UMI Number: 3275681

Copyright 2007 by
Wilson, David Louis

All rights reserved.

UMI Microform 3275681

Copyright 2007 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company.
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 Copyright

David Louis Wilson

2007

All Rights Reserved

ii
 Abstract

An Exploratory Study on the Players of Dungeons and Dragons

by

David Louis Wilson

The purpose of this study was to examine what

personality types were attracted to Dungeons and Dragons as

well as the influence of the game on the psychological and

spiritual traits of its players. Fifty participants

completed an assessment packet that included the Myers-

Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), the Spiritual Perspective

Scale (SPS), the D & D questionnaire (DDQ), and a

demographics questionnaire. The mean MBTI scores were

compared with the national averages using a one-sample t-

test analysis. The participants reported personality types

involving significantly more introversion, t (49) = -4.07,

p < 0.001; more intuition, t(49) = -5.69, p < .001; and

more perception, t(49) = -2.36, p < .05, than the reported

national averages (all tests two-tailed). The sample did

not differ significantly in terms of thinking versus

feeling functions. With the SPS and DDQ each having a

potential range of 1-6, participants found the traits of

increased strategy (M = 5.82), imagination development (M =

5.32), creation and maintenance of friendships (M = 5.26),

iii
and expression of alter egos (M = 5.78) to be influenced

and facilitated by D & D. Participants also scored

significantly in the categories of spirituality’s

importance on meaning of life (M = 5.26) and influence on

one’s life (M = 5.4) showing a correlation between D & D

and spirituality.

iv
 Acknowledgments

At this time I would like to thank Dr. Chris Dryer,

Dr. Jeremy Taylor, and Dr. Tanya Storch for their fine

service upon my dissertation committee. I would also like

to thank all of my friends and family who have in various

ways supported me during both the creation of this

dissertation and my overall academic path towards a

doctorate degree.

v
 Table of Contents

Abstract.............................................. iii

Acknowledgments...................................... v

List of Tables....................................... viii

Chapter 1: Introduction.............................. 1

Chapter 2: Literature Review......................... 5

Dungeons & Dragons Studies...................... 5

Personality Studies............................. 10

Chapter 3: Research Method........................... 15

Research Questions and Design................... 15

Instruments..................................... 15

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator................ 15

Spiritual Perspective Scale................ 20

Dungeons & Dragons Questionnaire........... 21

Procedure....................................... 21

Soliciting participants.................... 21

Selection criteria......................... 21

Analyzing the data......................... 22

Internal and External Validity.................. 22

Internal................................... 22

External................................... 22

Limitations and Delimitations................... 23

Limitations................................ 23

vi
 Delimitations.............................. 23

Chapter: 4: Results.................................. 25

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator..................... 27

Spiritual Perspective Scale..................... 30

Dungeons & Dragons Questionnaire................ 31

Chapter: 5: Discussion............................... 32

Theoretical Analysis of Dungeons & Dragons...... 34

Transpersonal Therapeutic Implications.......... 36

Future Research................................. 37

References........................................... 39

Appendix A: Consent Form.............................. 43

Appendix B: Dungeons & Dragons Demographics........... 46

Appendix C: Spiritual Perspective Scale............... 47

Appendix D: Dungeons & Dragons Questionnaire.......... 49

Appendix E: Dungeons & Dragons Recruitment Flyer...... 51

vii
 List of Tables

Table Page

1 Demographic Information........................26

2 National Average of Myers-Briggs Personalities.27

3 D & D Sample’s Personality Attitudes...........28

4 D & D Sample’s Functions of Personality........29

5 SPS Scores: Mean (M), Standard Deviation (SD),

Range, and Confidence Intervals (CI)...........30

6 D&DQ Scores: Mean (M), Standard Deviation (SD),

Range, and Confidence Intervals (CI)...........31

viii
 1

Chapter 1: Introduction

Dungeons and Dragons (D & D) is a fantasy role-playing

game in which the players use papers, pens, dice, and the

imagination. The game is a system of complicated rules that

juxtapose the infinite realm of the imagination with

sophisticated structure. Players create characters that

have ability scores, skills, weapons, and spells.

The character's ability scores are placed within six

categories. These categories are strength, dexterity,

constitution, intelligence, wisdom, and charisma. A player

must also choose the race of the character. The choices

include Dwarves, Elves, Half-Elves, Halflings, Gnomes,

Half-Orcs, and Humans. The "races" are species, each with

special abilities and handicaps that modify their ability

scores and skills. For instance, Elves receive a bonus to

their dexterity and a penalty to their constitution.

The player then chooses the class of the character.

This is not a social class. Rather, the class is the kind

of training the character possesses. Fighters, rogues,

clerics, druids, wizards, rangers, monks, sorcerers,

paladins, barbarians, and bards constitute the main

classes.
 2

After the class is chosen the player must choose

skills, feats, equipment, weapons, and in the case of

spell-casters, spells must be selected. All of these steps

can easily take one or more hours to complete, especially

for new players. This amount of preparation is small when

compared to the amount of work the game's Dungeon Master

(DM) must complete.

The DM is the game's narrator and referee. The DM

creates the world in which the players adventure and

explore. Furthermore, the DM must role-play all of the

people in this world. The DM is also the winds, the stars,

and the gods, as well as the earth itself. Creation of

significant nonplayer characters and the adventures that

the player characters experience are the responsibility of

the DM.

