EAT 112 GEOMATIC

ENGINEERING

TOPIC:
LEVELING

Dr. Nor Wahidatul Azura binti Zainon Najib

Lecturer
PPK Alam Sekitar
 LEVELING SYLABUS

• DESCRIBE purpose and need doing leveling

• EXPLAIN terms in leveling
• DESCRIBE recording method in doing leveling
✓Rise and Fall
✓Height of Collimation
 INTRODUCTION
• Leveling is the process of determining the
elevation of points on, above or below the surface
of the earth.
• For planning purposes they are used:
✓to provide the information needed to develop the
maps, charts and drawings necessary to layout
buildings, roads, drains.
• Layout used to establish the boundaries lines,
elevation for the construction of those structures.
 What is “Leveling”
• Leveling is the process by which differences in
height between two or more points can be
determined.
• Its purpose may be:
✓to provide heights or contours on a plan,
✓to provide data for road cross-sections or volumes
of earthworks, or
✓to provide a level or inclined surface in the setting
out of construction works
• Areas of Application:
✓Design of highways, railroads, canals, etc.
✓Layout construction projects according to specific
design
✓Calculate earthwork volumes
✓Investigate drainage characteristics
✓Develop maps showing general ground
configurations
✓Monitor earth subsidence
 LEVELING
• Leveling is the operation required in the
determination or, more strickly, the comparison
of heights of point on the surface of the earth.
• The qualification is necessary, because the height
of one point can be given only relative to another
point or place.
• If a whole series of heights is given relative to a
plane, this plane is called datum.
 LEVELING TERMS
• Datum
• Bench Mark (BM)
• Back sight (BS)
• Height of Instrument (HI)
• Foresight (FS)
• Intermediate Sight (IS)
• Turning Point (TP)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XAAbVXujZo4
(BS, IS and FS in Land Survey)
 DATUM
• Datum - This is an arbitrary level surface to
which the heights of all points are referred.
• The most common surveying datum is mean sea-level (MSL)
• but as hydrological work is usually just
concerned with levels in a local area, we often
use:
• An assumed datum, which is established by giving a
benchmark an assumed value (e.g. 100.000m) to which
all levels in the local area will be reduced.
 BENCH MARK (BM)
• An object whose elevation above mean sea level is known
or assumed to be known
• A bench mark must be an object that is dimensionally
stable because it is reference point for all of the
elevations for a survey
• If the bench mark elevation is accidentally changed, all
surveys that used it must be redone.
• In many situations it is not necessary to know the exact
elevation above sea level. For such surveys, a local
benchmark is used.
 CONT
• Frequently, this bench mark is given the elevation of 100.00 m.
• When using a local bench mark, the survey crew must select
and establish its location.
• Two rules should be followed. The object selected should:
✓ Be reasonably permanent for as long as it will be needed and not
easily moved or otherwise destroyed
✓ Be capable of being described in such a way that it can be easily
relocated
• A typical local bench mark might be and ‘X’ chipped in a
concrete curb or a bridge abutment, an iron pin driven firmly
into the ground, or the rime of an electrical or sewer access
holes.
 BACKSIGHT (BS)
• A rod reading taken on a point of known or assumed
elevation
• It is the vertical distance between the line of sight
through the instrument and the point of known or
assumed elevation on which the rod is set.
• The back sight reading is used to establish height of the
instrument
• A back sight will always be taken on a bench mark or
turning point.
• It is important to remember that there is only one back
sight for each setup of the instrument.
 HEIGHT OF INSTRUMENT (HI)

• HI is the elevation of the line of sight through the

instrument when it is mounted on a tripod and leveled
• It is found by adding the back sight reading to the
elevation of the point on which the back sight was taken.
• BM + BS = HI
 FORESIGHT (FS)
• A rod reading taken on any point of unknown elevation
• In differential leveling, there is only one foresight for
each instrument setup, whereas profile leveling may
have several foresights per instrument setup
• The FS is subtracted from the HI to find the elevation of
unknown point.
• HI – FS= elevation
 INTERMEDIATE SIGHT (IS)

• Is a rod reading taken at any other point where elevation

is required.
• HI – IS = elevation
 TURNING POINT (TP)
• A temporary bench mark that is used to extend survey a
greater distance
• They are used any time it is necessary to move the
instrument.
• Whenever the instrument is moved to a different
location a back sight is taken on a TP to establish the
new instrument height
• Turning points are usually used wherever the starting
station and ending station can not be seen from one
instrument position
 CONT

