Xenophobic Violence in South Africa and The Nigerians' Victimization: An Empirical Analysis

Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities
VOL. 26 (4) DEC. 2018

Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities
About the Journal

Overview
Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities (JSSH) is the official journal of Universiti Putra Malaysia
published by UPM Press. It is an open-access online scientific journal which is free of charge. It publishes
the scientific outputs. It neither accepts nor commissions third party content.
Recognized internationally as the leading peer-reviewed interdisciplinary journal devoted to the

publication of original papers, it serves as a forum for practical approaches to improving quality in issues
pertaining to social and behavioural sciences as well as the humanities.
JSSH is a quarterly (March, June, September and December) periodical that considers for publication
original articles as per its scope. The journal publishes in English and it is open to authors around the
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The Journal is available world-wide.
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Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities aims to develop as a pioneer journal for the social
sciences with a focus on emerging issues pertaining to the social and behavioural sciences as well as
the humanities.
Areas relevant to the scope of the journal include Social Sciences—Accounting, anthropology,
Archaeology and history, Architecture and habitat, Consumer and family economics, Economics,
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History
Pertanika was founded in 1978. A decision was made in 1992 to streamline Pertanika into three journals
as Journal of Tropical Agricultural Science, Journal of Science & Technology, and Journal of Social
Sciences & Humanities to meet the need for specialised journals in areas of study aligned with the
interdisciplinary strengths of the university.
After almost 25 years, as an interdisciplinary Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities, the revamped
journal focuses on research in social and behavioural sciences as well as the humanities, particularly in
the Asia Pacific region.
Goal of Pertanika
Our goal is to bring the highest quality research to the widest possible audience.
Quality
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Abstracting and indexing of Pertanika

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Citing journal articles

The abbreviation for Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities is Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. Hum.
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International Standard Serial Number (ISSN)
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Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities: ISSN 0128-7702 (Print); ISSN 2231-8534 (Online).
Lag time
A decision on acceptance or rejection of a manuscript is reached in 3 to 4 months (average 14 weeks).
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Pertanika Journal of
SOCIAL SCIENCES
& HUMANITIES
Vol. 26 (4) Dec. 2018
A scientific journal published by Universiti Putra Malaysia Press

JSSH
AN INTERNATIONAL PEER-REVIEWED JOURNAL
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF EDITORIAL BOARD
Jayakaran Mukundan 2018-2020
English Language Studies, Teaching Abdul Mansur M. Masih James R. Stock Rama Mathew
English as a Second Language (TESL) Economics, Econometrics, Finance Management Studies, Marketing, Teacher Education, English Language
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Minerals, Saudi Arabia. Management, Quantitative Method Language Assessment
CHIEF EXECUTIVE EDITOR University of South Florida, USA. Delhi University, India.
Ain Nadzimah
Abu Bakar Salleh Modern Languages and Jayum A. Jawan Rohany Nasir
Communication, Sociology, Politics and Government, Psychology-Career counseling,
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Science Tun Abd Razak Chair & Visiting Marriage and Family counseling,
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UNIVERSITY PUBLICATIONS English Language and Literature (2015-2017). Malaysia.
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2018-2021
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ABSTRACTING AND INDEXING OF PERTANIKA JOURNALS

Pertanika is almost 40 years old; this accumulated knowledge has resulted in the journals being abstracted and indexed
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Sources Citation Index (ESCI). Web of Knowledge [BIOSIS & CAB Abstracts], EBSCO and EBSCOhost, DOAJ, ERA, Google
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No material published in Pertanika may be reproduced or stored on microfilm or in electronic, optical or magnetic form withou t the written authorization of the Publisher.
Copyright © 2018-19 Universiti Putra Malaysia Press. All Rights Reserved.
Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities
Vol. 26 (4) Dec. 2018
Contents
Foreword i
Abu Bakar Salleh
Education
Validity and Reliability of the Mathematics Self-Efficacy Questionnaire 2161

(MSEQ) on Primary School Students
Huan Zhi Chan and Melissa Ng Lee Yen Abdullah
Exploring Role Players’ Experiences of Learning in Higher Education 2179

through a Hybrid Study Approach: A Case Study
Silna van Tonder and Gertruida Maria Steyn
Perceived Teachers’ Self-disclosure, Writing Performance and Gender of 2195

Malaysian ESL Undergraduates
Paul Gnanaselvam Pakirnathan and Napisah Kepol
Analysis of the Factors Influencing Job Burnout: Empirical Evidence from 2211
Spain
Patricia Sastre-Morcillo, Francisco Javier Blanco-Encomienda and
María José Latorre-Medina
Assessing Omani University Entrants’ Critical Thinking Skills with the 2229
Cornell Class-Reasoning Test Form X
Sandhya Rao Mehta, Rahma Al-Mahrooqi, Christopher Denman and
Khalsa Al-Aghbari
Exploring the Relationship between Motivation and Science Achievement 2243

of Secondary Students
Kwan Eu Leong, Pei Pei Tan, Poh Li Lau and Sook Lu Yong
Development of Learning Leadership Indicators for Thai Secondary 2259

School Principals
Kanokorn Somprach and Tang Keow Ngang
Edutainment Games and Mental Skills 2279

Masoud Kowsari and Mehrdad Garousi
Interest in Teaching: How Teacher Education Affects It 2299

Siti Mina Tamah
The Effect of Constructivism, Metacognition and Neurocognitive-based 2313
Teaching Model to Enhance Veterinary Medicine Students’ Learning
Outcomes
Suwit Uopasai, Tassanee Bunterm, Supaporn Muchimapura and
Keow Ngang Tang
Language and Linguistics
The Choice of Suffix Variants for Participial Adjective in Corpus of 2333

Malaysian e-Newspapers
Jian Mei Chai and Ong Sook Beng Christina
Use and Linguistic Realisations of Metadiscourse Features in Business 2347

News
Chee Mei Hooi, Mei Fung Yong and Helen Tan
Organisation and Move Structure in the Results and Discussion Chapter in 2365
Malaysian Undergraduates’ Final-Year Projects
Nur Izyan Syamimi Mat Hussin and Vahid Nimehchisalem
Incorporating Critical Thinking: Teaching Strategies in an English 2379

Language Programme
Muhammad Harriz Zaini, Norzie Diana Baharum and
Ahmad Firdaos Shauqi Ahmad Sidiki
The Hunger Games: Linguistic Modality as Reflector of Point Of View in 2395

a Dystopian Novel
Evelyn Jeyanthi, Kasim Mohd Zalina, Ali Afida and
Ali Termizi Arbaayah
Patterns of Translation of Sadness Metaphors from Persian into English: A 2417

Cognitive Analysis
Fatemeh Safarnejad, Imran Ho-Abdullah and Norsimah Mat Awal
The Effect of Teaching Vocabulary Learning Strategies on Iranian EFL 2435

Learners’ Receptive and Productive Vocabulary Size
Seyed Mohammad Reza Amirian and Mostafa Azari Noughabi
Management Studies
The Role of Intellectual Capital on Public Universities Performance in 2453

Indonesia
Fivi Anggraini, Mohamad Ali Abdul Hamid and
Md Kassim Aza-Azlina
A Study of Entrepreneurial Mindset through the Dual Sided Role as Service 2473
Seeker and Service Provider among University Students
Mohd Zaidi Abd Rozan and Masoumeh Zibarzani
Knowledge Acquisition toward Startups’ Perspectives: Empirical Cross- 2489
Case Study of Leading Technology Business Incubators in Thailand
Kittichai Rajchamaha, Mongkolchai Wiriyapinit, Voraphan
Raungpaka and Akkharawit Kanjana-Opas
Green Office Management Standard in Mahidol University, Thailand 2505

