Outline: College of St. Benedict/St. John's University Department of Mathematics

Definition of a ring homomorphism, ideal, and image Definition of a ring homomorphism, ideal, and image
Examples of ring homomorphisms Examples of ring homomorphisms

Kernels Kernels
Factor Rings Factor Rings
Relating rings to familiar objects Relating rings to familiar objects
Outline
Ch 14-15: Ring Homomorphims, Ideals, 1 Definition of a ring homomorphism, ideal, and image
Factor Rings
2 Examples of ring homomorphisms
Bret Benesh
3 Kernels
College of St. Benedict/St. John’s University
Department of Mathematics
4 Factor Rings
Math 331
5 Relating rings to familiar objects
Bret Benesh Ch 14-15: Ring Homomorphims, Ideals, Factor Rings Bret Benesh Ch 14-15: Ring Homomorphims, Ideals, Factor Rings
Kernels Kernels
We previously studied group homomorphisms, normal Definition

subgroups, images, and factor groups; we will now study ring
A ring homomorphism φ : R → S from a ring R to a ring S is a
homomorphisms, an analog to normal subgroups, images, and
function from R to S that preserves both operations of R; so for
factor rings. You will see many similarities.
all a, b ∈ R:
1 φ(a + b) = φ(a) + φ(b) (this is exactly the same as a group
homomorphism)
2 φ(ab) = φ(a)φ(b).
Definition
A ring homomorphism that is one-to-one and onto is called a
ring isomorphism.
Kernels Kernels
Definition Example
The image φ(R) of a ring homomorphism φ : R → S is Consider φ : Z → Z6 defined by φ(a) = a mod 6 for all a ∈ Z.
{s ∈ S | there exists an r ∈ R such that φ(r ) = s}. Then for all a, b ∈ Z:
1 φ(a) + φ(b) = (a mod 6) + (b mod 6) = (a + b)
Definition mod 6 = φ(a + b)
The kernel Ker (φ) of a ring homomorphism φ : R → S is 2 φ(a)φ(b) = (a mod 6)(b mod 6) = (ab) mod 6 = φ(ab).
{r ∈ R | φ(r ) = 0}.
It is easy to see that φ(R) = Z6 . Also, Ker (φ) = 6Z.
Note that φ(0) = 0 = φ(6), so φ is not one-to-one (but it is onto).
Kernels Kernels
Example Example
Consider φ : Z[i] → Z[i] defined by φ(a + bi) = a − bi for all

0 0
Consider φ : Z → M2 (Z) defined by φ(a) = for all a ∈ Z.
a a a, b ∈ Z. Then for all a, b, c, d ∈ Z:
Then for all a, b ∈ Z: 1 φ(a + bi) + φ(c + di) = (a − bi) + (c − di) =

0 0 0 0 0 0 (a + c) − (b + d)i = φ((a + bi) + (c + di))
1 φ(a)+φ(b) = + = = φ(a+b)
a a b b a+b a+b 2 φ(a+bi)φ(c+di) = (a−bi)(c−di) = (ac−bd)−(ad +bc)i =

0 0 0 0 0 0 φ((ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i) = φ((a + bi)(c + di)).
2 φ(a)φ(b) = = = φ(ab).
a a b b ab ab
It is easy to see that φ(R) = Z[i]. Also, Ker (φ) = {0}.

0 0 So φ is one-to-one and onto, so φ is an isomorphism (or an
It is easy to see that φ(R) = { | a ∈ Z}. Also,
a a automorphism, in this case).
Ker (φ) = {0}.
Note that φ is one-to-one, but not onto.
Kernels Kernels
Example Ring homomorphisms are also group homomorphisms (since

