mean Access Delay
– RMS Delay Spread
– Excess Delay Spread (X dB)

• Coherence Bandwidth
• Doppler Spread and Coherence Time
 Measuring PDPs
• Power Delay Profiles
– Are measured by channel sounding techniques
– Plots of relative received power as a function of
excess delay
– They are found by averaging intantenous power
delay measurements over a local area
– Local area: no greater than 6m outdoor
– Local area: no greater than 2m indoor
» Samples taken at λ/4 meters approximately
» For 450MHz – 6 GHz frequency range.
 Timer Dispersion Parameters
Determined from a power delay profile.

Mean excess delay( τ ): a k2τ k P (τ k )(τ k )

τ= k
= k
a k2 P (τ k )
k k

()
Rms delay spread (στ): 2
στ = τ − τ 2

a k2τ k2 P (τ k )(τ k2 )
τ2 = k
= k
a k2 P (τ k )
k k
 Timer Dispersion Parameters
Maximum Excess Delay (X dB):

Defined as the time delay value after which the multipath energy
falls to X dB below the maximum multipath energy (not necesarily belonging
to the first arriving component).

It is also called excess delay spread.

RMS Delay Spread
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Bm ≈ 1 Tm
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 Coherence Bandwidth (BC)
– Range of frequencies over which the channel can be
considered flat (i.e. channel passes all spectral
components with equal gain and linear phase).
– It is a definition that depends on RMS Delay Spread.
– Two sinusoids with frequency separation greater than
Bc are affected quite differently by the channel.

f1

Receiver
f2

Multipath Channel Frequency Separation: |f1-f2|

 Coherence Bandwidth
Frequency correlation between two sinusoids: 0 <= Cr1, r2 <= 1.

If we define Coherence Bandwidth (BC) as the range of frequencies over which

the frequency correlation is above 0.9, then

1 σ is rms delay spread.

BC =
50σ

If we define Coherence Bandwidth as the range of frequencies over which

the frequency correlation is above 0.5, then

1
BC =
5σ
This is called 50% coherence bandwidth.
 Coherence Bandwidth
• Example:
• For a multipath channel, σ is given as 1.37µs.
• The 50% coherence bandwidth is given as: 1/5σ =
146kHz.
– This means that, for a good transmission from a transmitter
to a receiver, the range of transmission frequency (channel
bandwidth) should not exceed 146kHz, so that all
frequencies in this band experience the same channel
characteristics.
– Equalizers are needed in order to use transmission
frequencies that are separated larger than this value.
– This coherence bandwidth is enough for an AMPS channel
(30kHz band needed for a channel), but is not enough for a
GSM channel (200kHz needed per channel).
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Bd
V
ν= cos α = f d cos α
λ
 Coherence Time
• Delay spread and Coherence bandwidth
describe the time dispersive nature of the
channel in a local area.
• They don’t offer information about the time varying
nature of the channel caused by relative motion of
transmitter and receiver.
• Doppler Spread and Coherence time are
parameters which describe the time varying
nature of the channel in a small-scale
region.
 Doppler Spread
• Measure of spectral broadening caused by
motion
• We know how to compute Doppler shift: fd
• Doppler spread, BD, is defined as the
maximum Doppler shift: fm = v/λ
• If the baseband signal bandwidth is much
greater than BD then effect of Doppler
spread is negligible at the receiver.
 Coherence Time
Coherence time is the time duration over which the channel impulse response
is essentially invariant.

If the symbol period of the baseband signal (reciprocal of the baseband signal
bandwidth) is greater the coherence time, than the signal will distort, since
channel will change during the transmission of the signal .

TS Coherence time (TC) is defined as:

TC
TC ≈ 1
fm

0.423
Coherence time is also defined as: TC ≈ 9
16πf m2
=
fm
Coherence time definition implies that two signals arriving with a time
separation greater than TC are affected differently by the channel.
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 Types of Small-scale Fading
Small-scale Fading
(Based on Multipath T me Delay Spread)

Flat Fading Frequency Selective Fading

1. BW Signal < BW of Channel 1. BW Signal > Bw of Channel

2. Delay Spread < Symbol Period 2. Delay Spread > Symbol Period

Small-scale Fading
(Based on Doppler Spread)

Fast Fading Slow Fading

1. Low Doppler Spread

1. High Doppler Spread
2. Coherence Time > Symbol Period
2. Coherence Time < Symbol Period
3. Channel variations smaller than baseband
3. Channel variations faster than baseband
signal variations
signal variations
 Channel Classification
Based on Time-Spreading

Flat Fading Frequency Selective

1. BS < BC Tm < Ts 1. BS > BC Tm > Ts
2. Rayleigh, Ricean distrib. 2. Intersymbol Interference
3. Spectral chara. of transmitted 3. Spectral chara. of transmitted
signal preserved signal not preserved
4. Multipath components resolved

Channel Channel

Signal Signal

BC BS
BS freq. BC freq.
C. D. Charalambous et al
 Fading in Digital Mobile
Communications
• If Bs>> Bc, then a notch appears in the spectrum. Thus
resulting in inter-symbol interference (ISI).