Sayam Aroonsrimorakot
Profiling Children as Consumers: An Indian Study 2523

Monica Chaudhary
Psychology
Development and Validation of Breast Cancer Knowledge and Beliefs 2541

Questionnaire for Malaysian Student Population
Mehrnoosh Akhtari-Zavare, Fatemeh Aliyan-Fini, Abbas Ghanbari-
Baghestan and Mohd Sidik Sherina
Psychological Risk Factors for Postnatal Depression: A Prospective Study 2555

of Iranian Low Income Primigravidae at Health Care Centres
Matinnia, N., Ghaleiha, A., Jahangard, L., Ghaleiha, A. and
Farahmand, E.
The Usage of Sexual Internet Media and Sexual Behaviour among Sexually 2571
Experienced Adolescents in Malaysia: Sexual Intention as a Mediator
Soon Aun Tan, Siti Nor Yaacob and Jo-Pei Tan
Accounting
Exploring Awqaf Mutawalli’s Accounting and Reporting Practices: Some 2583

Preliminary Malaysian Evidence
Nahar Hairul-Suhaimi, Awaludin Nur-Suriana and
Bakar Nor-Suhaily
The Impact of Applying Modern Financial Analysis Tools on Detecting 2599

Fraudulent Practices in Financial Statements of Listed Banks - An
Analytical Study
Nabil Bashir Al-Halabi
Economics
Alcohol Perception and its Economic Impact - A Study among Males in 2613
Rural Areas
Ramamurthy Srinath and Subramanian Sendilvelan
Does Country Risk Affect FDI to GCC Countries? 2627

Hazem Al-Samman and Sulaiman Mouselli
Media and Communication Studies
Corporate Social Responsibility in Practice: The Case of Textile, Knitting 2643

and Garment Industries in Malaysia
Vimala Govindasamy and Kalyani Suresh
The Mediation of HIV/AIDS Knowledge in the Effect of Media Exposure 2657

on Attitude and Practice on the Syndrome: A Cross Sectional Study of
Adolescent Islamiyya Girls in North- east Nigeria
Adamu Muhammad Hamid and Ezhar Tamam
Political Sciences and Public Policy
Xenophobic Violence in South Africa and the Nigerians’ Victimization: An 2677

Empirical Analysis
Muritala Dauda, Rauf Tunde Sakariyau and Abdullateef Ameen
Development of the Concept Human Security in the Southern Border 2701

Provinces of Thailand
Thampitug, S.
Religious Studies
A Genre Analysis of the Literacy on Taqwa in Surah Ali-‘Imran 2717

Harison Mohd Sidek
Implementation of Islamic Values in Houses around Darul Istiqamah 2731

Islamic Boarding School in Maccopa, Maros
Mursyid Mustafa, Ananto Yudono, Ria Wikantari and Afifah Harisah
Sociology
The Analysis of National Identification of Russians through Images of 2747

Meta-Ethnic Groups: The Case of Four Borderland Regions
Svetlana Maximova, Daria Omelchenko and Oksana Noyanzina
Governance of Prostitution through CollectiveActions Leading to Uncertain 2769

Sustainable Empowerment: Experience from Surabaya, Indonesia
Sudarmo
Tourism
Efficiency of Cruise Port Management: A Comparison of Phuket and 2787

Singapore
Phaiton Monpanthong
The Influence of Marketing Mix Dimension on the Destination Image 2809

Dimension: A Case Study of Lake Toba, North Sumatera, Indonesia
Tengku Teviana, Arlina Nurbaity Lubis and Zulkarnain Siregar
Architecture and Habitat
Review Article 2825

A Review Paper on the Role of Commercial Streets’ Characteristics in
Influencing Sense of Place
Sami Al-Obeidy Musaab, Shamsuddin Shuhana and
Taha Al-Qemaqchi Nahith
Consumer and Family Economics
An Analysis of the Role of Community Empowerment Program (CEP) in 2841

combatting Domestic Violence against women: ACase study of Bangladesh
Faraha Nawaz
Finance
Triple Helix Model to Improve Financial Literacy of Students in Faculty 2857

of Economics
Dwi Wulandari and Bagus Shandy Narmaditya
Geography
Analysis of Factors for Determining Suitable Site for Giant Freshwater 2867
Prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) Farming Through the Local
Knowledge in Negeri Sembilan of Peninsular Malaysia
Ezekiel, B. B., Firuza, B. M., Mohammad, L. A. and Subha, B.
Law
Creating Clarity in International Commercial Contracts for Guaranteeing 2883

Legal Certainty in Indonesia
Koesrianti
Philosophy
Re-conceptualizing Environmental Ethics in the Anthropocene 2895

Kalpita Bhar Paul
Sports
The Relationship between Self-Efficacy and Push–Ups Performance 2909

among Male Gym Members after 12 Weeks of Joining: A Pilot Study
Mazlan Ismail
Foreword
Welcome to the Fourth Issue for 2018 of the Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities
(JSSH)!
JSSH is an open-access journal for studies in Social Sciences and Humanities that is
published by Universiti Putra Malaysia Press. It is independently owned and managed
by the university and run on a non-profit basis for the benefit of the world-wide science
community.
This issue contains 46 articles, out of which one is a review articles and 45 are regular
articles. The authors of these articles come from different countries, namely, Bangladesh,
India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Malaysia, Nigeria, Oman, Russia, South Africa, Spain,
Syria and Thailand.
Articles submitted in this issue cover wide range of social sciences and humanities
scope including accounting, architecture and habitat, consumer and family economics,
economics, education, finance, geography, language and linguistics, law, management
studies, media and communication studies, philosophy, political sciences and public
policy, psychology, religious study, sociology, sports and tourism. The most favoured
scope in this issue is education.
Selected from the education scope is an article entitled “Validity and Reliability of the
Mathematics Self-Efficacy Questionnaire (MSEQ) on Primary School Students” by Chan
Huan Zhi and Melissa Ng Lee Yen Abdullah from School of Educational Studies, Universiti
Sains Malaysia, Malaysia. The study was conducted with the objective of determining
the construct validity of MSEQ on primary school students and the internal consistency
reliability of MSEQ on primary school students. To achieve the objectives of the study,
quantitative data were collected from a sample of 100 primary school students. Findings
from the Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) suggested that mathematics self-efficacy was
a unidimensional construct. It is highly reliable and can be used to gauge primary school
students’ mathematics self-efficacy in a Malaysian school setting. The details of this
study is available on page 2161.
Selected from tourism scope is an article entitled “Efficiency of Cruise Port Management:
A Comparison of Phuket and Singapore” by Phaiton Monpanthong from National
Institute of Development Administration (NIDA), Thailand. This study investigated and
i
compared cruise port managementsystems between Phuket and Singapore by employing
quantitative research methods. From the study, the empirical findings showed that the
top five biggest gaps regarding two cruise port management were port infrastructure,
port facility, political stability, cruise tourism policy and cleanliness in rank. Hence, the
results revealed that port management in Singapore was more efficient than in Phuket
in most variables. However, tourism attractions, tourism activity, service providers, value
for money, climate/sea conditions, and immigration formalities of Phuket were slightly
better than that in Singapore. The detail of this study is available on page 2787.
Selected from the scope of language and linguistics is an article entitled “Incorporating
Critical Thinking: Teaching Strategies in an English Language Programme” by Muhammad
Harriz Zaini, Norzie Diana Baharum and Ahmad Firdaos Shauqi Ahmad Sidiki, fellow
researchers from Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia. The study focused on application
of critical thinking by English lecturers as well as students in the classroom for the English
Language programme in the Academy of Language Studies (ALS) UiTM Shah Alam –
English for Professional Communication (LG240).The study was carried out by adapting a
framework and concluded that both lecturers and students in the ALS shared the same
perception of the application of critical thinking in their classroom. Details of the study
is available on page 2379.
Selected from the scope of psychology is an article entitled “Psychological Risk Factors
for Postnatal Depression: A Prospective Study of Iranian Low Income Primigravidae at
Health Care Centres” by Matinnia, N., Ghaleiha, A., Jahangard, L., Ghaleiha, A. and
Farahmand, E., fellow researchers from three different countries (Iran, New Zealand and
Malaysia). The study aimed to identify the prevalence of postpartum depression and
its association with risk factors in low socioeconomic populations. Questionnaires were
distributed among 451 low income pregnant women referred to health care centres and
they were assessed using Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) for depression.
The study found out that the prevalence of depression in pregnancy was higher in low
socio-economic primigravidea from Iran. The details of the study is available on page
2555.
We anticipate that you will find the evidence presented in this issue to be intriguing,
thought-provoking and useful in reaching new milestones in your own research. Please
recommend the journal to your colleagues and students to make this endeavour
meaningful.
ii
All the papers published in this edition underwent Pertanika’s stringent peer-review
process involving a minimum of two reviewers comprising internal as well as external
referees. This was to ensure that the quality of the papers justified the high ranking
of the journal, which is renowned as a heavily-cited journal not only by authors and
researchers in Malaysia but by those in other countries around the world as well.
In the last 12 months, of all the manuscripts passed editoral review, 53.7% were accepted.
This seems to be the trend in Pertanika Journals for JSSH.
We would also like to express our gratitude to all the contributors, namely the authors,
reviewers and editors, who have made this issue possible.
JSSH is currently accepting manuscripts for upcoming issues based on original qualitative
or quantitative research that opens new areas of inquiry and investigation.
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iii
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 26 (4): 2677 - 2700 (2018)
SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES

Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Xenophobic Violence in South Africa and the Nigerians’

Victimization: An Empirical Analysis
Muritala Dauda1*, Rauf Tunde Sakariyau1 and Abdullateef Ameen2
1
School of International Studies, College of Law, Government and International Studies (COLGIS),
Universiti Utara Malaysia (UUM), 06010 Sintok, Kedah, Malaysia
2
Department of Public Administration, Faculty of Management Science, University of Ilorin,
Ilorin 240211, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
The issue of xenophobia has become a common phenomenon in South Africa, where
significant numbers of innocent lives have been lost, properties worth millions of dollars
destroyed, and many people displaced. The victims of these attacks were majorly black
Africans. Surprisingly, the molestation and attacks originated from Africans and targeted
at fellow Africans particularly the blacks. The ugly trend which has been linked to the
parochial mindset among South Africans with the belief that the foreign nationals in their
land are the cause of unemployment, poverty rate and spreading of deadly diseases in the
country. Given this fact, it has become a notion within the country that foreigners have
hijacked the socio-economic sector of South Africa and the solution was to frustrate the
migrants out of the society. However, the attacks on Africans and Nigerians in particular
is a barbaric and disturbing scenario which definitely has implications on the external
relations of both countries (Nigeria and South Africa). Thus, it is cogent to explore the
xenophobic violence in South Africa with special focus on Nigerians. The paper infers that
Africans need to embrace tolerance and treat foreign nationals in their countries, irrespective
of race or gender, with high sense of
brotherliness to promote cooperation among
ARTICLE INFO the African States as well as enhance peace
and development of the continent.
Article history:
Received: 13 July 2017 Keywords: Diplomacy, negrophobia, Nigeria, South-
Accepted: 25 June 2018
Published: 24 December 2018 Africa, violence, xenophobia
E-mail addresses:
kalmurtala@gmail.com (Muritala Dauda)
sakrauf2002@yahoo.com (Rauf Tunde Sakariyau)
abdlateef4ever@gmail.com (Abdullateef Ameen)
* Corresponding author
ISSN: 0128-7702
e-ISSN 2231-8534 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press
INTRODUCTION 2018a, 2018c; Tella, 2016). The ill treatment