(R, +) is a group), and so all of the nice properties of group
Consider φ : Z[x] → Z defined by φ(f (x)) = f (0) for all homomorphisms still apply. Also, several of the same
f (x) ∈ Z[x]. Then for all f (x), g(x) ∈ Z[x]: properties apply to multiplication, too. For all ring
1 φ(f (x)) + φ(g(x)) = f (0) + g(0) = (f + g)(0) = φ((f + g)(x)) homomorphisms φ, r , s in a ring R and integers n:
2 φ(f (x))φ(g(x)) = f (0)g(0) = (fg)(0) = φ((fg)(x)). φ(r n ) = φ(r )n
If rs = sr , then φ(r )φ(s) = φ(s)φ(r ) (since
It is easy to see that φ(R) = Z. Also, φ(r )φ(s) = φ(rs) = φ(sr ) = φ(s)φ(r )).
Ker (φ) = {an x n + · · · + a1 x + a0 | ai ∈ Z, a0 = 0}.
Note easy to prove that φ is onto (φ(x + a) = a for all a ∈ Z),
but φ is not one-to-one (φ(x) = 0 = φ(2x)).
Kernels Kernels
Recall that all kernels of group homomorphisms are normal So every kernel of a ring homomorphism is a normal subgroup,
subgroups. Since rings are abelian groups (with an additional but we do not care. Instead, we will focus on how the ring’s
multiplication operation) and ring homomorphisms are also multiplication works with the kernel. If R is a ring with a ∈ R
group homomorphisms (with an additional requirement that and x ∈ Ker (φ) for some ring homomorphism φ : R → S and
preserves the multiplication operation) all kernels of ring some ring S, then:
isomorphisms will be normal subgroups of the ring’s group
under addition.
φ(xa) = φ(x)φ(a) = 0φ(a) = 0.
But this is all completely uninteresting because the ring’s group
under addition is abelian, so every subgroup is normal. If R is a So if x ∈ Ker (φ), then xa ∈ Ker (φ) for all a ∈ R! Similarly,
ring with a ∈ R and x ∈ Ker (φ) for some ring homomorphism ax ∈ Ker (φ) for all a ∈ R.
φ : R → S and some ring S, then:
φ((−a) + x + a) = φ((−a) + a + x) = φ(0 + x) = φ(x) = 0.
So for all a ∈ R, x a = −a + x + a ∈ Ker (φ). Boring.

Kernels Kernels
This leads us to our next definition, which is an analog to a Example

“normal subgroup:"
Consider φ : Z → Z6 defined by φ(a) = a mod 6 for all a ∈ Z.
Definition Recall that Ker (φ) = 6Z. For all x ∈ 6Z, there is a y ∈ Z such
A subring I of a ring R is called a (two-sided) ideal if ax ∈ I and that x = 6y . Then for all a ∈ Z:
xa ∈ I for all a ∈ R, x ∈ I.
xa = (6y )a = 6(ya) ∈ 6Z.
So ideals (kernels) “absorb" all other ring elements.
Theorem
A nonempty subset I is an ideal of a ring R if SImilarly,
1 a − b ∈ I whenever a, b ∈ I, and
ax = a(6y ) = 6(ay ) ∈ 6Z.
2 ar , ra ∈ I whenever a ∈ I, r ∈ R.
Proof.
The first condition is half of the proof that I is a subring, and the
second is the other halfBret
(since
Benesh
r could be in I, too) finishes the
Ch 14-15: Ring Homomorphims, Ideals, Factor Rings Bret Benesh Ch 14-15: Ring Homomorphims, Ideals, Factor Rings
definition of ideal.
Kernels Kernels
Example Example
Consider φ : Z[x] → Z defined by φ(f (x)) = f (0) for all

0 0
Consider φ : Z → M2 (Z) defined by φ(a) = for all a ∈ Z.
a a f (x) ∈ Z[x]. Recall
Recall Ker (φ) = {0}. Then certainly Ker (φ) = {an x n + · · · + a1 x + a0 | ai ∈ Z, a0 = 0}. Let
an x n + · · · + a1 x ∈ Ker (φ) and bm x m + · · · + b0 ∈ Z[x]. Then
a0 = 0a = 0 ∈ {0}.
In fact, {0} is an ideal in any ring R. (an x n + · · · + a1 x)(bm x m + · · · + b0 )

