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DC MOTOR

Introduction

A DC motor is an electric motor that runs on direct current (DC) electricity and it also the
simplest motor that can be found. The basic system of the DC motor is to convert the electric
energy into mechanical energy.

It was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821. It is a free-hanging

wire was dipped into a pool of mercury on the permanent magnet. When a current was passed
through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a
close circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in school
physics classes, but brine (salt water) is sometimes used in place of the toxic mercury. This is
the simplest form of a class of devices called homopolar motors. A later refinement is the
Barlow’s Wheel. These were demonstration devices only, unsuited to practical applications
due to their primitive construction.

Figure 1 : Jedlik's "electromagnetic self-rotor"

History

At the most basic level, electric motors exist to convert electrical energy into mechanical
energy. This is done by way of two interacting magnetic fields -- one stationary, and another
attached to a part that can move. A number of types of electric motors exist, but most
BEAMbots use DC motors1 in some form or another. DC motors have the potential for very
high torque capabilities (although this is generally a function of the physical size of the
motor), are easy to miniaturize, and can be "throttled" via adjusting their supply voltage. DC
motors are also not only the simplest, but the oldest electric motors.

The basic principles of electromagnetic induction were discovered in the early 1800's by
Oersted, Gauss, and Faraday. By 1820, Hans Christian Oersted and Andre Marie Ampere had
discovered that an electric current produces a magnetic field. The next 15 years saw a flurry
of cross-Atlantic experimentation and innovation, leading finally to a simple DC rotary
motor. A number of men were involved in the work, so proper credit for the first DC motor is
really a function of just how broadly you choose to define the word "motor."

Michael Faraday (U.K.)

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Fabled experimenter Michael Faraday decided to confirm or refute a number of

speculations surrounding Oersted's and Ampere's results. Faraday set to work devising
an experiment to demonstrate whether or not a current-carrying wire produced a circular
magnetic field around it, and in October of 1821 succeeded in demonstrating this.

Faraday took a dish of mercury and placed a fixed magnet in the middle; above this, he
dangled a freely moving wire (the free end of the wire was long enough to dip into the
mercury). When he connected a battery to form a circuit, the current-carrying wire
circled around the magnet. Faraday then reversed the setup, this time with a fixed wire
and a dangling magnet -- again the free part circled around the fixed part. This was the
first demonstration of the conversion of electrical energy into motion, and as a result,
Faraday is often credited with the invention of the electric motor. Bear in mind, though,
that Faraday's electric motor is really just a lab demonstration, as you can't harness it for
useful work.

Also note that if you plan on repeating this experiment yourself, you should use salt
water (or some similar nontoxic but conductive liquid) for the fluid, rather than mercury.
Mercury can be very hazardous to your health, and requires stringent precautions on its
use. The BBC has instructions on building just such a device using salt water here.
Joseph Henry (U.S.)

It took ten years, but by the summer of 1831 Joseph Henry had improved on Faraday's
experimental motor. Henry built a simple device whose moving part was a straight
electromagnet rocking on a horizontal axis. Its polarity was reversed automatically by
its motion as pairs of wires projecting from its ends made connections alternately with
two electrochemical cells. Two vertical permanent magnets alternately attracted and
repelled the ends of the electromagnet, making it rock back and forth at 75 cycles per
minute.

Henry considered his little machine to be merely a "philosophical toy," but nevertheless
believed it was important as the first demonstration of continuous motion produced by
magnetic attraction and repulsion. While being more mechanically useful than
Faraday's motor, and being the first real use of electromagnets in a motor, it was still by
and large a lab experiment.

For pictures of Henry's motor, as well as more information on his further explorations,
check out the Smithsonian Institution's write-up on him (part of the Joseph Henry
Papers Project) here.
William Sturgeon (U.K.)

Just a year after Henry's motor was demonstrated, William Sturgeon invented the
commutator, and with it the first rotary electric motor -- in many ways a rotary
analogue of Henry's oscillating motor. Sturgeon's motor, while still simple, was the first
to provide continuous rotary motion and contained essentially all the elements of a
modern DC motor. Note that Sturgeon used horseshoe electromagnets to produce both
the moving and stationary magnetic fields (to be specific, he built a shunt wound DC
motor).