meted on other nationals by some South
“I can understand how this
Africans is to evict the foreigners from
might brew animosity and
their land whom they claimed to have taken
resentment but let us remind
away their businesses, land, wives, among
South Africa that the most
others (Adjai & Lazaridis, 2014; Fagbadebo
prosperous Nations of the
& Ruffin, 2018; Wilson & Magam, 2018).
world are the ones who open
These actions have resulted in series of
their arms, doors and hearts to
killings, massacre, burning and destruction
talents from all over the world.”
of properties owned mostly by African
Olushola Adeyeye1 nationals residing in the country.
Similarly, the history of xenophobia in
South Africa is one of the most advanced Africa has become a general phenomenon.
countries in Africa with great infrastructure. This is because a number of countries in
The country attracts visitors from different Africa have witnessed the xenophobia in
nations and climes who visit for vacation, their various countries (Akinola, 2018a,
business, tourism and other activities. 2018c; Oloruntoba, 2018, Oni & Okunade,
With a robust economy and a favourable 2018; Tella, 2018). However, the rate
political and social climate, South Africa at which South Africa experiences the
has also become a choice destination for xenophobic violence in Africa is more
most African asylum seekers (Akinola frequent and alarming compared to other
2018a; Gordon, 2017; Oloruntoba, 2018). countries where the incidence had occurred
South Africa’s diverse culture and identity in the past (Gordon, 2017; Ruedin, 2018).
as well as relatively high standards of living This frequent recurrence of xenophobia in
is another pull factor for immigrant from South Africa needs to be addressed among
different countries. the African states. This is because whenever
Despite its viable economic, political there is xenophobic attack in South Africa,
and social climate, negative attitudes the foreigners who are mainly Africans
by some of the citizens of South Africa resident in the country are the prime target
towards foreign residents in the country (Fagbadebo & Ruffin, 2018). Thus, this
have influenced some African countries, calls to question the ability to guarantee
particularly those whose nationals have security and safety of Africans in the
suffered the mayhem, to review their African continent. Therefore, there is need
relationship with South Africa (Akinola, for countries like Nigeria among others
whose nationals have been victimized in one
1
Olusola Adeyeye is a Nigerian, a Professor of
Biology and at same time the Chief Whip of form or the other by some aggrieved South
the 8th National Assembly. He was elected as Africans to take measure on how to prevent
Senator for the Osun Central constituency of its future occurrence.
Osun State, Nigeria in April 2011 elections.
2678 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 26 (4): 2677 - 2700 (2018)
Xenophobic Violence in South Africa and Nigerians’ Victimization
In the same vein, the study is aimed Obi, 2015). On the other hand, the rate at
at bringing to the awareness of the public which the incessant xenophobic violence
on the likely consequences of the negative through assaults and attacks on Nigerians
acts of the South African citizens on other living in South Africa calls for a serious
foreign nationals living in the country. This concern. Although, the xenophobic violence
is also to sensitize the South Africa citizens, in South Africa recorded massive attacks on
particularly those who are involved in the foreigners who are predominantly Africans,
ill-treatment of foreign nationals residing but this study is focused on the frustration
in the country on the likely danger they are and victimization experienced by Nigerians
exposing South African nationals who are in the country.
living in other countries. Therefore, this Even though past studies such as Obi
study is aimed at highlighting the need for (2015), Fayomi, Chidozie, and Ayo (2015),
Africans to imbibe the spirit of brotherhood Ogunnubi (2016), and Ogunnubi and
among fellow Africans irrespective of Amusan (2018), had been conducted on the
their colour or race in order to encourage Nigeria-South Africa hegemonic influence
cooperation and promote stability in Africa in the African continent. There are scanty
continent. studies on the effects of the ill-treatment
meted out on Nigeria’s nationals in South
STATEMENT OF PROBLEM Africa on the economic relations and
Xenophobia is a common phenomenon diplomatic ties of the two countries. The
in Africa that has been experienced in victimization of Nigerian nationals by
countries like Angola, Botswana, Ghana, South Africans can destabilize the long-
Nigeria, Zambia, Zimbabwe among others term relationship between the two countries.
(Akinola, 2018b; Benyera, 2018; Carciotto, It is against this backdrop that the study
2016; Oni & Okunade, 2018; Shulika & examines how xenophobia in South Africa is
Sabi, 2018; Tella, 2016, 2018). However, affecting the Nigeria-South Africa relations,
the recurring event of xenophobia in South in order to prevent any disengagement
Africa has become a burning issue in Africa. between the two countries.
This has been canvassed for by several
literature found on the xenophobic violence METHODS
in South Africa. The study employs a systematic review of
Hence, Nigeria like many other African literature majorly on xenophobia in Africa
countries has cordial relationship with South with emphasis on South Africa. The study is
Africa government which has made it easy equally qualitative in nature which is based
for the duo to work things out together in the on the use of secondary data sources. This
African continent such as the contribution study used literature on different xenophobic
to Africa’s peace, stability and development violence recorded on books, journal articles,
(Colliers, Schunemann, & Moyer, 2015; Newspapers and experiences of Nigerian
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 26 (4): 2677 - 2700 (2018) 2679
returnees from South Africa who were Baron (1977), on his own suggested that,
victim of xenophobic attacks on foreigners “frustration is not a very common or
in the country. important (antecedent of aggression) and is
Moreover, the study makes use of probably far less crucial in this respect than
frustration-aggression theory as a good has widely and persistently been assumed”
theory is hypothetical set of norms where (Baron, 1977). He argued further that
facts will be derived from the body of “barriers to goal attainment would produce
knowledge (Asika, 1991). Hence, the aggressive reaction only when they were
theory of frustration-aggression best fits the unexpected” (Dill & Anderson, 1995).
explanation of the xenophobic violence on Hence, the aggression theory emphasizes
foreigners living in South Africa, particularly that, frustration always leads to aggression,
the influence of such ill-treatment on but if the frustration act is not well curbed,
Nigeria’s nationals. The frustration- the resultant effect of it will be disastrous
aggression theory can also be referred to which can lead to inflicting unnecessary
as the frustration-aggression-displacement pains and attacks on the innocent target
theory. The theory was formulated by (Pastore, 1950).
Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer and Sears The relevance of the theory to this
in 1939, before it was later developed by study is that the xenophobic attack on