= (an x n−1 + · · · + a1 )(bm x m + · · · + b0 )x
Example
which is in Ker (φ).
Consider φ : Z[i] → Z[i] defined by φ(a + bi) = a − bi for all
a, b ∈ Z. Recall that Ker (φ) = {0}. This is the same as the
above example.
Kernels Kernels
Just like how we can form factor groups from normal Continued.
subgroups, we can form factor rings from ideals.
It remains to show that the multiplication of R/I is associative
Theorem and closed, and the R/I has the two distributive laws. Let
Let R be a ring and I and ideal of R. Then (I + a), (I + b), (I + c) ∈ R/I (so a, b, c ∈ R). Then
R/I = {I + a | a ∈ R} is also a ring (called a “factor ring") by 1 ((I + a)(I + b)) (I + c) = (I + ab)(I + c) = I + (ab)c =
(I + a) + (I + b) = I + (a + b) and (I + a)(I + b) = I + ab for all
I + a(bc) = (I + a)(I + bc) = (I + a) ((I + b)(I + c)).
a, b ∈ R.
2 (I + a)(I + b) = I + ab ∈ R/I since ab ∈ R.
Proof. 3 ((I + a) + (I + b)) (I + c) = (I + (a + b))(I + c) =
Our definition of R/I pretty clearly defines and abelian group: I + (a + b)c = I + ac + bc = (I + ac) + (I + bc).
the identity is I and the inverse of I + a is I − a for all a ∈ R. 4 (I + a) ((I + b) + (I + c)) = (I + a)(I + (b + c)) =
Associativity, closure, and commutitivity of R/I hold as a pretty I + a(b + c) = I + ab + ac = (I + ab) + (I + ac).
direct consequence of R being associativity, closed, and
abelian.
Kernels Kernels
Continued. Continued.
It would seem like we are done, although we have one more So addition is well-defined. For multiplication, first note that
thing to check (we probably should have checked it first): since a0 b0 = (x + a)(y + b) = xy + xb + ay + ab. Then
I + a = I + b + a if b ∈ I, cosets have multiple names, and we
need to check to see that the operations are well-defined. (I + a0 b0 ) = I + xy + xb + ay + ab.
So let I + a = I + a0 and I + b = I + b0 for a, a0 , b, b0 ∈ R. We But note that x, y ∈ I, so xy , xb, ay ∈ I by definition of ideal. So
must check to see that (I + a) + (I + b) = (I + a0 ) + (I + b0 ) and I + xy + xb + ay + ab = I + ab, and we are done.
(I + a)(I + b) = (I + a0 )(I + b0 ) (or I + ab = I + a0 b0 ). We know
from our knowledge of groups that there exist x, y ∈ I such that
a0 = x + a and b0 = y + b. Then
(I + a0 ) + (I + b0 ) = (I + x + a) + (I + y + b) = (I + a) + (I + b).
Kernels Kernels
Example Definition
Consider Z, which has a subring 2Z. It is easy to see that 2Z is A prime ideal I of a commutative ring R is a proper ideal of R
an ideal. Then Z/2Z = {2Z + 0, 2Z + 1} ≈ Z2 . such that if a, b ∈ R and ab ∈ I, then either a ∈ I or b ∈ I.
Example Example
Consider Z[x], and let I = {f (x) | f (x) ∈ Z[x], f (0) is even.}. Let p be a prime. Then pZ is a prime ideal of Z. If a, b ∈ Z with
(verify that I is an ideal). Then Z[x]/I = {I + 0, I + 1} ≈ Z2 . ab ∈ pZ, then ab = np for some n ∈ Z. Since p divides the right
side, p divides ab. From what we know about prime numbers, p
divides a or p divides b. So a = pk or b = pk for some integer
k , and either a ∈ pZ or b ∈ pZ.
Example (Non-example)
Consider 6Z. Then 2 · 3 ∈ 6Z, but 2 ∈
/ 6Z and 3 ∈
/ 6Z.
Kernels Kernels
Example Theorem
Consider Z[x], and let I = {f (x) | f (x) ∈ Z[x], f (0) = 0}. . Then Let R be a commutative ring with unity and I an ideal. Then R/I
if f (x) = an x n + · · · + a1 x + a0 and g(x) = bm x m + · · · + b1 x + b0 is an integral domain if and only if I is a prime ideal.
are elements of Z[x] such that f (x)g(x) ∈ I, then a0 b0 = 0. So
either a0 or b0 is zero. So either f (x) ∈ I or g(x) ∈ I. Proof.
Suppose that R/I is an integral domain. Let a, b ∈ R such that
ab ∈ I. Then (I + a)(I + b) = I + ab = I + 0. Since R/I has no
zero-divisors, either I + a = I + 0 (implying a ∈ I) or
I + b = I + 0 (implying b ∈ I). Therefore, I is a prime ideal.
Now suppose that I is a prime ideal. Let a, b ∈ R. Then if
(I + a)(I + b) = I + 0, then I + ab = I + 0. So ab ∈ I, and a ∈ I
or b ∈ I since I is prime. Therefore, either I + a = I + 0 or
I + b = I + 0.
Kernels Kernels
Definition Example
A maximal ideal I of a commutative ring R is a proper ideal of R Consider Z[x], and let I = {f (x) | f (x) ∈ Z[x], f (0) is even}. .
such that if A is an ideal of R with I ⊆ A ⊆ R, then either A = I Then suppose A > I is an ideal, so there exists a g(x) ∈ A − I.