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The BBC has a good set of instructions on building a replica of this motor here.

Many later experimenters contributed a number of further refinements; let's skip forward in
time to see just how a modern DC motor works...

Figure 2: Michael Faraday’s theory Figure 3:Joseph Henry’s Theory Figure 4:William Sturgeon Theory

How it is work?

A DC motor requires at least one electromagnet. This electromagnet switches the current
flow as the motor turns, changing its polarity to keep the motor running. The other magnet or
magnets can either be permanent magnets or other electromagnets. This is accomplished by
forcing current through a coil and producing a magnetic field that spins the motor. The
simplest DC motor is a single coil apparatus, used here to discuss the DC motor theory. The
process can be explained in further detail by observin

g the
diagram below.

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Figure 5 : The diagram of rotation in DC motor

In this diagram, the voltage source forces voltage through the coil via sliding contacts or
brushes that are connected to the DC source. These brushes are found on the end of the coil
wires and make a temporary electrical connection with the voltage source. In this motor, the
brushes will make a connection every 180 degrees and current will then flow through the coil
wires.

In the 0 degrees diagram, the brushes are in contact with the voltage source and current is
flowing. The current that flows through wire segment C-D interacts with the magnetic field
that is present and the result is an upward force on the segment. The current that flows
through segment A-B has the same interaction, but the force is in the downward direction.
Both forces are of equal magnitude, but in opposing directions since the direction of current
flow in the segments is reversed with respect to the magnetic field. In the 180 degrees
diagram, the same phenomenon occurs, but segment A-B is forced up and C-D is forced
down. In the 90 and 270-degree diagrams, the brushes are not in contact with the voltage
source and no force is produced. In these two positions, the rotational kinetic energy of the
motor keeps it spinning until the brushes regain contact.

In the DC motor, it also has a weakness. The rotation or the energy is not constant until it
been complete in one rotation with more magnets. It like when the one drawback to the motor
shown in the diagram is the large amount of torque ripple that it has.

The reason for this excessive ripple is because of the fact that the coil has a force pushing on
it only at the 90 and 270 degree positions. The rest of the time the coil spins on its own and
the torque drops to zero. The torque curve produced by this single coil DC motor is
represented in Figure 3 below. As more coils are added to the motor, the torque curve is
smoothed out as seen in Figure 4, the diagram of the torque curve for a two-coil DC motor.

Figure 6 : The diagram of the torque curve for a single coil DC motor.

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In the diagram below, the resulting torque curve never reaches the zero point and the average
torque for the motor is greatly increased. As more and more coils are added, the torque curve
approaches a straight line and has very little torque ripple and the motor runs much more
smoothly. Another method of increasing the torque and rotational speed of the motor is to
increase the current supplied to the coils. This is accomplished by increasing the voltage that
is sent to the motor, thus increasing the current at the same time.

Figure 7 : The diagram of the torque curve for two-coil Dc motor

Type of DC motor

A DC motor is designed to run on DC electric power. Two examples of pure DC designs are
Michael Faraday's homopolar motor (which is uncommon), and the ball bearing motor, which
is (so far) a novelty. By far the most common DC motor types are the brushed and brushless
types, which use internal and external commutation respectively to create an oscillating AC
current from the DC source, so they are not purely DC machines in a strict sense.DC Motors
differ from AC Motors, as they are powered by a direct current of Electricity, as opposed to
an Alternating current. There are four types of Direct Current motor, each with different
features and characteristics. These are:

1. Stepper DC

2. Brushless DC

3. Brushed DC

4. Pancake DC

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Stepper DC motor

A stepper motor (or step motor) is a brushless, synchronous electric motor that can divide a
full rotation into a large number of steps. The motor's position can be controlled precisely
without any feedback mechanism, as long as the motor is carefully sized to the application.
Stepper motors are similar to switched reluctance motors (which are very large stepping
motors with a reduced pole count, and generally are closed-loop commutated.)

The characteristic of this type:

 Stepper motors are constant power devices.