• The structure used for a turning point should be

dimensionally stable just like a bench mark
• A stake or permanent structure such as a curb must be
used.
• Do not set rod on the ground when making a turning
point; doing so could result in a serious error.
LEVELING CREW AT WORK
 LEVELING PRINCIPLE

• Height of A above datum is; 1.500 – 0.750 = 0.750 m

• Height of C above datum is ; 1.500 – 1.050 = 0.450m
 DATUM
• Datum is a standard position or level that measurements are
taken from.
 LEVELING INSTRUMENT

• The basic equipment

required in levelling is :
✓A device that gives
a truly horizontal
line
✓A suitably
graduated staff for
reading vertical
 SETTING UP A LEVEL
• The safest way to transport a leveling instrument in a
vehicle is to leave it in the container.
• A level should be removed from its container by lifting
from the base, not by grasping the telescope.
• The head must be screwed snugly on the tripod. If the
head too lose, the instument is unstable, if too tight, it
may “freeze”.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j8poe2vvD2Q
(Introduction to leveling)
 PRINCIPLE OF LEVELING

• The level is an optical instrument that provides a height reference.

This reference is a horizontal plane through the axis of the
telescope, known as the "Height of Collimation".
• Once the height of collimation (or instrument height) has been
measured the height of other stations can be found by measuring
from this plane with a staff.
• The height of collimation is found by taking a backsight to a staff
placed on a bench mark. The staff reading is added to the bench
mark value to obtain the height of collimation.
 CONT
• Once the height of
collimation has been
found ground height at
any spot below this
plane can be found by
observing the staff and
subtracting the staff
reading from the height
of collimation.
 SETTING UP THE TRIPOD
• Each leg of a tripod is adjustable for
length. The legs are locked by a lever
clamp (left) or screw (right).
• Set tripod in position - if the ground is
sloping place two legs on the down hill
side
 CONT

• Firmly press the two tripod feet on

the down hill side into the ground
using your own foot on the
tripod's foot plate. (This will tilt
the head)
• Fine adjustments can be made by
changing the length of each leg.
• Make sure that the clamp or
locking screw is tight when
finished.
ATTACHING THE INSTRUMENT
LEVEL
 CONT

• Spherical level is a bubble spirit level attached to the

tribrach and referenced to the axis of the telescope.
• In use the bubble must be within the circle for the
instrument to give a horizontal sight line
• The eye piece is adjustable and should be set for each
observer to bring the cross hairs in to sharp focus.
ADJUSTING THE LEVELING HEAD

• Align the telescope parallel to two foot screws.

• Facing the instrument rotate both foot screws in
opposite directions at the same time. Either thumbs
moving inwards or thumbs moving outwards.
• The bubble moves in the direction of the left thumb.
• The bubble will probably be against the side of the
circular spirit level, and needs moving in to the centre.
 CONT

• The first two screws are level so they must not be

touched.
• Using the left hand adjust the third levelling screw to
centre the bubble. Again the bubble will move in the
same direction as the left thumb.
• As a check rotate the instrument through 90°. If
necessary re-level the original two foot screws and repeat
the rotation to check the third one.
 STAFF

• Two "E" pattern staffs, note slight differences in the

marking and numbers.
• The "E" pattern is designed to make it easy to read a
small section of the scale when seen through a
telescope
 CONT
• Usually the length of staff is 3m, 4m or 5m while
the width is not less than 38mm.
• Measurements are in metres and cm (10mm
blocks) which enable heights to be estimated to 1
mm.
• Different colours are used to differentiate each
metre length, the most common being black and
red on a white background.
• Each observer will need to focus the reticule to
allow for their own eye.
 CONT

• Failure to do so will
cause parallax,
where a small
movement of the
eye's position will
cause the
horizontal lines to
give a different
staff reading.
 CONT
• With the eye piece focused you will see a vertical and a
horizontal line dividing the field of view.
• The middle horizontal line marks the horizontal plane
through the telescope (height of collimation) and is the
reference for all height readings.
• There may also be two short stadia lines. Stadia are
used for measuring the distance to the staff by
multiplying the difference between the two stadia
readings by a constant (usually 100).
 CONT
• Check that the spirit level bubble is within the central
portion of the scale before reading the staff.