Miller et al. and Berkowitz in 1941 and 1969 foreign nationals is capable of disorganizing
respectively (Berkowitz, 1989). The theory the existing cordial relationship between
stipulated that, “….aggression is always a countries in Africa. For instance, Nigeria’s
consequence of frustration and, contrariwise foreign policy ensures the protection
……the existence of frustration always of rights and properties of its citizens
leads to some form of aggression” (Dollard both within the country and outside, any
et al., 1939). Similarly, aggression has infringement on rights or properties of its
been described as “the result of blocking, citizens by any country without a reasonable
or frustrating, a person’s efforts to attain a cause can affect Nigeria’s relation with the
goal” (Friedman & Schustack, 1999). country. As Nigerians are in other countries
According to Zillmann (1979), the carrying out different forms of activities,
responses to frustration could involve other countries’ nationals are also in Nigeria
“supplementary factors such as personal for a purpose. It becomes the responsibility
attacks or the instrumental value of of the host country to ensure the safety of
aggressive reactions” (Zillmann, 1979). lives and properties of both its citizens and
He stressed further that “the blockage of a foreigners residing legitimately in their
goal reaction, in and of itself…..generally country.
will not induce interpersonal hostility or
aggression” (Zillmann, 1979). However,
LITERATURE REVIEW rights and freedom (Masenya, 2017). The

The term Xenophobia is two Greek words terms xenophobia and racism share similar
“xenos” and “phobos” meaning “strange” attributes in the literature, but the latter is a
and “phobia” respectively (Chinomona branch to the former. Racism is a form of
& Maziriri, 2015). The Xenophobia as a discrimination focused on biological or skin
concept can be defined as actions, attitudes, pigmentation, while xenophobia comprises
behaviours and perceptions that discriminate all forms of segregation or discrimination
individuals on the assumption of not being against those categorized as non-nationals
an indigene, outsiders or people from other (Akinola, 2018a). A typical example of this
community different entirely from theirs. was demonstrated by South Africans when,
According to Akindès (2004), xenophobia is “locals seem to accommodate citizens from
the hatred of foreigners that is characterized Ghana and Senegal, while displaying acute
with all sorts of abuses, violations and hostility to those from Nigeria, Zimbabwe
discrimination of the highest order. The and Somalia” (Akinola, 2018a).
literature has shown that several factors are According to Kaluba (2016), the
responsible for the cause of xenophobia. relationship between the racism and
These include; the anxiety of loss of identity xenophobia is that:
and social status, fear of success on the In countries where people of
part of the economy, superiority feeling different races live, xenophobia
among the indigenous, fear of boundaries and racism often overlap
in a national crisis and misinformation from although they are distinct
the culture (Danso & McDonald, 2001). phenomena since unlike
According to Crush and Ramachandran xenophobia racism usually
perceived xenophobia as “highly negative entails a distinction based
perceptions and practices that discriminate on physical characteristic
against non-citizen groups based on their differences such as skin colour,
foreign origin or nationality” (Dassah, hair type, facial features, while
2015). Xenophobia originally emanates xenophobia implies behaviour
from the beliefs and perceptions of a group based on the idea that the other
of people categorizing the non-natives as is foreign to or originates from
being inferior to them in terms of socio- outside the community or
economic and political affiliation of the land nation (Kaluba 2016).
where they are residing (Akindès, 2009).
Hence, xenophobia covers all forms
The issue of xenophobia can be
of hostility and intolerance meted on
attributed to a higher rate of the number of
those categorized as non-nationals or
unemployment, poverty and above all when
foreigners. This could manifest through
the government of a country is not showing
several forms such as racephobia (racism),
concern for the protection of individual
ethnophobia (ethnic conflict), genophobia
(genocide), afrophobia (hatred among Therefore, the theory of frustration-

Africa’s nationality), foreignphobia (hatred aggression adopted by this study is relevant
for foreign things) (Akinola, 2018a). The to explain the Nigeria-South Africa relations
term xenophobia can be described as “a in many ways, particularly in relation to
social psychological, attitudinal, either xenophobic attacks on Nigeria’s nationals
overt or indirect, hostility and tension in the country. One of such is that the theory
towards foreigners manifesting as physical is useful to describe the likely repercussion
violence, social conflict or a mere latent of the South Africa’s xenophobia on the
dislike or foreigners” (Fungarai, 2015). country’s relations with Nigeria. Nigeria -
The act of nursing or keeping grudges for South Africa relations have been cordial due
foreigners without any course is known as to some similarities in two countries’ foreign
xenophobia. This can be equally regarded to policies (Ogunnubi & Isike, 2015; Webber
as the illogical worry or foreigners’ hatred & Smith, 2014). This has made the duo to
(Harris, 2002; Williams, 2008). have been in good term with each other
Similarly, according to Benyera (2018), and have a common vision for the African
“the forms of xenophobia range from the use continent (Colliers, Schunemann & Moyer,
of derogatory language to physical violence 2015; Obi, 2015).
such as necklacing, setting foreigners alight, Similarly, South Africans’ attitudes
assault and arson”. In the same vein, Gomo towards the foreign nationals residing
(2010) equally viewed xenophobia as a way in South Africa, particularly Nigerians,
by which: may lead to frustration to Nigerians
Foreigners are often perceived in a after they might have returned to their
negative, derogatory and dehumanizing native land. Harms can be done on South
manner that categorizes them as inferior Africa’s investments in Nigeria as a way
people, enabling them to be subjected of retaliating the attacks meted on them
to unfair treatment……. characterizd by while in South Africa. This is similar to
extreme nationalism, expansive economic assertions made by Whitley and Kite (2010)
protectionism, identity formation, blatant that the humiliation and disrespect at work
intolerance and hostility towards the others that one failed to respond to, due to the fear
and violent acts against non-locals (Gomo, of losing one’s job, such frustration and
2010). anger may be transferred to one’s family
This means that any act meted on other at home. Such transfer of aggression can
nationals or foreigners either in form of occur among Nigerians over South African
attack or assault, foul or abusive language, investments in the country such as MTN,
and other forms of hatred attach to foreign DSTV, Nandos, Shoprite, Pep among others
nationals living in a particular country is to in retaliation to what the country’s nationals
be described as xenophobia. have experienced under the aggrieved South
African indigenes during xenophobia, if of some Africans against their fellow