or A = R. Then g(0) is odd. But for every h(x) ∈ Z[x], either h(0) is even
Example (so h(x) ∈ I ⊆ A) or h(0) is odd and (h − g)(x) ∈ I since
h(0) − g(0) is even. Then h(x) = (h − g)(x) + g(x) ∈ A (since
Let p be a prime. Then pZ is a maximal ideal of Z. If A is an g(x) ∈ A and (h − g)(x) ∈ I ⊆ A). So h(x) ∈ A for all
ideal that properly contains pZ, there is an element a ∈ A − I. h(x) ∈ Z[x], so A = Z[x]. Therefore, I is maximal.
Then p 6 |a (or else a ∈ pZ) so (a, p) = 1. By the Euclidean
Algorithm, there exist integers n, m such that an + pm = 1. Note that K = {f (x) | f (x) ∈ Z[x], f (0) = 0} ⊂ {f (x) | f (x) ∈
Since a, p ∈ A, an ideal, an and pm are in A. Since A is a Z[x], f (0) is even}, so K is prime but not maximal.
subring, 1 = an + pm ∈ A. So Z ⊆ A, and Z = A.
Example (Non-example)
Consider 6Z. Then 6Z < 2Z < Z.
Kernels Kernels
Theorem Continued.
Let R be a commutative ring with unity and I an ideal. Then R/I Now suppose I is a maximal ideal. Then let b ∈ R − I. We must
is an field if and only if I is a maximal ideal. show that I + b has a multiplicative inverse in R/I. Let
A = {a + br | r ∈ R, a ∈ I}, and A is an ideal (verify!) Since I is
Proof. maximal and A > I, A = R. So 1 ∈ A,and 1 = a + br for some
Suppose that R/I is a field, and A is an ideal that properly r ∈ R, a ∈ I. Then
contains I. Let a ∈ A − I. Then I + a is a nonzero element of I + 1 = I + (a + br ) = I + br = (I + b)(I + r ).
R/I, so there exists a b ∈ R such that (I + a)(I + b) = (I + 1).
So I + ab = I + 1, and I + (ab − 1) = I. So (ab − 1) ∈ I ⊆ A.
Since a ∈ A and A is an ideal, ab ∈ A. Since (ab − 1) and
ab ∈ A, 1 = ab − (ab − 1) ∈ A. Therefore, for all r ∈ R,
r = r 1 ∈ A. So A = R, and I is a maximal ideal.
Kernels Kernels
We proved already that all kernels are ideals, and now we will We will learn that all rings with unity contain a copy of Z or Zn
prove that all ideals are kernels: for some n, and that all fields contain either Q or Zp for some
prime p (in both cases, it depends on the characteristic).
Theorem (First Isomorphism Theorem for Rings)
Let φ be a ring homomorphism from R to S. Then Furthermore, all integral domains are contained in a field, much
R/Ker (φ) ∼
= φ(R). like Z is contained in Q.
So even bizarre rings (with unity) strongly resemble the
Proof. integers or rationals.
Similar to the First Isomorphism Theorem for Groups.
So kernels are ideals, and ideals are kernels.
Kernels Kernels
Theorem Continued.
Let R be a ring with unity. Then φ : Z → R by φ(a) = a · 1 for all Finally, suppose both n and m are negative. Then
a ∈ Z is a homomorphism. φ(n + m) = (n + m) · 1 = (−n − m) · (−1) =
(−n) · (−1) + (−m) · (−1) = n · 1 + m · 1 = φ(n) + φ(m).
Proof.
To prove φ(nm) = φ(n)φ(m),there really should be three cases:
First, we will show that φ preserves addition. Let n, m ∈ Z. when n, m ≤ 0, when n > 0 and m ≥ 0 (without loss of
First, suppose both n and m are positive. Then generality), and m, n ≥ 0.These proofs are similar, and we will
φ(n + m) = (n + m) · 1 = n · 1 + m · 1 = φ(n) + φ(m). only prove the first case. So let n, m ≥ 0. Then the distributive
Next, suppose, without loss of generality, that n is positive and law gives:
m is negative. Then φ(n)φ(m) = (n · 1)(m · 1) = (1
φ(n + m) = φ(n − |m|) = φ(n − (−m)) = (n − (−m)) · 1 = | + ·{z
· · + 1})(1
| + ·{z
· · + 1}) =
n times m times
n · 1 − (−m) · 1 = n · 1 + (−m) · (−1) = n · 1 + m · 1 = φ(n) + φ(m).
| + ·{z
(1 · · + 1})
nm times
Kernels Kernels
Continued. Theorem
Since Let R be a ring with unity. If R has characteristic n > 0, then R
φ(nm) = (nm) · 1 = (1 + · · · + 1), contains a subring isomorphic to Zn . If R has characteristic 0,
then R has a subring isomorphic to Z.
| {z }
nm times
we see that the result holds.
Proof.
By the previous theorem, R has a subring φ(Z) ∼ = Z/Ker (φ) by
the First Isomorphism Theorem for Rings. If the characteristic
is 0, then φ(a) = a · 1 = 0 if and only if a = 0. So φ(Z) ∼
= Z.
Otherwise, R has characteristic n, and φ(a) = a · 1 = 0 if a
divides n, the characteristic of R. So Ker (φ) = nZ, and
φ(Z) ∼
= Z/nZ ∼ = Zn .
Kernels Kernels
Example Theorem
√ √
Z∼= {a + b 2 | a ∈ Z, b = 0} in Z[ 2]. If F is a field of characteristic p, then F has a subfield
isomorphic to Zp . If F is a field of characteristic 0, then F has a
Example subfield isomorphic to Q.