The three core books in D & D consist of the Player's

Handbook, the Dungeon Master's Guide, and the Monster

Manual. The Player's Handbook contains all the rules needed

for the game to run smoothly. The Dungeon Master's guide

contains additional rules that assist the DM in structuring

the game with consistency and competence. The Monster

Manual contains more than 200 pages of monsters, providing

all of the technical data needed for the player characters

to have a huge variety of creatures to befriend, parley

 3

with, or slay on the field of battle. Beyond these core

books is an ever expanding body of books that serve to

enhance the game by adding skills, classes, maps of worlds,

adventure modules, and other miscellaneous works.

The structure of the game allows the DM and players to

link their imaginations. This process creates a new

consensus reality complete with gods, monsters, and magic.

The possibilities for variety, expression, and fun are

endless.

Quite often a typical game session can last well

beyond 5 hours. The primary purpose of this game is to have

fun through role-playing alter egos and gaining victory

over the various challenges faced by the characters. In D &

D, there is no winner; the game has no predetermined end.

Characters advance in level by gaining experience

points. Experience points are rewarded for victories over

challenges and adversaries. Characters can advance to the

point of becoming immortals or even gods, although this

rarely happens. If and when characters die, the players can

create new characters. The game only ends when the

participants are no longer able or willing to continue.

Studies conducted by Edmunds (1982), Ieland and

Kernan-Schloss (1983), O’Haire and Marcia (1980), and

Palmiere (1972) found that both fantasy and imagery are of

 4

more interest to intuitive types. Given the high fantasy

and imagery nature of D & D, it is my hypothesis that the

personalities of the participants will be significantly

more intuitive than the personalities reported for the

national sample.

I have found my experiences of playing D & D to

directly correlate with the development of my imagination,

personal Psychosynthesis, and paranormal experiences such

as astral projection and lucid dreaming. I have also

observed these correlations in some of my friends,

especially in the Psychosynthesis of subpersonality

emergence.

As a result of my experiences with D & D, I studied

the personalities of D & D players utilizing the Myers-

Briggs Personality Indicator and have compared the findings

with the national average. I have also administered the

Spiritual Perspective Scale to explore some of the

spiritual dimensions of the players. Finally I have created

a brief questionnaire that inquires about the topics of

subpersonality emergence, enriched dream content, lucid

dreaming, paranormal experiences, and the development of

the imagination.
 5

Chapter 2: Literature Review

This literature review will present two categories of

study and a discussion of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator.

The first category reports three therapeutic studies on D &

D. The second category is a presentation of personality

studies pertaining to D & D and role-playing games in

general. This author knows of no scholarly theoretical

literature on the effects of D & D.

Dungeon & Dragons Studies

Blackmon (1994) encountered Dungeons and Dragons in

psychotherapy with a young schizoid adult male who had

experienced an isolated upbringing. During the therapy

sessions Blackmon’s client spoke of his experiences playing

D & D. Blackmon accepted and worked with the material,

eventually attaining the sacred space needed for the client

to divulge direct emotional issues.

Blackmon's (1994) analysis of D & D in the context of

therapy lay in the game's imaginative aspects and high

degree of structure. This combination helped to bring out

the client's emotions and fantasies safely while also

bypassing the risks of Guided Affective Imagery therapy.

The client was able to work with dangerous fantasies and

 6

feelings in a safe and controlled manner and later came to

understand them to a degree.

Furthermore, Blackmon (1994) proposed that a competent

therapist can serve as an approving mirror for clients to

successfully understand and integrate the displaced

emotions of their D & D characters into their everyday

lives and identities. This discovery provides clinicians

and counselors with a valuable tool in their therapeutic

work with clients.

Zayas and Lewis (1986) used D & D with a group of

eight boys of 8 and 9 years of age, in an attempt to

develop cooperation while successfully holding the group's

interest. Zayas and Lewis (1986) stated:

In the hands of a skilled group leader who can

appreciate the growth-inducing thrust that comes from
mastering different situations through cooperative
ventures, fantasy role-playing games can provide a
continuous focus for the group. The worker can
capitalize on the game's opportunities to aid children
in conflicts in interpersonal relations and in the
acquisitions of adaptive social skills. (p.62)

The children experienced enhanced self-confidence and

learned a greater appreciation for each other’s value and

abilities. The children also developed a greater

understanding of the inherent interdependence that so often

defines a group, family, or community. The facilitator

involved would skillfully direct the boys to discuss their

 7

experiences of play and relate the experiences to real-life

issues. D & D allowed the children to "assume roles and

characters with specific skills necessary to resolve

dilemmas facing the group, an important factor in group

process” (Zayas and Lewis, 1986, p.62).

Zayas and Lewis observed behavioral transformation in

the boys from the baseline behavior. Physically acting out

was reduced and replaced by the new behavior of fantasy and

verbalization in the game. The facilitators also had the

children change the characters, such that a boy playing the

fighter character could change to the cleric and thus not

be confined to a particular role. Both case studies show

that in the hands of competent professionals, D & D becomes

a beneficial tool in various aspects of mental, emotional,

and social spheres.

Ascherman (1993) was the new director of an inpatient

unit of adolescents when he encountered D & D being played

by many of his patients and endorsed by some of his staff.

The most numerous ailments in the inpatient unit were

borderline, narcissistic, and antisocial disorders.

Ascherman reported that two new patients, often in the role

of dungeon masters, succeeded in undermining the normal

treatment plans of the unit. "These patients constantly

 8

competed with staff members for control of other patients

and the unit milieu" (Ascherman, 1993, p. 338).

The two dungeon masters became absorbed in the games

and in their quest to control the minds of other patients.

Their maladaptive behaviors increased, as did their

resistance to therapy. "For all these youths, the games

seemed to be a desperate effort to escape from the

difficult reality of increasing developmental expectations

and norms, compounded by alienating behavior that

reinforced their sense of isolation" (Ascherman, 1993, p.