adequate measure is not taken (Unah, 2017). Africans. According to Osoro (1993) and
Furthermore, as part of the assumptions Maathai (2009), the colonization of Africa
of the frustration-aggression theory, the by the Europe has led to the disappearance
aggression of the frustration experienced of Africa’s identity. Although, there may be
by the African nationals residing in South some traces of conflicts among Africa during
Africa can cause disharmony and lack of the precolonial era as a result of competing
cooperation among the African countries. for scarce resources among African people
Countries whose nationals were molested (Ki-Zerbo, 2005). These scarce resources
or frustrated in South Africa may adjust its may arise as a result of land disputes, power
foreign policy relations toward South Africa and water. Invariably, the colonization or
(Piazza, 2017; Wang, 2014). Hence, this imperialism has worsened the situation
may breed disunity among States in Africa. through the introduction of the colonial
Therefore, literature has revealed that administration which led to the destruction
the xenophobic acts in Africa has become a of the existence of the traditional rule in
general phenomenon in which most of the Africa (Mamdani, 1996).
States in Africa have experienced one in According to Mamdani (2012),
form of or the other (Akinola, 2018a, 2018b; the colonial system of administration
Benyera, 2018; Shulika & Sabi, 2018; incapacitates a well-structured traditional
Tella, 2018). Despite the experience of system of administration met in Africa to
xenophobia in Africa, none of the incidence introduce the imperialist rule. Colonialism
has recorded the assault or violence meted on introduced new identities for African ethnic
foreign nationals the way the South Africa’s and tribes in order to make Africans play
xenophobic attacks did (Tella, 2016, 2018). against one another for the colonialist’s
Although, the traces of xenophobia in the objectives to be achieved. This has
African continent is linked to the impacts manifested in a series of misunderstandings,
of Europeans domination in the Africa’s conflict and in time war over issues such as
affairs during the imperialist rule (Brobbey, boundaries, power struggle among groups.
2018; Oni & Okunade, 2018). Hence, this This has led to wars in such instances like
has made the xenophobia history in Africa the Rwanda genocide, Ivory Coast civil war,
to be traced to their experiences or heritage Nigeria civil war, and war in Liberia, Sierra
from the colonial rule. Leone and many other countries in Africa
(Oloruntoba, 2018).
History of Xenophobia in Africa Furthermore, xenophobia in African
The colonial experience and the continent has been described as the
discrimination which African countries have postcolonial heritage to the continent.
witnessed canvass for the negative attitudes Countries like Ghana, Nigeria, Botswana,
Zimbabwe, Namibia, Guinea, Gabon, are living (Hickel, 2014; Zwane 2014).
Angola, South Africa among others have Nevertheless, the country whose nationals
experienced one form of xenophobia is being rejected or expelled for no reason
or the other (Oloruntoba, 2018). Like than xenophobia, may not likely be in a good
Ghana in 1969, under the administration term with each other.
of Kofi Busia deported 20,000 to 500,000 Hence, the act of xenophobia is totally
Nigerians in less than three months under condemned in African continent, particularly
the pretence of Aliens Compliance Order the hatred of Africans by Africans (Brobbey,
(Gocking, 2005; Owusu, 2012). Similarly, 2018; Ogunnubi & Amusan, 2018; Tafira,
in 1983 and 1985, Nigeria equally deported 2018). Specifically, the frequency at which
Ghana citizens residing in the country the xenophobia in South Africa is taking
through Alien and Immigrants laws, same place, calls for a serious concern among
in Angola, Uganda, Gabon, Chad, Kenya, African States. It is important to stress
Cote d’Ivoire, South Africa among others that, the xenophobia in Ghana, Nigeria,
(Neocosmos, 2010; Romola, 2015). The and some other countries like that did
xenophobic actions in countries like Ghana, not record violence (Hart, 2016; Oni &
Angola, Nigeria, Uganda and South Africa Okunade, 2018). Meaning that, none of
were attributed to the economic issue. The the xenophobia occurrences in Africa has
reaction of xenophobia in Kenya and Chad exhibited violence, the way the South
were caused by war on terror. Also, the Africa’s xenophobic attacks was launched
xenophobic prejudices in Cote d’Ivoire, on foreign nationals living in the country.
Equatorial Guinea and Gabon were attached Therefore, xenophobic acts by South
to politics and economic considerations. Africans on other nationals can be better
The deportation of Angolans by the Congo examined in history of xenophobia in the
Kinshasa was attributed to political issue of country.
the country then (Aremu & Ajayi, 2014; Oni Genesis of Xenophobia in South Africa
& Okunade, 2018; Romola, 2015).
South Africa has been faced with rapid influx
Therefore, the idea behind the
of both legal and illegal foreign immigrants
deportation or expulsion of foreign
entering and living in the country. It has
nationals among African countries is to
been on record that, more than 2.2 million
create opportunities for the indigenes in
immigrants were residing in South Africa
their native land (Hart, 2016). This has
from the 53 African States (Molatlhwa,
formed part of the arguments in those
2012). In 2011, the South African statistical
countries where xenophobia has taken place,
records showed that Zimbabwe had the
having forgotten that, other nationals who
largest immigrants in South Africa, followed
residing in their country are contributing
by Mozambique among other foreign
either directly or indirectly to the economic
nationals (Molatlhwa, 2012).
development of the country where they
Similarly, South Africa is one of the Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
countries in Africa where foreigners or (UNHCR ROSA, 2015), over 310,000
immigrants love to visit and perhaps stay refugees and asylum seekers are in South
due to its industrialized setup and conducive Africa in July, 2014. Meaning that in 2015
atmosphere (Dyson, 2015). The country is upward, the number of refugees will have
one of the most industrialized countries, if increased beyond, while 60,000 to 80,000
not the first of its kind in Africa. In fact, asylum seekers come into the country
the buoyant nature of the South African yearly. This made the population rate of
economic has attracted people from all South Africa to be increased daily. Noticing
walks of life to migrate into the country this increase in the population of South
(Adeogun & Faluyi, 2018). Africa, the South Africans assumed most
Since the nineteenth century when gold foreigners or immigrants in their country
was discovered in Witwatersrand in South particularly the black Africans illegally
Africa, the country has started employing entered the country. This perception as noted
foreign nationals (Adam & Moodley, by Gumede (2015) was the primary cause
2013; Adeogun & Faluyi, 2018). This has that triggers other factors in the xenophobic
made the country to have experienced an or Afrophobic or negrophobic attacks in
influx of foreign immigrants from different South Africa.
parts of the world and mostly from African The incidence of discrimination in
countries. The black immigrants were South Africa could be traced back to its
employed to the mining industries even apartheid experience which had inculcated
during the apartheid era in South Africa. some element of racism in South Africans
Since then, the native of South Africa, (Kalitanyi & Visser, 2010). Evidence had
particularly, the black South Africans mostly shown that illicit discrimination meted on
referred to the foreign immigrants as a threat foreigners or immigrants in South Africa
in their land (Fayomi et al., 2015). Hence, had not just started but dated back to
the industrialized nature and comfortable 1994. The South Africans reportedly threw
environment in South Africa, attract the some foreigners out from moving trains,
influx of migrants to the country. simply because they believe that foreigners
These particular attributes made were those taking their jobs and bringing
foreigners from all walks of life to troop diseases to South Africa (Misago, 2015).
in for the purpose of seeking refuge from Nonetheless, the 1994 transition from
economic crises, poverty, unfavorable apartheid rule into a democratic system
government policies and wars in their of government in South Africa betrayed
various native lands (Solomon & Kosaka, all expectations as the xenophobic attacks
2013). In fact, the refugees and asylum increased.
seekers prefer to reside in South Africa. The South Africa’s Xenophobia was
According to the report of the United described by Nyamnjoh (2006), as an effect
of globalization. He stressed further that, nationals after apartheid would be resisted”