1 0 n 0
Z∼= {n · | n ∈ Z} = { | n ∈ Z} in M2 (Z). Proof.
0 1 0 n
Suppose that F has characteristic p. By the previous theorem,
it has a subfield isomorphic to Zp .
Example
Z3 ∼
= {a + bi | a ∈ Z3 , b = 0} in Z3 [i]. Now suppose that F has characteristic 0. By the previous
theorem, it has a subring S isomorphic to Z. Since F is a field,
it has a set T = {(a · 1)(b · 1)−1 | a, b ∈ Z, b 6= 0}. But it is
relatively clear that T is isomorphic to the rationals via the map
ψ : T → Q where ψ((a · 1)(b · 1)−1 ) = ba .
Kernels Kernels
Example Finally, we show that any integral domain lives inside a field
√ √ called the “field of fractions."
Q∼= {a + b 2 | a ∈ Q, b = 0} in Q[ 2].
Theorem
Example Let D be an integral domain. Then there exists a field F such
∼ {a + bi | a ∈ Z3 , b = 0} in Z3 [i]. that F contains a subring isomorphic to D.
Z3 =
Example
If D = Z, then F = Q. This is the basic idea for all of these: turn
the elements of D into fractions.
Kernels Kernels
Proof. Continued.
Let F = { ba | a, b ∈ D, b 6= 0} (note that ba is a very formal (ad + bc)b0 d 0 = ab0 dd 0 + bb0 cd 0 = a0 bdd 0 + bb0 c 0 d =
symbol, and may not exactly be the fraction that you are used
to). Let a, b, c, d ∈ D. We will define an equivalence relation on
F by ba = dc if and only if ad = bc. (a0 d 0 )bd + (b0 c 0 )bd = (a0 d 0 + b0 c 0 )bd.
a c ad+bc
Our addition will be b + d = bd and multiplication will be
a c ac So addition is well-defined. For multiplication, it is sufficient to
b · d = bd .
show that acb0 d 0 = a0 c 0 bd. But
0 0
Then if ba ≡ ba0 and dc ≡ dc 0 for some a0 , b0 , c 0 , d 0 ∈ D, we have
ab0 = a0 b and cd 0 = c 0 d. Then we will show that acb0 d 0 = (ab0 )(cd 0 ) = (a0 b)(c 0 d) = a0 c 0 bd.
a c a0 c0 ad+bc 0 0 0c0
b + d ≡ b0 + d 0 , or bd ≡ a db+b 0d 0 . In other words,
(ad + bc)b0 d 0 = (a0 d 0 + b0 c 0 )bd. But
So multiplication is also well-defined.
Kernels Kernels
Continued. Example
Then it is easy (but tedious) to check that the field axioms hold The rationals Q is the field of fractions for Z.
for F : the additive identity is 01 , the additive inverse of ba is −a
b ,
and the multiplicative inverse of ba is ba . Example
If D is a finite integral domain, recall that D is then a field. The
the field of fractions for D is {ab−1 | a, b ∈ D, b 6= 0} = D. So D
is its own field of fractions.
Example
The field of fractions for Z[x] contains elements that look like
−4x 8 + 2x 3 + 5x + 10101
.
2346x 98723 − 8234x 63

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Definition of a ring homomorphism, ideal, and image Definition of a ring homomorphism, ideal, and image

Examples of ring homomorphisms Examples of ring homomorphisms

We previously studied group homomorphisms, normal Definition

Example Ring homomorphisms are also group homomorphisms (since

φ((−a) + x + a) = φ((−a) + a + x) = φ(0 + x) = φ(x) = 0.

So for all a ∈ R, x a = −a + x + a ∈ Ker (φ). Boring.

This leads us to our next definition, which is an analog to a Example

In fact, {0} is an ideal in any ring R. (an x n + · · · + a1 x)(bm x m + · · · + b0 )

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