340).

The situation came to a peak when two patients with

borderline and antisocial pathologies assaulted a nighttime

staff member. According to Ascherman (1993), the patients

claimed that their intent, should they have succeeded in

disabling the worker, was to murder another patient and

finally escape. "Although apparently having no direct

connection to the fantasy play, it certainly seemed

congruent with the atmosphere of violence, siege, and

defense engendered by the games" (Ascherman, 1993, p. 341).

Ascherman (1993) reported that after his termination

of the games, all of the patients eventually returned to

treatment and school, even the two dungeon masters.

 9

Although Ascherman's experience of "the games" was

negative, it is worth noting that Ascherman and his staff

never attempted to integrate D & D into therapy. Instead

they allowed D & D to be played outside of therapy.

Ascherman and his staff were unwilling or unable to utilize

the opportunities Blackmon found with his situation.

Blackmon (1994) stated:

At first, I was reluctant to encourage his bringing me

material from his game sessions as it appeared to be
resistance; however, it did allow him some social
contact, and the eagerness with which he told me about
the game indicated to me the importance of his sharing
this material. (p. 626).

Blackmon's (1994) decision to involve the content of D

& D into therapy is markedly different from Ascherman's

(1993) statements about D & D activity in the inpatient

unit. "The games served to coalesce patient resistance to

change. The patients who were most hostile to treaters and

treatment efforts (and most fearful of change) were those

who were most invested in the games" (p. 339). This

contrast in attitude of the therapists may be a factor in

the causal reasons for the different outcomes.

 10

Personality Studies

A study by Abyeta and Forest (1991) entitled

Relationship of Role-Playing Games to Self-Reported

Criminal Behavior reported evidence of D & D having no

established role in criminal behavior. The report also

found less psychotic characteristics in gamers then the

national average.

A study by Rosenthal, Soper, Folse, and Whipple (1998)

compared levels of neurosis between fantasy role-play

gamers and National Guardsmen to test the popular

stereotype that gamers are immature, socially withdrawn

adolescents.

Neither group had levels of neurosis high enough to be

considered clinically significant. Furthermore there was no

reported difference between the gamers and the guardsmen in

neurosis levels.

Leeds (1995) conducted a study entitled Personality,

Belief in the Paranormal, and Involvement with Satanic

Practices Among Young Adult Males: Dabblers Versus Gamers.

Two hundred seventeen adult male subjects were categorized

into fantasy role-playing gamers (N = 66), noninvolvement

(control) group (N = 125), and Satanic dabblers (N = 26).

Using the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (Eysenck,

Eysenck, & Barrett, 1985), Leeds tested for traces of

 11

psychosis, neurosis, and extraversion. Using the Belief in

the Paranormal Scale (Jones, Russel, & Nickel, 1977), Leeds

tested for belief in the paranormal. Leeds also used the

Satanic and Fantasy Envelopment Survey (Leeds, 1995) to

test for involvement in gaming and Satanic practices.

Leeds (1995) reported the gamer and noninvolvement

group both had nearly identical scores in the category of

psychoticism. However, the Satanic dabblers scored twice as

high in this category. Of the Satanic dabblers 0% reported

that D & D increased their interest in the occult. Of the

gamers 36% reported D & D increased their interest in the

occult. Of the dabblers 0% reported that D & D increased

their curiosity about Satanism itself. Only 3% of gamers

reported an increase in curiosity in Satanism. "The occult

and Satanism are two distinctly different realms, and one

does not necessarily lead to the next" (Leeds 1995, p.

158).

Simón (1987) assessed personality characteristics of

26 D & D players 15-19 years old and 42 older D & D players

with the Cattall 16 PF personality tester (Cattell, Eber, &

Tatsuoka, M., 1970). A Pearson correlation compared the two

groups and found no significant differences. Personality

profiles in both assessments scored within the average

range for people of their respective groups. Factor C of

 12

the test showed no significant deviation from the average

population in psychopathic and suicidal behavior. After

finding the only significant variation was an increase in

freethinking and "experimenting," Simon concluded

Notwithstanding newspaper reports of fundamental

religious parents denouncing on the one hand that D &
D is Satanic and on the other hand policemen and
district attorneys blaming D & D for individual cases
of runaways, suicides, and various crimes (Brooke,
1985; Dear, 1984; Shuster, 1985), our findings show a
more mundane picture. Increased exposure to D & D is
not positively correlated with emotional instability.
Indeed, as a whole group, D & D players obtain a
healthy psychological profile, as measured by the 16
PF. It appears, then, that in those cases wherein the
individuals had previously played D & D, the game may
have simply been an incidental, irrelevant aspect,
rather than an etiological factor. (p. 332)

Carroll and Carolin (1989) also conducted a study to

determine personality differences between game players and

the standard population. The study tested 75 college

students enrolled in upper-division psychology classes, who

were also members of gaming clubs. Carroll and Carolin used

the 16 Pf personality tester (Cattell et al. 1970) and

found no significant differences between gamers and the

standard population. In addition they found no significant

differences between heavy and light involvement in the

games.

Douse and McManus (1993) conducted their own study of

players of a fantasy play-by-mail game called Serim Ral.

 13

The gamers were surveyed in specific aspects of their

personalities and the results were matched against a

control group. The Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI; Bem,

1974), the Royal Holloway and Bedford Decision-Making

Questionnaire (DMQ: French, West, Elander & Wilding, 1992;

West, 1988; West, Elander, & French, 1992), the empathy

questionnaire of Davis (1980, 1983), and the Eysenck

Personality Inventory (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1964) were used

in the study. The results showed that players of Serim Ral

were "more introverted, less feminine, less androgynous,

and showed less empathic concern than controls” (p. 508).