“globalization exacerbated insecurities (Crush & McDonald, 2001).
occasioned by borderless flow of capital, The anti-immigration attack on foreign
goods and information in a large scale. This nationals living in South Africa started
brought about an obsession with citizenship on May 2008 in Alexandra township of
and belonging and the re-actualization Johannesburg (Tafira, 2018). The attacks
of boundaries through xenophobia” which was launched on the foreigners
(Nyamnjoh, 2006). Similarly, Sichone claimed the lives of about 64 immigrants,
(2008) equally corroborated Nyamnjoh’s while thousands were displaced, many
view that, the South Africa’s xenophobia is: sustained severe injuries (Tafira, 2018). The
One among several possible incident was related to 1835 and 1846 wars
forms of reaction generated where it was declared that:
by anomic situations in the Let war be made against the
societies of modern states. The kaffir huts and gardens. Let
new South Africa is a good all these be burnt down and
candidate for a society in a destroyed. Let there be no
condition of anomie … and ploughing, sowing or reaping.
we should therefore not be Or, if you cannot conveniently,
surprised to find unusual levels or without bloodshed prevent
of moral confusion among the the cultivation of the ground,
citizenry (Sichone, 2008). take care to destroy the enemy’s
The perception of the South Africans crops before they are ripe, and
toward xenophobia was that, the immigrants shoot all who resist. Shoot their
who entered the country legally were cattle too wherever you see any.
depriving them of employment (job and Tell them the time has come
services), while the illegal immigrants in for the white man to show his
South Africa constituted to the level of mastery over them (as cited in
corruption among the security agents (Crush Magubane 1986).
& McDonald, 2001). It is because of this that The South Africans were so much
South Africans developed hatred, hostility passionate about their campaign tagged
and intolerance toward foreigners residing “Buyelekhaya” meaning “go back home”
in South Africa. Hence, the actions of South calling immigrants with series of odd names.
Africans toward immigrants can be linked to In that same 2008 xenophobic violence in
what Crush and McDonald viewed as “their South Africa, attacks were carried out on
experiences of apartheid which culminated foreigners living in all parts of South Africa
in their suffering, discrimination, and denial where 670 immigrants were wounded,
and any attempt by foreigners to compete dozens were raped, properties worth millions
with them on benefits accruable to local of Rands were either looted or destroyed and
more than 100,000 displaced (Consortium Mbeki was reported to have addressed the
for Refugees and Migrants in South Africa nation on the need to desist from assaulting
[CORMSA], 2009; Nyar, 2009; Tafira, or killing of foreigners particularly the
2018). Furthermore, the xenophobic attacks Blacks who are Africans. He was quoted
did not end there, similar attacks were that:
lunched between 2009 and late 2010 where When I walk down the streets
almost 20 foreigners were hacked to death, of Johannesburg and this other
above 40 were critically injured, over 200 black person approaches me,
shops owned by foreigners were looted and there is no way [of] my telling
over 4000 immigrants were displaced for that they are Zimbabwean or
their safety (CORMSA, 2011). Mozambican. There is nothing
While trying to calm the situation there that says, ‘ah, this is the
during the 2008 South Africa xenophobia, enemy I must hate’. But if a
one of the parliamentarians of the country, white person comes up, they are
Motsoko Pheko described the actions of the different. So I am saying that if
natives of South Africa as a barbaric when there was xenophobia, I would
he described the term xenophobia: expect it to be expressed against
What is called “xenophobia” people who might stand out as
in South Africa is brother being different from me and
hating or disliking brother. also, given our history, these
This signals that the colonial are the people that oppressed
mentality is too deep-seated in us. But you don’t have any
this country, if this is not the evidence of racism among our
work of hooligans or a “third people (Ncana, 2010).
force” to derail the Pan-African The declaration made by Thabo Mbeki
agenda, which fathers of the to condemn xenophobia in South Africa
liberation struggle in Africa was a bit relief to the African continent
such as Kwame Nkrumah, with the hope that peace has returned to the
Sekou Touré, Julius Nyerere, country. However, in the year 2011 another
Robert Sobukwe, Patrice series of attack on foreigners were carried
Lumumba, Marcus Garvey, out where over 120 people were killed
W.E.B. Du Bois, George and some burnt alive, 100 were seriously
Padmore, Malcolm X and many wounded, 120 businesses / shops owned
more embraced (cited in New by foreigners were closed and not less than
African Magazine 2015). 1000 immigrants were displaced (UNHCR
Immediately after the attack incidents of ROSA, 2014). Similarly, in the years 2012,
2010, the South African government under 2013 and 2014, there were weekly frequent
the leadership of the former President Thabo attacks on foreign nationals. In fact, between
January 2014 to March same year, estimated reported to have occurred due to some
300 incidents of violence meted on foreign conditions the indigenes of South Africa
nationals were recorded, over 200 shops found themselves and believed to have
owned by foreigners were either looted or been caused by the foreigners in their land.
destroyed and 900 persons were displaced Hence, if these attitudes are not properly
(UNCHR ROSA, 2014). addressed and well handled, it could lead
Similarly, in 2015, another attack was to the law of karma where the nationals of
launched by the South African native on other countries who are victims of South
foreign nationals living in the country African xenophobia may in turn reciprocate
(Gordon, 2017). The violence started in such on South Africans and their properties /
April 2015 in EThekwini and Johannesburg investment in their countries as well.
cities. Many casualties were recorded on Unlike other xenophobic attacks
both human and properties (Egan, 2015; experienced in other part of African
Gordon, 2017). The xenophobic attacks continent, the South Africa’s xenophobia
were launched on foreigners after Zulu therefore, is always accompanied by
King Goodwill Zwelithini was quoted to violence. The evidence to this could be seen
have said that “foreigners should go back from the 2008, 2015 and 2017 xenophobic
to their countries” (Masenya, 2017). The attacks on foreign nationals residing in
pronouncement aggravated the attacks on South Africa (Tella, 2018). The experience
immigrants and their properties. In fact, of some victims of the xenophobia in
some relevant government departments and South Africa revealed that, South African
the South African Police Service (SAPS) government at all levels need to guarantee
who are supposed to be protecting innocent the safety of all individuals in its country
lives and properties were reportedly to be in irrespective of where they come from in
support of the attacks on foreigners (Misago, order to reciprocate such to its nationals in
2016). Thus, these energized government other countries. According to Misago:
of some countries such as Nigeria to start Local residents in these areas
repatriating its citizen back home (Gumede, have become increasingly
2015). convinced that foreign
Again, in March 2016, another nationals are to blame for all
xenophobic treatments and violence their socioeconomic ills and
was instigated in Katlehong community hardships including poverty,
of Gauteng where foreign nationals unemployment, poor service
were brutally harassed and labeled as delivery, lack of business
“Makwerekwere” meaning “foreigners in space and opportunities; crime;
South Africa” with all sorts of condemnation prostitution; drug and alcohol
(Mkhize, 2016). All these ungodly attacks abuse; and deadly diseases
on fellow human by South Africans were (cited in Akinola, 2018b).
Therefore, it is obvious that the major Nigeria whose relationships are cordial may
root cause of xenophobia claimed by the be affected.
native of South Africa is the presence of Having related the theory of frustration-
immigrants in the country, particularly, the aggression to the xenophobic act by the
illegal immigrants entering South Africa natives of South Africa as posited by
(Akinola 2018b; Tella, 2018). However, Dollard et al. (1939), Berkowitz (1989),
it has been equally argued that, the South and Friedman and Schustack (1999), that
African government encourages its citizens the aggression is mostly a product or
to maltreat other nationals residing in consequence of frustration. The application
South Africa. The statement made by of this theory is germane to both the
South African President, Jacob Zuma in his South Africa whose natives carried out
reaction over the 2015 xenophobia in the the xenophobic attacks on the foreign
country is arguably attested to this fact. He nationals who are residing in their country.
stated that: And similarly, the resultant effects of such
Our brother countries contribute attacks on the immigrants can jeopardize
to this. Why are their citizens the relationship between the South Africa
not in their countries? It is and other countries in Africa, particularly
not useful to criticise South Nigeria.
Africa as if we mushroom In other words, the benefits that the two
these foreign nationals and countries (Nigeria and South Africa), jointly
then ill-treat them…Everybody enjoy may be stopped or paralyzed which
criticizes South Africa as if may have negative impacts on the nationals
we have manufactured the of the two countries. Mostly, the resultant
problem. Even if people who effects of the xenophobia in South Africa
are xenophobic are a minority, may affect the South Africa’s investments in
but what prompts these refugees Nigeria (Gaffey, 2017; Mbamalu, 2017). In
to be in South Africa? It is a fact, that was the point made by the Senator
matter we cannot shy away Olusola Adeyeye who alluded to the fact that
from discussing (Maromo, South Africa’s companies and investments
2015; Mkandawire, 2015) in Nigeria such the MTN, DSTV, Nandos,
Shoprite, Pep and Game and many more are
Hence, the above statement is capable
doing well and making exorbitant profits
of instigating or encouraging the natives
from Nigerians, yet Nigeria’s government
of South Africa, who have or have not
is protecting them (Babalola, 2017; Unah,
actively participated in the act to join
2017). Hence, the resultant effect of the
the group (Ogunnubi & Amusan, 2018;
South Africa’s xenophobia which resulted in
Oloruntoba, 2018; Wilson & Magam, 2018).
a series of frustrations to Nigeria’s citizens
Consequently, the impact of such on South
in the country can cause or raise the tension
Africa with other African countries such as
of aggression on Nigerians over both South their socioeconomic ills and