- To overcome this, an adaptive equaliser (AE) with

inverse response may be used at the receiver.
Training sequences are transmitted to update AE.

• If Bs<< Bc, then flat fading occurs, resulting in a

burst of error.
- Error correction coding is used to overcome this
problem.
 Mitigation Techniques for the
Multipath Fading Channel
• Space diversity –
– Signals at the same frequency using two or three antennas located several
wavelengths a part.
– Antennas are connected to two or three radio receivers.
– The receiver will the strongest signal is elected
– Disadvantage: Uses two or more antennas, therefore the need for a
large site.
• Frequency diversity –
– Signals at different frequencies received by the same antenna very rarely
fade simultaneously. Thus the use of several carrier frequencies or the use
of a wideband signal to combat fading.
– A single aerial connected to a number receiver, each tuned to a different
frequency, whose outputs are connected in parallel. The receiver with the
strongest instantaneous signal will provide the output.
– Disadvantage: Uses two or more frequencies to transmit the same
signal.
 Mitigation Techniques for the
Multipath Fading Channel
• Time diversity – Spread out the effects of errors
through interleaving and coding
• Multipath diversity
– Consider the tapped delay line model of a channel
shown previously
– If multipaths can be put together coherently at the
receiver, diversity improvement results
– This is what the RAKE receiver does (see next
viewgraph)
 RAKE Multipath Signal Processing

R.E. Ziemer 2002

 Flat Fading
s(t) r(t)
h(t,τ)

τ << TS

0 TS 0 τ 0 TS+τ

Occurs when: BC: Coherence bandwidth

BS << BC BS: Signal bandwidth
and TS: Symbol period
TS >> στ στ: Delay Spread
 Frequency Selective Fading
s(t) r(t)
h(t,τ)

τ >> TS

0 TS 0 τ 0 TS TS+τ

Causes distortion of the received baseband signal

Causes Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)

Occurs when:
BS > BC As a rule of thumb: TS < στ
and
TS < σ τ
 Fast Fading
• Due to Doppler Spread
• Rate of change of the channel characteristics
is larger than the
Rate of change of the transmitted signal
• The channel changes during a symbol period.
• The channel changes because of receiver motion.
• Coherence time of the channel is smaller than the symbol
period of the transmitter signal
Occurs when: BS: Bandwidth of the signal
BS < BD BD: Doppler Spread
and TS: Symbol Period
TS > T C TC: Coherence Bandwidth
 Slow Fading
• Due to Doppler Spread
• Rate of change of the channel characteristics
is much smaller than the
Rate of change of the transmitted signal
Occurs when: BS: Bandwidth of the signal
BS >> BD BD: Doppler Spread
and TS: Symbol Period
TS << TC TC: Coherence Bandwidth
 Different
T
Types
S
of Fading
Flat Fast
Flat Slow
Fading
Fading

Symbol Period of
Transmitting Signal

στ Frequency Selective Frequency Selective

Slow Fading Fast Fading

TC
TS
Transmitted Symbol Period

With Respect To SYMBOL PERIOD

 Different Types of Fading
BS
Frequency Selective Frequency Selective
Fast Fading Slow Fading
Transmitted
Baseband BC
Signal Bandwidth

Flat Fast Flat Slow

Fading Fading

BD
BS
Transmitted Baseband Signal Bandwidth

With Respect To BASEBAND SIGNAL BANDWIDTH

 Average Fade Duration
Defined as the average period of time for which the received signal is
below a specified level R.

For Rayleigh distributed fading signal, it is given by:

τ=
1
NR
Pr[ r ≤ R ] =
1
NR
1− e (
−ρ 2
)
2
eρ −1 R
τ= , ρ=
ρf m 2π rrms
 Fading Model –
Gilbert-Elliot Model
Fade Period
Signal
Amplitude

Threshold

Time t

Good Bad
(Non-fade) (Fade)
 Gilbert-Elliot Model
1/AFD

Good Bad
(Non-fade) (Fade)
1/ANFD

The channel is modeled as a Two-State Markov Chain.

Each state duration is memory-less and exponentially distributed.

The rate going from Good to Bad state is: 1/AFD (AFD: Avg Fade Duration)
The rate going from Bad to Good state is: 1/ANFD (ANFD: Avg Non-Fade
Duration)