In relation to D & D, this study is qualitatively different

in that it lacks the interpersonal experience of tabletop D

& D while perhaps increasing depersonalization through the

medium of mail. This could account for the reduced empathic

concern and the increased introversion.

Carter and Lester (1998) conducted a study on 20 men

(60% college students) who played D & D. They used the

Eysenck Personality Inventory (Eysencket al., 1995) and the

Beck Depression Inventory (Beck, Ward, Mendelson, Mock, &

Erbaugh, 1961), comparing the scores with male college

students who do not play D & D. The scores resembled the

control groups, showing no significant variation.

 14

Finally, DeRenard and Mannik-Kline (1990) conducted a

study on D & D and alienation. The authors used a

questionnaire that contained the Anomia Scale (Srole, 1956)

to measure general alienation and the Alienation Scale

(Middleton, 1963) which measures six types of alienation,

and participants also completed the Rotter’s Internal-

External Locus of Control Scale (Rotter, 1966). The study

showed that D & D players reported less alienation then the

control group. However, 17% of the role-players who

reported feelings of meaninglessness also reported spending

greater amounts of money on D & D, greater frequency

playing the game, and greater character advancement.

DeRenard and Kline (1990) discussed the need for further

research as to whether or not these 17% were already

alienated before playing D & D and thus used the game as a

refuge or if the game itself caused alienation.

 15

Chapter 3: Research Method

This chapter outlines the research design, test

instruments, participant solicitation, participant

solicitation criteria, and data analysis procedures used in

this study to examine the personalities and spirituality of

D & D players.

Research Questions & Design

1. Relative to reported national averages, do D & D

players have significantly different

personalities?

2. What perspective do D & D gamers typically have

on spirituality?

3. Do D & D players report a relationship between

role playing and transpersonal experiences?

4. D & D players will be given a questionnaire in

which they will be asked if they believe there is

a correlation between their experiences with D &

D and various categories relevant to

Transpersonal Psychology.

Instruments

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Swiss psychiatrist

and creator of analytical psychology Carl G. Jung

 16

identified four functions of consciousness, namely

thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuition, along with two

attitudes or adaptations called introversion and

extraversion (Jung, 1971). In 1941, Myers and Briggs (1985)

created the MBTI, which is a personality profiler based on

Jung‘s theory with the addition of the Judging and

Perceiving categories (Myers & McCaulley, 1985).

The MBTI consists of 95 multiple-choice questions.

After the test is completed, the administrator utilizes a

booklet that organizes the questions into columns of

categories and scores the test.

The MBTI consists of 16 different personality

profiles, each of which describes an individual’s basic

preferential way of moving through the world. Each

personality type is indicated according to its four-letter

code (Myers, 1962). For example, ENTJ indicates Extravert,

iNtuitive, Thinking, Judging personality types, and ISFP

codifies Introverted, Sensing, Feeling, and Perceiving.

The 16 MBTI personality types are mixed combinations

of four basic scales of opposite preferences: Extroversion

versus Introversion (E/I), Sensing versus intuition (S/N),

Thinking versus Feeling (T/F), and Judging versus

Perceiving (J/P). In comparing the four-scale opposites,

 17

the key word for understanding the E/I comparison is energy

(Kroeger & Thuesen, 1988).

Extraverts focus their attention on the external

world, particularly other people, and are energized by the

accompaniment of others; therefore, they are usually

actively scanning the outer world for stimulation.

Introverts focus more on their internal processes and find

that the accompaniment of other people can drain their

energy, especially a crowd of people, while the inner world

enhances and adds to their energy.

The function of the second scale represents how we

gather information (Kroeger & Thuesen, 1988). Comparing the

S/N types, the Intuitives gather information according to

plenty of possibilities and insights while Sensors prefer

down to earth probabilities. The third scale, the Thinking

versus Feeling, represents how we prefer to make decisions

(Kroeger & Thuesen, 1988). Thinking types use their minds

and logic to make decisions while Feeling types prefer to

be guided by their emotions and what feels right to their

conscience.

The fourth scale tests for Judging/Perceiving types,

who differ from one another in plans vs. flexibility

(Kroeger & Thuesen, 1988). Judging types prefer planned

schedules and thrive on deadlines and routines. Perceiving

 18

types like endless options and the flow of creativity and

spontaneity.

MBTI reliability has been established primarily

through measures of internal consistency, specifically

split-half coefficients and test-retest scores. McCaulley

(1981) reported split-half reliability coefficient ranges

for nine college student samples: “from .76 to .88 for EI

(median .81), from .75 to .90 for SN (median .85), from .68

to .86 for TF (median .77), and from .80 to .85 for JP

(median .82)” (p. 315).

McCaulley (1981) stated “The critical question is how

often on retest do individuals come out the same type—that

is, fall on the same side on each of the four dichotomous

preferences—as in the original testing” (p. 318). Nine

samples including 1,444 individuals were tested and

retested at intervals of 5 weeks to 6 years resulting in

70% to 88% of subjects in the various samples scoring three

to four preferences the same on retest. Scoring two

preferences the same on retest were 10% to 22%. Scoring one

preference the same were 2% to 7%, and only one individual

in all the samples scored all four preferences differently

(p. 318). These scores stand in sharp contrast to what

would be expected by chance: to retest the same in all four

type categories 6.25%, to retest the same in three

 19

categories 25%, to retest the same in two categories 37.5,

to retest the same in one category 25%, and to retest a

change in all four categories 6.25%; (Myers & McCaulley,

1985, p. 173).