Africans and their properties in Nigeria. hardships including poverty,
unemployment, poor service
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION delivery, lack of business space
Scholars have alluded some reasons put and opportunities, crimes,
forward by the indigenes of South Africa prostitution, drug and alcohol
as the cause of xenophobic grievances abuse, and deadly diseases
and attacks launched on foreigners or (cited in Akinola, 2018)
immigrants residing in their land. Some of It is important to understand that, the
these causes could be categorized as follow: people’s migration in Africa irrespective
The Economic Factors: Some of the of the duration may be either for social,
citizens of South Africa perceive foreigners economic or political reasons. Economically,
in their land as a threat to their economy. immigrants are found in various countries in
In the course of striving for the scarce search for employment opportunities in
resources, the indigenes believed that the order to improve their livelihood (Oni &
immigrants who are in South Africa are Okunade, 2018). The desire of immigrants
there to snatch their jobs or employments to search for lucrative jobs in Africa was
and income which they think is leading to due to the global desire for the increase in
the high rate of unemployment, inequality the demand for labour. Hence, people move
in income and poverty in their land from one location to another to access basic
(Masenya, 2017; Mogekwu, 2005). South amenities, education, and healthcare among
Africans’ perceptions on competitive others, which can add value into their lives
micro-enterprises handled by the indigenes (United Nations Population Fund [UNFPA],
and those managed by the foreigners 2015).
where the level of customers’ patronage on The attachment of economic factor as
immigrants’ shops or businesses are higher part of the reasons why the natives of South
compared to those running by the indigenes Africa are attacking the foreign nationals
is part of the differences in the country’s accounts for numerous derogatory names
economy posed by foreigners in the country given to African by the South Africans. The
(McDonald & Jacob, 2005). Magrigamba is a name given to immigrants
The imbalances noticed in South African from West Africa which implies that, the
economy triggered the maltreatment meted person arrives South Africa with nothing
on the foreigners living in the country. As a but will go back to their countries with
result of this, Misago opined that: properties, monies and wealth acquired
Local residents in these areas in South Africa (Tafira, 2011). Similarly,
have become increasingly the derogatory identities like, MaNigeria
convinced that foreign or Maforeigner which means the native
nationals are to blame for all of Nigeria and foreigners in South Africa,
respectively (Oni & Okunade, 2018; Tafira, in South Africa have contributed to the
2011). economic and other developments taking
The literature has revealed that the skill place in the country. This is argued by
and initiative which the natives of South Meintjies that:
Africa lack about trading or business is Studies have shown that
what made them to have assumed that, the immigrants are, in fact, net
foreigners have taken away their jobs from contributors, not parasites.
them (Fagbadebo & Ruffin, 2018). This Immigrants are, on average,
has made Lindiwe Zulu, the South Africa’s healthier, more energetic and
Minister for Small Business to have posited better educated than people
that: in the host population.
Let me tell you why they are Consequently, they draw
better at running shops than comparatively less on social
the local owners – they have wel fare an d o t h er s o ci al
a great network system. And services. Many pay tax and,
also that is how they live. From through their entrepreneurship,
the moment they are born, they make a positive injection into
are introduced to trade. Their local economic development
mothers, uncles- everyone (Maharaj, 2002).
trades. They started at an early Aside from the claims that the foreign
age (Zwane, 2014). immigrants take the jobs of South Africans,
The Minister revealed further that the so literature has equally argued it that, an
called “secret” behind the successful records average native of South Africa are lazy
of foreign nationals business in South Africa (Shulika & Sabi, 2018). According to Tafira,
is the ability to economize the resources (2018), majority of the South African’s
(Fagbadebo & Ruffin, 2018). He stressed blacks, who see themselves as native of
further that: the country do not considering looking for
Our people need to learn what other job an option, rather they utilize their time
people are doing. They must ask themselves; idling or sitting in township. He posited
how are they able to be successful in a further that:
space where we fail? Then they must look, While these South African
learn and do the same. They must do it; the men are accusing immigrants
government cannot, the ministry cannot. We of taking all the jobs for less
cannot just give money away. We have no pay, immigrants and South
money to give (Zwane, 2014). African women generally say
Similarly, evidence from the literature South African men are lazy,
has shown that the foreign immigrants do not like to work, and kill
their time drinking, sleeping
and playing dice, where they in the State has been found to be biased in
may win a couple of Rands and its dealing, exposing the immigrants to all
then drink with the earnings… sorts of abuses, attacks and discriminations
Alexandra women are not keen to the point of losing lives and properties.
to have relationships with these It is important to note at this point that, as
kinds of men. Unemployed long as the government of South Africa
men are seen as both dom does not rise up to curb the menace with full
Khanda (thick-headed) and implementation and enforcement of laws or
omahlalela (loafers) unable to policies prohibiting such acts, the lives and
provide and both inadequate properties of foreign nationals will continue
and not real men. Women, to be unsecured.
rather, are looking for men who The Perception of South Africans
are either employed or are seen on Non-indigenes: Scholars associated
to make money in other ways. xenophobia in South Africa to some of the
This kind of man happens to be heritage inculcated in South Africans during
the immigrants (Tafira, 2018). apartheid (Kalitanyi & Visser, 2010). The
Therefore, the attitudes among some racism in South Africa’s history has made
native of South African, particularly the the indigenes of the country to have the
blacks toward their means of livelihood perception that the foreigners particularly
has made their women to always patronize the blacks who are residing in the country
the immigrants (Saleh, 2015; Tafira, 2018). are there to hijack their economy, spread
The jealousy among the unemployed South deadly diseases, and above all taken over
Africans arose the neo-apartheid relations their land from them (Zouandé, 2011). It is
which resulted in the killings and attacks of the belief of some South Africa’s indigenes
the innocent immigrants. that the best way to deal with the matter is to
Similarly, other reasons for xenophobic make lives uncomfortable for the foreigners
violence in South Africa could be grouped who are in the country in order to leave and
as follows; return to their various native lands.
The Political backup: Scholars have Cultural Norms and Beliefs: The
observed that one of the causes of the xenophobic attacks on non-indigenes
persistence in the attacks of foreign nationals in South Africa were not only confined
in South Africa is simply because the toforeign nationals but also to any person
perpetrators enjoy the supports of relevant that does not belong to the dominant groups
government apparatus or departments in in the country. For a South African not to
South Africa (Masenya, 2017). As argued by be attacked, the person must be either Zulu
Klotz (2016), and Crush and Ramachandran or Xhosa. Citizens of South Africa who
(2017), the relevant government departments do not belong to these dominant groups
who are supposed to protect the human rights will be seen as foreigners (Gumede, 2015;
Masenya, 2017). The dominant groups to redefine its foreign policy direction
in South Africa prevented their children towards South Africa.
from getting married to people tagged as To this end, it will not be in the interest
foreigners and vice versa. This attitude of Africa to experience disunity or any act
has made it easier for the perpetrators of that can cause crisis between and among
the evils through xenophobia to carry out the African countries. The foreign nationals
their discriminate killings and attacks on in South Africa, particularly the Africans,
foreigners. are having their countries contributing
Attitude of South African Government to the development of the continent in
towards xenophobia in the country: The either stability contribution as the case of
whole blame of the xenophobic attacks Nigeria, others are contributing in the areas
on foreign nationals in South Africa has of economic socials and political settings
arguably apportioned on its government of the continent. Therefore, the earlier
(Fayomi, Chidozie, & Ayo, 2015; Masenya, Africa realizes the need for the continent to
2017). The government of South Africa has avert all forms of racism or discrimination,
been accused of nonchalant attitude to enact the better for it to promote the existing
laws or policies that will bring end to the cooperation among the African countries
illicit acts in the country and at the same for the continent to develop.
time its failure to bring the perpetrators to
book (Akindès, 2009). In as much as the CONCLUSION
government of a country is not ready to take The reoccurrence of xenophobia in South
the bull by the horn by dealing decisively Africa is capable of breaking the relationship
with the criminally minded people in the between the country and other African
society, such environment will not know countries, particularly Nigeria whose
peace as the hoodlums will take advantage nationals were among those molested or
to carry out their nefarious activities. victimized by the natives of South Africa.
Therefore, molestation and frustration Nigeria - South Africa economic and
experienced by Nigerians and other foreign diplomatic ties which have developed
nationals who are residing in South Africa through mutual relationship between the
has caused serious havoc to many in the two countries in African continent may
country. Some become widows or widowers, be affected as a result of the attacks on
while some children become orphans and Nigerians in the country (Koutonin, 2016).
many whose properties were destroyed or If this happens, it will affect the role that
carted away by thieves under the pretence the two countries have been playing jointly
of xenophobia are subjected to series of in Africa towards the development of the
financial difficulties. Hence, the country continent.
whose nationals have witnessed any of the Historically, Nigeria’s foreign policy
above conditions or more may be influenced towards Africa which South Africa shared
similar attribute, has made the government displeasure over apartheid by boycotting the
of the former in its big brother role in the Olympic Games and Commonwealth Games
continent to have favoured the entire Africa in to the nationalization of British Petroleum
its leadership role and stability commitment assets in 1979. All these contributions by
in African continent (Chukwuka, 2017; Nigeria to South Africa command respect
Ifijeh, 2017). The Afrocentric policy of and gratitude from the latter to the former
Nigeria influences the country in its stability (Ana-Caj, 2017)
and developmental contribution to Africa. However, the xenophobic attacks
Nigeria’s commitment to Africa has its in South Africa against the immigrants
long history particularly its efforts towards residing in the country, which Nigeria’s
the campaign against apartheid in Africa. nationals were equally affected has been
This has translated to the creation of viewed in the Nigeria’s perspective that,
United Nations Special Committee against “South Africa is often considered as an
Apartheid through the lobbying by Nigeria’s ungrateful” (Ogunnubi & Amusan, 2018).
government with some countries. The This is because the South Africans’ act of
Committee was overseen by Nigeria as shedding blood of innocent immigrants
its chair for 30 years. The country equally and destroying of their properties under the
loss over $41 billion due to its reaction pretence of taking their jobs, controlling
against apartheid by forfeited its trade their economy, spreading deadly diseases
with South Africa through stop selling oil among others is arguably not convincing for
to the latter for decades in protest against attacks to be launched on foreign national
discrimination by white minority in South (Unah, 2017). This has influenced Nigeria’s
Africa (Koutonin, 2016). Nigeria was government to condemn the illicit act and
one of the first category in the world to described such as barbaric in Africa. The
set up the National Committee Against South African Government is urged to take
Apartheid (NACAP) as far back as 1960 decisive measures to protect both Nigerians
(Ana-Caj, 2017). The government through and other Africans within the country’s
NACAP embarked on series of awareness, borders. Similarly, Nigeria’s Senior Special
orientations and sensitization on the evil of Assistant to President on Foreign Affairs and
apartheid as crime against humanity. Diaspora, Honourable Abike Dabiri-Erewa
Similarly, Nigeria has been shouldered urged the AU to intervene in order to find
with the responsibility to bring an end a lasting solution to the ugly incidents in
to apartheid since its independence to South Africa (Channels News, 2017).
the level of being given sanctions by the As it has been argued by Senator
Britain. Between 1960 and 1995, Nigeria Olusola Adeyeye that for “every penny
alone had spent $61 billion so support the a Nigerian made in South Africa, South
end of apartheid in South Africa (Channels Africans are making multiple of that in
News, 2017). Nigeria even demonstrated its Nigeria”, therefore the government of
South Africa and those that involved in may break. It becomes pertinent for Africans
the ill-treatment of foreigners in their land to see themselves as one and brothers
should take some caution (Chukwuka, irrespective of race, colour, gender, and
2017). The assertion by the Senator alluded background for the continent to progress.
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Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities

VOL. 26 (4) DEC. 2018

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Chief Executive Editor

SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES

Xenophobic Violence in South Africa and the Nigerians’

INTRODUCTION 2018a, 2018c; Tella, 2016). The ill treatment

LITERATURE REVIEW rights and freedom (Masenya, 2017). The

(genocide), afrophobia (hatred among Therefore, the theory of frustration-