• In this view the staff

reading is = _____
• Upper stadia = ____
Lower stadia = ____
Stadia difference = _____
• Distance to staff = _____
 CHECK THE STAFF

• It is essential that readings are taken when the staff is

vertical.
• Some staffs are fitted with a spherical spirit level and
handles to help the staff person keep it vertical.
• Even with a spirit level it is difficult to hold a staff
vertical. This difficulty increases in wind.
• To read the staff when
vertical the surveyor use
the vertical reticule line to
direct the staff person to
move the top of the staff
left or right of the sight
line.
• The staff person then
slowly tilts the top of the
staff towards and away
from the instrument so
that it will pass through
the vertical. The staff will
appear to move up and
down in the telescope
field. The lowest reading is
recorded as this is the
point at which the staff is
vertical.
 LEVELING ERRORS
• There are a large number of potential sources of errors in
leveling. Many of these are only significant for precise
leveling over long distances.
• Collimation Error
• Error due to Earth Curvature
• Error due to Parallax Error
• Error due to Refraction
 Collimation Error
• Collimation error occurs when the collimation axis is not truly
horizontal when the instrument is level.
• The effect of collimation error is illustrated in the sketch below,
where the collimation axis is tilted with respect to the horizontal by
an angle a.
 Correction of Collimation Error
• Conduct two peg test
• Purpose:
✓ To determine collimation error of a level instrument.
✓ to check the line of sight through the level is horizontal (parallel
to the axis of the bubble tube)

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OvZNDjEL7rU
(Two peg test)
 Curvature of the Earth
• Due to the curvature of the Earth, the line of sight at the
instrument will deviate from a horizontal line as one
moves away from the level
 Correction of Curvature Error
• For a sight length of 100m the effect is only 1mm.
• Keep sight lengths under 50m
• The effect is eliminated by using equal sight lengths for
fore- and back-sights.
 Parallax Error

• When using an optical instrument — both the image and cross hairs can
be focused- if either is imprecisely focused, the cross hairs will appear to
move with respect to the object focused, if one moves one's head
horizontally in front of the eyepiece.
Parallax Error
 Correction of Parallax Error

1. Adjust Focus of lens to infinity

2. Focus of Cross Hairs to a sharp setting
Note every users parallax focus is different
3. Refocus on Target and check for parallax
 Refraction
• The variable density
of the Earth's
atmosphere causes a
bending of the ray
from the staff to the
level.
• May also be caused
by heat emitted by
plant
• May be caused by
heat haze
 DIFFERENTIAL LEVELLING
• The procedure for differential levelling is as follows:
1. Set up the instrument.
2. Take the BS reading on BM1.
3. Establish the TP, and take the FS reading.
4. Move the instrument, and set up again.
5. Take the BS on the TP.
6. Establish the next TP, and take the FS reading.
7. Move the instrument, and set up again.
8. Repeat steps 5 to 7 until a foresight is taken on the last
station.
3d animation surveying for levelling

CONT

• The process of taking a plus sight, followed by minus

sight, is repeated over and over until the curcuit is
completed.
• Running closed curcuits can be made either by
returning to the starting bench mark, or by ending the
curcuit at any other bench mark.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_SiSn_tcXZA (3D
animation surveying for levelling)
 CONT
• If a closure is made by returning to the initial bench
mark, then the final elevation should agree with the
starting elevation.
• The amount by which they differ is the loop
misclosure.
• If closure is made to another bench mark, the section
misclosure is the difference between the closing
bench mark’s given elevation and its elevation
obtained after leveling through the section.
 MISCLOSURES
• Recommendeds the following formula to compute allowable misclosures:-
• 1st Class survey
• C = 4 x √K
• 2nd Class survey
• C = 8.4 x √K
• 3rd Class survey
• C = 12 x √K
• Geodetic levelling
• C = 2 x √K
• Engineering purposes
• C = 6 x √K
• Where C is a allowable loop or section misclosure, in mm; and K is the total length
leveled, in km
 EXAMPLE
• The misclosure is +30 mm

• The length of the loop is 0.7 km

• The misclosure limit is…

✓ 12(0.7) = ±10 mm
✓ The misclosure of +30 mm is too big
✓ The loop must be repeated (or find the error)
 EXAMPLE
• Differential leveling theory and applications can thus be
expressed by two equations, which are repeated over and
over,
HI = elev +BS
Elev = HI – FS

• The procedure for differential levelling will be described

using this type of circuit, illustrated schematically .
ANSWER
 PRECISION

• Precision in leveling is increased by:

✓Repeating measurement,
✓Making frequenties to established bench marks,
✓Using high quality equipment,
✓Keeping it in good adjustment, and
✓Performing the measurements carefully
 ERROR CONTROL
• In surveying, it is important to control as many errors as
possible.
• For differential levelling surveys three error checks should
be completed:
1) close the loop,
2) note check, and
3) calculation of the allowable error of closure.