In addressing the issue of construct validity, Murray

(1990) concluded his review of several MBTI studies with

“the four scales measure important dimensions of

personality that approximate those of Jung’s typology

theories” (p. 1191). In regard to the MBTI’s correlation of

preference scores with other similar constructed

instruments, Murray (1990) concluded, “relations between M-

B Indicator [MBTI] and other tests have generally supported

the validity of the MB Indicator’s constructs” (p. 1191).

Myers and McCaulley (1985) correlated the MBTI with the

California Psychological Inventory, Adjective Check List,

Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, and Sixteen Personality

Factor Questionnaire concluding that the results were

supportive of MBTI’s construct validity. Myers and

McCaulley (1985) conducted a study of 98 students producing

the following correlations between the MBTI and the Gray-

Whellwright Jungian type Survey (JTS): “E.68 (p < .01),

I.66 (p < .01), S.54 (p < .01), N .47 (p <.01), T. 33 (p <

.01). and F .23 (p < .05)” (p. 209).

 20

Murray (1990) concluded his assessment of the MBTI

with the sentence “Its indices of reliability and validity

have been extensively investigated and have been judged

acceptable” (p. 1199). After reviewing numerous

correlational studies Carlyne (1977) stated “a wealth of

circumstantial evidence has been gathered and results

appear to be quite consistent with Jungian theory” (Keyser

& Sweetland, 1984, p. 488). Data on the individual scales

“demonstrates the behaviors and attitudes which the MBTI

appears to tap” (Keyser & Sweetland, 1984, p. 488),

providing a good case for construct validity. Furthermore,

Myers and McCaulley (1985) provided a manual of data

showing specific personality types clustering with

particular creative, scientific, business, and social

occupations.

Spiritual Perspective Scale. The 10-item Spiritual

Perspective Scale (SPS) measures the extent to which

participant’s perceive certain spiritual views and engage

in spiritually related interactions (Reed, 1986a). The SPS

was first tested on over 400 adults who were healthy,

hospitalized, or seriously ill. The Cronback alpha is above

.90 with little item redundancy. Inter item correlations

range from 54 to .60 across the adult groups. All item-

scale correlations are above .60. The SPS has been used to
 21

measure the degree of religiousness in terminally ill and

healthy adults and spirituality and well-being in ill or

hospitalized adults (Reed, 1986b). The SPS has demonstrated

criterion-related validity and discriminate validity (Reed,

1986b).

D & D Questionnaire. I have designed a 10-item

questionnaire (see Appendix C) addressing subject matters

that are both within D & D and of interest to Transpersonal

Psychology.

Procedure

In this section, the steps involved in completing this

study are presented. This includes participant solicitation

and participant selection, as well as data analysis

procedures.

Soliciting participants. Approximately 50 participants

were solicited primarily through flyer distribution,

Internet ads, newspaper ads, and word-of-mouth. The only

prerequisites were that the participant must be an active D

& D player of at least 21 years of age.

Selection criteria. It was important for this study’s

participants to be active players so that they had a strong

internal validity because it is possible though unlikely

for one’s Myers-Briggs personality type to shift

significantly during the course of one’s adult life. With

 22

reference to the participants’ ages, both the MBTI and

particularly the SPS are designed for and primarily tested

on adults.

Analyzing the data. Data is presented in table form.

The first table presents the demographic results. The

second table is the MBTI results. SPS results are presented

on a third table including each of the 10-Item mean scores

and the Overall Scale Score. A fourth table displays the

10-Item mean scores and Overall Scale Score of the D & D

Questionnaire.

Internal and External Validity

Internal. Internal validity deals with controlling the

study so that if a relationship is shown to exist it can be

attributed to the independent variable being examined and

not an extraneous variable. In an effort to protect the

internal validity of the study, participants were asked to

answer questions as honestly as possible, and it was

repeatedly emphasized, in all communications, that there

would be strict anonymity and confidentiality of all

information.

External. External validity deals with how well the

results can be generalized from the study sample to another

sample or population. Generalization in this study was

strengthened by the sparse prerequisites, namely active

 23

players above 20 years of age. This sample was primarily

representative of the Broward County Florida area but not

necessarily other areas.

Limitations and Delimitations

Limitations. My first concern was the length of the

test packet and the willingness of the participants to

complete it. Every effort was made to increase the

efficiency of the measurements and present the test packet

in as tidy and professional a manner as possible. My second

concern was about any fears among the participants around

the issue of confidentiality. To minimize this factor, the

participants were assured that all data collected would

remain strictly confidential. This statement was also

written on the test packet. In addition, the steps to

ensuring confidentiality were outlined in the

confidentiality agreement; for example, data will be locked

in a file cabinet, and so on.

A final concern was whether the participants would

understand and interpret the instruments similarly. Every

effort was made to provide clear and easy-to-understand

instructions to help participants complete their test

packets.

Delimitations. Participants were selected primarily

from the Broward County Florida population and consisted of

 24

volunteer participants. In addition, the sample was

restricted to active D & D players who were at least 21

years old. Any one of these factors could impact the

generalization of results.
 25

Chapter 4: Results

Fifty D & D players (N = 50) completed three

inventories and a demographic questionnaire. Participants

ranged in age from 21 to 62 years, with an average age of

28 (SD 8.15). The majority of the participants were men

(94%), of Caucasian descent (62%). (See Table 1 below for a

summary of demographic information.)

