LABORATORY 2 (A): INCLINED BEDDING – FOLD

1.0 INTRODUCTION

A geological map is one, which shows in the first place, the occurrence and distribution
of the rocks at the surface of the ground. Conventional sign may show certain facts of
observation about them. The geological map allows the geological structure of the
country to be inferred.

Beds of rocks are bounded by bedding surfaces, which may be horizontal, tilted or bent
in any form or direction. A series of beds which have been laid down regularly one on
the other, and which may be treated as a whole, form a conformable series. It follows
that the lower beds are the older. In such a series of bedding surfaces are parallel. Each
bedding surface is usually common to two beds of rock, being the top of one and the
bottom of the one next above. In the simplest case, these surfaces are planes: bedding
planes.

2.0 OBJECTIVE
To plot ground profile and rock formations from geological map – inclined beddings.
3.0 EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

1. Geological Map (Map 7 – Appendix B)

2. Graph paper/drawing paper - A4 size
3. Ruler
4. Pencils
5. Colour pencils (optional)

4.0 PROCEDURE

1. Plot the cross-section with the horizontal and vertical scales accordingly to the scale
of the geological map on a piece of graph paper or blank sheet. Refer Figure 1.1.
The vertical scale is normally exaggerated to improve visibility of the profile.
2. Draw a line to join the line of cross-section on the map, says A - B.
3. Using a blank piece of paper, mark the points of intersection accordingly between
the lines with the contours respective to its heights.
4. Transfer the points to the cross-section profile respective to the heights of the
contours.
5. Join the points to form the profile of the ground elevation.
5.0 RESULT AND ANALYSIS

Rock Dip Strike Dip Angle

Boundary Direction

CB 700

CB 90° 0°
∆𝐻 CB 600

𝜃 ∆𝐻 = 700 − 600 = 100

100
𝑇𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
180
𝜽 = 𝟐𝟗°

BA 700

BA 90° 0°
∆𝐻 BA 600

𝜃 ∆𝐻 = 700 − 600 = 100

100
𝑇𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
180
𝜽 = 𝟐𝟗°

AB 400

AB 270° 180°
∆𝐻 AB 500

𝜃 ∆𝐻 = 500 − 400 = 100

100
𝑇𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
160
𝜽 = 𝟑𝟐°

BC 400

BC 270° 180°
∆𝐻 BC 500

𝜃 ∆𝐻 = 500 − 400 = 100

100
𝑇𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
200
𝜽 = 𝟐𝟕°
 CB 400

CB 90° 0°
∆𝐻 CB 300

𝜃 ∆𝐻 = 400 − 300 = 100

100
𝑇𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
180
𝜽 = 𝟐𝟗°

Table 1: 2a) Declined Bedding – Fold

6.0 QUESTION AND DISCUSSION

1) Explain types of fold (with the aid of diagram) and discuss how this structure
occurred.

Ductile rocks behave plastically and become folded in response to stress. Even in the
shallow crust where rocks are cool and relatively brittle, folding can occur if the stress
is slow and steady and gives the rock enough time to gradually bend. If the stress is
applied too quickly, rocks in the shallow crust will behave as brittle solids and break.
Deeper in the crust, where the rocks are more ductile, folding happens more readily,
even when the stress and strain occurs rapidly. There are different types of folds
created by compressional stress depending on which way the rock bends.
1. Anticline: a fold that is convex up and has its oldest beds at its core. The term is
not to be confused with antiform, which is a purely descriptive term for any fold
that is convex up. Therefore if age relationships between various strata are
unknown, the term antiform should be used.

2. Syncline: a fold that sinks down as both sides of the rock are pushed inward and
with younger layers closer to the center of the structure. A synclinorium (plural
synclinoriums or synclinoria) is a large syncline with superimposed smaller folds.
Synclines are typically a downward fold, termed a synformal syncline (i.e. a
trough); but synclines that point upwards, or perched, can be found when strata
have been overturned and folded (an antiformal syncline).
3. Monocline: a fold where the rock layers form an S-shape as the sides of the rock
are compressed. You can remember this type of fold because all the layers of rock
are still horizontal, going in one direction instead of bending vertically upward or
downward like anticlines and synclines. And since 'mono' means 'one,' monoclines
are layers in only 'one direction.'
7.0 CONCLUSION

Base on the experiment that we’ve been analyse, we found that there is four categories of
faults such monocline, anticline, syncline, overturned anticline and syncline. When the folds
are formed by the earth quack, since happened thousand or maybe million years ago, there
were different types of rock in the folds and it will cause the site is not in the stable condition.
Therefore when there structure on the visit it will be easy facing settlement and it will be
collapse when the settlement is high. Not all faults intersect the surface, object maybe offset
or the ground maybe cracked, or raised or lowered. We call it a rupture of the surface by
faults or ‘faults scraps’ and identifying scraps as is importing task for assessing the seismic
hazard in any region.