1) Close the loop: The survey is closed to provide the

information for the other two checks.
 CONT
2) Note check: conducted to catch any mathematical
errors in the notes.
• For checking notes, the absolute value of the sum of
the foresights minus the absolute value of the sum of
the backsights, should equal the absolute value of the
difference (Δ) in elevation for BM1 (beginning and
closure elevation).
• Expressed mathematically:
|FS − BS| = | Elevation BM1|
 PROFILE LEVELING

• Profile leveling is used to establish changes in elevation

along a line.
• Common lines requiring surveying are drains, roads,
fences, and retaining walls.
• When this information is plotted on a graph, it will give a
profile of the line and will enable one to establish grades,
find high or low spots, and make estimates of depths of
cuts and many other decisions
 CONT
• Before a profile can be made, the surveying crew
establishes the stations by setting a stake or flag where
the rod readings are to be taken.
• The stakes can be set a fixed distance apart (5, 10, or 20
m), depending upon the irregularity of the ground and
the amount of detail required.
• When the terrain is not uniform, or when there are
addition stations that need to be recorded, such as a
sidewalk, the survey crew reconnoitres the line and
establishes a station at each important point.
 CONT
• Because the purpose of the profile is to show the true
slope of the ground, the irregularity of the terrain will
largely determine where the stations should be
established.
• The major difference between profile and differential
surveying is the addition of additional foresights that are
used to define the profile of the terrain.
• These additional foresights are called intermediate
foresights and they are treated differently during the
error checks on the notes.
 ERROR CONTROL

• Because profile leveling notes usually have more

foresights than backsights, the method of checking for
arithmetic mistakes is slightly different from that for
differential levelling.
• The only foresights to be included when calculating
the sum of the foresights (FS) are those taken on
turning points, including bench marks if they were
used as TPs.
 USING PROFILE DATA
• The results of profile levelling surveys are most
useful when they are plotted in a graph.
• The principal purposes for plotting a profile are:
✓to aid in the selection of the most economical
grade, location, and depth of irrigation canals,
drainage ditches, drain tile lines, sewer lines,
roads, etc.; and
✓to determine the amount of cut or fill required
for these installations.
 TWO METHOD OF RECORDING
• RISE AND FALL
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QvSr8jQ8UYQ&t=19s

• HEIGHT OF COLLIMATION
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6ujrkL59uFU&t=312s
 Level Circuit Adjustment
• Level Circuits can be adjusted based on the lengths of
lines leveled or the number of setups between
benchmarks.
 TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING
• Can be used where it is not feasible to use a level, or as an
alternative to levelling.
• For example, a survey crew running a profile levelling for
a route survey comes to a point where the levelling runs
off a cliff. In that case, a theodolite can be set up on the
levelling with the angle and distance measured to a
levelling station at the lower elevation.
 Trigonometric Leveling Procedure
• The elevation
between A and B
can be determined
if the vertical angle
(α) and slope
distance (S) are
measured.
• α is determined by
theodolite,
• S is measured by
steel tape or rod.
 Cont..
If S and the vertical angle are determined:

V = S sin 
Elevation at A + hi ± V – r = Elevation at B
where:
hi is a distance from point A up to optical center of the theodolite
r is rod reading at B when the vertical angle is read

These equations are applicable when shots are taken at less than 1000
feet. For shots longer than 1000 feet, the effects of curvature and
refraction must be taken into account.
 Reducing Errors
• Check that bubble is centered for EVERY rod
reading.
• Keep the rod plumb during each reading.
• Establish equal BS and FS reading distances.
• Equal reading distances will cancel out any error
caused by the line of sight not being parallel with the
axis of the bubble tube.
• This is not always possible due to terrain.
 Common Errors

• Faulty rod reading (verify reading)

• Rod not fully extended (high reading)
• Tripod movement during reading
• Confusion between recording BS and FS entries in the
field book
 Upon finish the syllabus students
are able to:

• DESCRIBE purpose and need doing leveling

• EXPLAIN terms in leveling
• DESCRIBE method in doing leveling
• SUMMARISE leveling data in varies format
THANK YOU