 26

Table 1

Demographic Information
___________________________________________________________

N = 50 D & D Players M SD Range

___________________________________________________________

Age 28 8.15 21-62

___________________________________________________________

Variable Number Percent

___________________________________________________________

Years Playing D & D 0-5 = 12 24%

6-10 = 13 26%
11-15 = 11 22%
15-20 = 8 16%
21-25 = 6 12%

Ethnicity

Caucasian 31 62%
African American 4 8%
Hispanic 13 26%
Asian 2 4%
Other 0 0%

Education

High school / some college 14 28%

College degree 22 44%
Graduate school 14 28%

Gender

Male 47 94%
Female 3 6%
 27

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

The results of the MBTI show D & D players favoring

Introversion by 8% over Extraversion, the Thinking function

by 4% over Feeling, the Intuition function by 28% over

Sensation, and the Perception function by 32% over Judging.

Table 2 also presents national average statistics Keirsey &

Bates, 1978) showing United States culture highly favoring

extraversion and sensation.

Table 2

National Average of Myers-Briggs Personalities

Extraverts (75%) Introverts (25%)

Sensation (75%) Intuition (25%)

Thinking (50%) Feeling (50%)

Judging (50%) Perceiving (50%)

 28

Table 3

D & D Sample’s Personality Attitudes

Introverts

INFP 5 INTP 5 INFJ 3

INTJ 4 ISFP 3 ISTP 2
ISFJ 1 ISTP 4 TOTAL 27

Extraverts

ENFP 5 ENTP 4 ENFJ 3

ENTJ 3 ESFP 2 ESTJ 1

ESFJ 2 ESTP 3 TOTAL 23

 29

Table 4

D & D Sample’s Functions of Personality

Thinking versus Feeling

T = 26 F = 24

Sensation versus Intuition

S = 18 N = 32

Judging versus Perception

J = 17 P = 33

The mean MBTI scores were compared with the national

averages using a one-sample t-test analysis. The

participants reported personality types involving

significantly more introversion, t (49) = -4.07, p < 0.001;

more intuition, t (49) = -5.69, p < 0.001; and more

perception, t (49) = -2.36, p < 0.05, than the reported

national averages (all tests two-tailed). The sample did

not differ significantly in terms of thinking / feeling

functions.
 30

Spiritual Perspective Scale

The D & D participants scored a mean above 4.4 in all

ten questions they answered. Although responses did include

the entire range of 1-6, the standard deviation was never

above 1.0. Below in table 5 are the SPS means, standard

deviations, ranges, and confidence intervals.

Table 5

SPS Scores: Mean (M), Standard Deviation (SD), Range, and

Confidence Intervals (CI)
___________________________________________________________

Questions (M) (SD) Range 95 % (CI)

___________________________________________________________

Variable 1 4.5 .98 1-6 4.23-4.77

Variable 2 4.56 .96 1-6 4.23-4.77

Variable 3 4.82 .76 2-6 4.61-5.03

Variable 4 4.6 .8 1-6 4.38-4.82

Variable 5 4.7 .78 1-6 4.48-4.92

Variable 6 4.48 1.00 1-6 4.20-4.76

Variable 7 5.28 .96 1-6 5.01-5.55

Variable 8 4.54 .89 1-6 4.29-4.79

Variable 9 5.4 .87 2-6 5.16-5.64

Variable 10 5.26 .79 2-6 5.04-5.48

Total 4.81 .08 NA 4.57-5.05

 31

D & D Questionnaire

The D & D participants scored a mean above 3.8 in all

ten questions put forth to them. Although responses did

include the entire range of 1-6, the standard deviation was

never above 1.32. Below in Table 6 are the ten DDQ means,

standard deviations, ranges, and confidence intervals.

Table 6

D&DQ Scores: Mean (M), Standard Deviation (SD), Range, and

Confidence Intervals (CI)
___________________________________________________________

Questions (M) (SD) Range 95 % (CI)

___________________________________________________________

Variable 1 5.82 .62 2-6 5.65-5.99

Variable 2 3.9 1.11 1-6 3.59-4.21

Variable 3 5.32 .76 4-6 5.11-5.53

Variable 4 5.26 1.01 1-6 4.98-5.54

Variable 5 4.22 .78 1-6 4.00-4.44

Variable 6 4.34 .90 1-6 4.09-4.59

Variable 7 4.72 1.32 1-6 4.35-5.09

Variable 8 5.78 .54 3-6 5.63-5.93

Variable 9 4.2 1.11 1-6 3.89-4.51

Variable 10 4.74 .93 1-6 4.48-5.00

Total 4.83 .22 NA 4.58-5.08

 32

Chapter 5: Discussion

“We were all drawn to the game because it allowed us to

become these characters, vastly different in appearance and

in actions, but what kept us hooked was the search for the

character that represented our higher self. Playing D & D

was a training ground for our imaginations and an

opportunity to explore our own identities.”

Vin Diesel (2004, p.cover)

The results of this study have shown D & D to be a

dynamic, positive activity in many quadrants of psyche and

human experience. All Myers-Briggs personality types play

the game, with Introversion, Intuition, and Perception

being more numerous but not exclusive among the 50

participants tested. Participants in this study found D & D

to be a kind of psychological gateway towards exploring the

moral and philosophical dimensions of the mind, including

the role-playing of alter egos (Mean = 5.78) in the form of

game characters such as the dwarven fighter or elven

ranger.

The participants felt strongest (Mean = 5.82) that D &

D provides a way to exercise one’s strategic abilities as

the battle aspect of the game is highly structured with a

wide variety of actions for characters to take. Also the

 33

players answered (Mean = 5.26) that D & D had influenced

the formation and maintenance of friendships, providing a

format for people to form community. The participants

claimed (Mean = 5.32) that D & D had in fact increased the

strength and magnitude of their imagination.