When the folds are formed from tectonic plate movement which happened thousand or
maybe million years ago, there were different types of rock in the layer of folds and it will
cause the site which not in the stable condition. Just as thrusts faults are clearly influenced by
the mechanical properties of different rock-types, so are folds. It is because every layer of the
rocks has different strength properties. It's common in fold to find that sandstone and
limestone layers maintain their thickness when traced through folds, whereas shale’s and
evaporates are strongly thickened in fold hinges. Therefore when there structure built in folds
area, it will face settlement and maybe collapse when the settlement is high or maybe when
the plate moving.

8.0 REFERENCES

1. McLeish, Andrew, (1978), ’Geology’, London: Blacki.

2. Duggal, S. K. (2014), ‘Engineering geology’.
3. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geology/chapter/reading-folds-anticlines/
4. https://study.com/academy/lesson/geological-folds-definition-causes-types.html
 LABORATORY 2 (B): FAULT BEDDING

1.0 INTRODUCTION

A geological map is one, which shows in the first place, the occurrence and distribution
of the rocks at the surface of the ground. Conventional sign may show certain facts of
observation about them. The geological map allows the geological structure of the
country to be inferred.

Beds of rocks are bounded by bedding surfaces, which may be horizontal, tilted or bent
in any form or direction. A series of beds which have been laid down regularly one on
the other, and which may be treated as a whole, form a conformable series. It follows
that the lower beds are the older. In such a series of bedding surfaces are parallel. Each
bedding surface is usually common to two beds of rock, being the top of one and the
bottom of the one next above. In the simplest case, these surfaces are planes: bedding
planes.

2.0 OBJECTIVE
To plot ground profile and rock formations from geological map – faulted bedding.
3.0 EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

1. Geological Map ( Map 14 – Appendix C )

2. Graph paper/drawing paper - A4 size
3. Ruler
4. Pencils
5. Colour pencils (optional)

4.0 PROCEDURE

1. Students should learn to familiarize and observe the samples according by doing few
physical tests and tabulate the results from the observation in the Table 1.1 attached
for:

2. Plot the cross-section with the horizontal and vertical scales accordingly to the scale
of the geological map on a piece of graph paper or blank sheet. Refer Figure 1.1. The
vertical scale is normally exaggerated to improve visibility of the profile.

3. Draw a line to join the line of cross-section on the map, says A - B.

4. Using a blank piece of paper, mark the points of intersection accordingly between the
lines with the contours respective to its heights.

5. Transfer the points to the cross-section profile respective to the heights of the
contours.

6. Join the points to form the profile of the ground elevation.

5.0 RESULT AND ANALYSIS

Rock Dip Strike Dip angle

Boundary Direction

AB 300

AB 188° 98°
∆𝐻 AB 200

𝜃 ∆𝐻 = 300 − 200 = 100

100
𝑇𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
240
𝜽 = 𝟐𝟑°

BCD 400

BCD 188° 98°

∆𝐻 BCD 300

𝜃 ∆𝐻 = 400 − 300 = 100

100
𝑇𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
260
𝜽 = 𝟐𝟏°

F 500

F 188° 98°
∆𝐻 F 400

𝜃 ∆𝐻 = 500 − 400 = 100

100
𝑇𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
60
𝜽 = 𝟓𝟗°

B’C’D 700

B’C’D’ 188° 98°

∆𝐻 B’C’D 600

𝜃 ∆𝐻 = 700 − 600 = 100

100
𝑇𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
220
𝜽 = 𝟐𝟒°

Table 2: 2b) Fault Bedding

6.0 QUESTION AND DISCUSSION

Explain types of fault (with the aid of diagram) and discuss how this structure
occurred

There are three common types of fault:

1. Normal faulting occurs when the crust is being pulled apart in which the overlying
(hanging-wall) block moves down with respect to the lower (foot wall) block.
2. Reverse faulting occurs when the crust is being compressed in which the hanging-wall
block moves up and over the footwall block – reverse slip on a gently inclined plane
is referred to as thrust faulting.
3. Strike-slip faults occur caused by horizontal compression, but they release their
energy by rock displacement in a horizontal direction almost parallel to the
compressional force. The fault plane is essentially vertical, and the relative slip is
lateral the plane. These faults are widespread. Many are found at the boundary
between obliquely converging oceanic and continental tectonic plates.
7.0 CONCLUSION

As a conclusion, by referring to the map given and plotted for cross section profile it is
found that the faults occur in the map are reverse faults which is being compressed in which
the hanging-wall block moves up and over the footwall block – reverse slip on a gently
inclined plane is referred to as thrust faulting. This movement may occur rapidly, in the form
of an earthquake - or may occur slowly, in the form of creep.

Faults may range in length from a few millimetres to thousands of kilometres. Most
faults produce repeated displacements over geologic time. During an earthquake, the rock on
one side of the fault suddenly slips with respect to the other. The fault surface can be
horizontal or vertical or some arbitrary angle in between.

8.0 REFERENCES

1. McLeish, Andrew, (1978), ’Geology’, London: Blacki.

2. Duggal, S. K. (2014), ‘Engineering geology’.
3. https://edoc.site/report-lab-2b-fault-bedding-lab-2b--pdf-free.html
4. https://www.scribd.com/doc/145906662/Geological-Mapping