The strong interest in spirituality was also indicated

by the participants as shown in their SPS results. The D&D

sample asserted that spirituality was not only a

significant part of their lives (Mean = 5.28), but also

that their spiritual views held an influence upon their

lives (Mean = 5.4) and were especially important in

answering many questions about the meaning of life (Mean =

5.26). Note that these SPS results do not indicate D&D

having any direct or indirect influence upon the

participants in regards to these spiritual matters, but the

results do demonstrate a possible correlation between

interest in D&D and interest in spirituality at the very

least.

In addition, the mean response of every other question

asked in both the SPS and D & D Questionnaire was above

3.0., suggesting a correlation between D & D and a person’s

personal growth in the areas questioned in the above

mentioned measurements.
 34

Theoretical Analysis of Dungeons & Dragons

Based on the results of this study, this researcher

has concluded that D & D provides a modality for many

people or at the very least, a way to exercise one’s

internal energies both mental and vital. D & D is a game

that exercises the imagination and so when one contemplates

the value of spending time playing this particular game,

one must correlate that value with the question of how much

one values the development of the imagination.

As a modality for exploring alter egos, even to the

point of achieving new knowledge of self, D & D’s high

degree of structure serves to facilitate a kind of “virtual

reality” where previously repressed shadow material rises

into the life of the character and the player encounters a

world that is different from our daily consensus reality,

but structured, complete with problems to solve and other

personalities to interact and contend with.

Through this exercise, the player is shown that overly

violent, reckless, or stupid characters will often die

quickly as D & D culture often demands from players a

certain level of applied intelligence in the form of

strategy. Therefore, previously raw unconscious shadow

material is brought up into consciousness and “embodied” in

the character which in turn creates a conscious

 35

relationship of ego and alter ego, reality and alter

reality that is synergized by the imagination and

intellect. D & D creates a more dynamic, platonic intimacy

between players over time due to the fact that D & D is a

collective game; therefore the shadow materials of an

average sized group, about 3 to 5 people, are interacting

together at one time.

Although D & D provides a way for the shadow of the

psyche to express itself, one would be guilty of

reductionism to conclude that the collective unconscious

was not also involved at the core of the D & D dynamic.

Nearly every mythological creature gathered from ancient

cultures throughout the world, from angel to devil, elf to

goblin, is represented in the Monster Manuals ready to be

encountered by the characters. One can also strengthen ego

consciousness, one’s primary personality as well by the

“creative imagination” aspect of the D & D game.

In terms of lucid dreaming, creative visualization,

shamanic journeys, and so forth. D & D is the waking

world’s version of a collective lucid dream in the sense

that the imagination is a subtle energy similar to dreaming

and both are born from the same center, the same Self deep

within each human being.

 36

Transpersonal Therapeutic Implications

Blackmon (1994) discovered that it was possible to

work with those client’s emotions that were expressed only

during sessions of D & D and afterward in therapy in the

form of the client’s storytelling. With astral projection,

the way of the warrior, the druid’s connection to nature,

the wizard’s mastery over the cosmos’s magical forces, the

monk’s attainment of the perfect Self, and countless other

archetypes, the D & D game offers to the psychoanalyst a

modality to facilitate a dynamic process of psychological

unfolding in the client. The game functions with greater

attention on a single client being the player while the

therapist acts as DM. In this scenario, a greater level of

sharing from the client can take place because of trust

issues being reduced to merely confiding shadow material to

the therapist instead of also sharing such content with a

larger group.

With that being said, it is also true, as discovered

by Zayas and Lewis (1986), that group process work can also

be attained through the use of D & D. The game is, after

all, designed for about 3 to 5 players. Positive emotions

such as self-confidence and a greater appreciation for

another’s value and abilities were uncovered by using D & D

as their modality for group process.

 37

In addition, D & D provides education in the areas of

mythology, religion, metaphysics, as well as how different

moral philosophies (alignments) both complement and compete

with each other. A client, who has been indoctrinated into

only a single culture, when encountering D & D, will be

introduced to the collective mythologies of the world, and

thus the collective unconscious as well. This kind of

education enhances the therapeutic experience by increasing

the client’s understanding of the collective unconscious

which will provide both healing and prevention of future

traumas.

Future Research

The personality studies of Abyeta and Forest (1991),

Rosenthal, Soper, Folse, and Whipple (1998), Simon (1987),

Carrol and Carolin (1989), and Carter and Lester (1998)

found little to no significant differences between D & D

players and control groups. Although the studies

collectively discounted many of the unsubstantiated claims

of religious fundamentalist groups and the media, they did

not uncover any of the mental or emotional traits actually

found in or enhanced by D & D. All of their methods

involved conventional questions of personality traits and

did not include the Transpersonal perspective.

 38

This study has uncovered new data about D & D

specifically because the Transpersonal was included. This

researcher recommends further study of D & D by

Transpersonal Psychologists utilizing qualitative research

methods, such as semi-structure interview, as the next

logical step in researching this topic given the high level

of collective agreement among the participants in this

study concerning D & D’s capacity to improve their

strategic abilities, formation and maintenance of

friendships, and imagination, as well as providing a

modality by which alter egos can be expressed. These themes

can be explored with greater detail and precision with

qualitative methods.
 39

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 43

Appendix A: Consent Form

To the participant in this research:

You are invited to participate in an exploratory study

into the personality, spirituality, and perspectives of

players of the fantasy role-playing game Dungeons and

Dragons.

The procedure will involve taking the Myers-Briggs

Personality Inventory, the Spiritual Perspective Scale, the

D & D Questionnaire, and the D & D Demographics survey.

This battery of questionnaires will require approximately

one-half hour to complete and will be done so in the

presence of the researcher. The procedure will take place

at a neutral site such as a bookstore, park, gaming store,

or other neutral site agreed upon by you and the

researcher.

For the protection of your privacy, all information

received from you will be kept confidential, and your

identity will be protected. The written materials

pertaining to this study will be kept in a locked file

cabinet to which only the researcher has access. Pseudonyms

will be used to identify you on all written documents. In

the reporting of information in published material, any

information that might identity you will be altered to

ensure anonymity.
 44

The potential benefits of participating in this study

are greater self-knowledge in terms of personality,

spirituality, and the influence of D & D on your person.

There are no anticipated physical or psychological

risks involved in this study; however, if at any time you

have any concerns or questions, I, the researcher will make

every effort to discuss them with you and inform you of

options for resolving your concerns.

If you have any questions or concerns, you may call

me, the researcher collect at 408-248-2402, or Chris Dryer

Ph.D., MBA, Dissertation Committee Chairperson, at 650-493-

4430 X249 or Olga Louchakova M.D., Ph.D., the head of the

Ethics Committee of the Institute of Transpersonal

Psychology, at 650-493-4430. The Institute of Transpersonal

Psychology assumes no responsibility for psychological or

physical injury resulting from this research.

Even if you decide to participate in this research,

you may withdraw your consent and discontinue your

participation at any time during the conduct of the study

and for any reason without penalty or prejudice. You may

request a summary of the research findings by providing

your mailing address with your signature.

 45

Participant’s Statement

My signature indicates my willingness to be a

participant in this research and attests to the following:

I attest that I have read and understood this form and the

researcher has explained the study to the participant and

answered his or her questions. My participation in this

research is entirely voluntary, and no pressure has been

applied to encourage my participation.

_______________________________________

Participant’s Printed Name

_______________________ _________

Participant's Signature Date

Mailing address (if you want a summary of the research

findings):

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________ __________

Researcher's Signature Date

David L. Wilson
4330 Hill Crest Drive
Hollywood, FL, 33021
Telephone: (954) 981-9428
Email: Sheosapa@aol.com
 46

APPENDIX B: Dungeons & Dragons Demographics

1. Number of years playing D & D _____________________

2. Average amount of D & D hours per month ________________

3. Age _________________

4. Ethnicity __________________

5. Gender ____________________

6. Highest level of education ________________________

 47

Appendix C: The Spiritual Perspective Scale

Circle Your Response

1. How often do your share with others the problems and

joys of living according to your spiritual beliefs?

Strongly Disagree /Disagree /Neutral /Agree /Strongly Agree

2. How often do you read spiritually related material?

Strongly Disagree /Disagree /Neutral /Agree /Strongly Agree

3. How often do you engage in private prayer or

meditation?

Strongly Disagree /Disagree /Neutral /Agree /Strongly Agree

4. Forgiveness is an important part of my spirituality.

Strongly Disagree /Disagree /Neutral /Agree /Strongly Agree

5. I seek spiritual guidance in making decisions in my

everyday life.

Strongly Disagree /Disagree /Neutral /Agree /Strongly Agree

6. My spirituality is a significant part of my life.

Strongly Disagree /Disagree /Neutral /Agree /Strongly Agree

7. I frequently feel very close to God or a “higher

power” in prayer, during public worship, or at
important moments in my daily life.
 48

Strongly Disagree /Disagree /Neutral /Agree /Strongly Agree

9. My spiritual views have had an influence upon my life.

Strongly Disagree /Disagree /Neutral /Agree /Strongly Agree

10. My spirituality is especially important to me because

it answers many questions about the meaning of life.

Strongly Disagree /Disagree /Neutral /Agree /Strongly Agree

 49

Appendix D: Dungeons & Dragons Questionnaire

Circle Your Response

1) My experiences playing D & D have had a positive

influence on my strategic abilities.

Strongly Disagree /Disagree /Neutral /Agree /Strongly Agree

2) My experiences playing D & D have increased my

interest in paranormal realities like lucid dreaming

and astral projection.

Strongly Disagree /Disagree /Neutral /Agree /Strongly Agree

3) My experiences playing D & D have increased the

magnitude of my imagination.

Strongly Disagree /Disagree /Neutral /Agree /Strongly Agree

4) The time I’ve spent playing D & D has influenced the

formation and maintenance of my friendships.

Strongly Disagree /Disagree /Neutral /Agree /Strongly Agree

5) My experiences playing D & D have had a positive

impact on my emotional health.

Strongly Disagree /Disagree /Neutral /Agree /Strongly Agree

 50

6) My experiences playing D & D have increased my

interests in philosophy.

Strongly Disagree /Disagree /Neutral /Agree /Strongly Agree

7) My experiences playing D & D have increased my

interests in mythology.

Strongly Disagree /Disagree /Neutral /Agree /Strongly Agree

8) D & D provides an environment in which I am free to

explore and role-play my alter egos.

Strongly Disagree /Disagree /Neutral /Agree /Strongly Agree

9) My experiences playing D & D have inspired me to make

changes in my daily life.

Strongly Disagree /Disagree /Neutral /Agree /Strongly Agree

10) My experiences playing D & D have influenced my

spiritual life.

Strongly Disagree /Disagree /Neutral /Agree /Strongly Agree

 51

Appendix E: Recruitment Flyer

Dungeons & Dragons PLAYERS NEEDED

What for?

An Exploratory Study on the players of D & D

What participants are needed?

Active D & D players of at least 21 years of age

What is the time requirement if I participate?

Less than one hour

Who is doing the study?

David Wilson – Ph.D. Candidate

Your participation would be greatly appreciated. If you are

interested,

Please call me at (954) 981-9428

Or mail me at sheosapa@aol.com