 As motor speed increases, torque decreases.

 The torque curve may be extended by using current limiting drivers and increasing the
driving voltage.

 Steppers exhibit more vibration than other motor types and it is make this type noisier
than other DC motor.

 This vibration can become very bad at some speeds and can cause the motor to lose
torque or lose direction.

 The effect can be mitigated by accelerating quickly through the problem speeds range,
physically damping (frictional damping) the system, or using a micro-stepping driver.

 Motors with a greater number of phases also exhibit smoother operation than those
with fewer phases.

Brushed DC motor

A brushed DC motor is an internally commutated electric motor designed to be run from a

DC power source. It is work when a current passes through the coil wound around a soft iron
core, the side of the positive pole is acted upon by an upwards force, while the other side is
acted upon by a downward force. According to Fleming's left hand rule, the forces cause a
turning effect on the coil, making it rotate. To make the motor rotate in a constant direction,
"direct current" commutators make the current reverse in direction every half a cycle (in a
two-pole motor) thus causing the motor to continue to rotate in the same direction.

There are five types of brushed DC motor:

A. DC shunt wound motor

B. DC series wound motor

C. DC compound motor (two configurations):

 Cumulative compound
A = shun

B = series
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C = compound f =field coil

Figure 8 : Types of brushed DC motor

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 Differentially compounded

D. Permanent Magnet DC Motor (not shown)

E. Separately excited (sepex) (not shown).

Brushless DC motor

It known as electronically commutated motors (ECMs, EC motors) are synchronous electric

motors powered by direct-current (DC) electricity and having electronic commutation
systems, rather than mechanical commutators and brushes. The current-to-torque and voltage-
to-speed relationships of BLDC (Brushless DC motors) motors are linear.

BLDC motors may be described as Stepper motors, with fixed permanent magnets and
possibly more poles on the stator than the rotor, or Reluctance motors. The latter may be
without permanent magnets, just poles that are induced on the rotor then pulled into
alignment by timed stator windings. However, the term stepper motor tends to be used for
motors that are designed specifically to be operated in a mode where they are frequently
stopped with the rotor in a defined angular position; this page describes more general BLDC
motor principles, though there is overlap.

Some of the problems of the brushed DC motor are eliminated in the brushless design. In this
motor, the mechanical "rotating switch" or commutator/brushgear assembly is replaced by an
external electronic switch synchronised to the rotor's position. Brushless motors are typically
85-90% efficient or more (higher efficiency for a brushless electric motor of up to 96.5%
were reported by researchers at the Tokai University in Japan in 2009), whereas DC motors
with brushgear are typically 75-80% efficient.

Pancake DC motor

A rather unusual motor design the pancake/printed armature motor has the windings shaped
as a disc running between arrays of high-flux magnets, arranged in a circle, facing the rotor
and forming an axial air gap. This design is commonly known the pancake motor because of
its extremely flat profile, although the technology has had many brand names since its
inception, such as ServoDisc.

The printed armature (originally formed on a printed circuit board) in a printed armature
motor is made from punched copper sheets that are laminated together using advanced
composites to form a thin rigid disc. The printed armature has a unique construction, in the
brushed motor world, in that it does not have a separate ring commutator. The brushes run
directly on the armature surface making the whole design very compact.

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An alternative manufacturing method is to use wound copper wire laid flat with a central
conventional commutator, in a flower and petal shape. The windings are typically stabilized
by being impregnated with electrical epoxy potting systems. These are filled epoxies that
have moderate mixed viscosity and a long gel time. They are highlighted by low shrinkage
and low exotherm, and are typically UL 1446 recognized as a potting compound for use up to
180°C (Class H) (UL File No. E 210549).

The unique advantage of ironless DC motors is that there is no cogging (vibration caused by
attraction between the iron and the magnets) and parasitic eddy currents cannot form in the
rotor as it is totally ironless. This can greatly improve efficiency, but variable-speed
controllers must use a higher switching rate (>40 kHz) or direct current because of the
decreased electromagnetic induction.

These motors were originally invented to drive the capstan(s) of magnetic tape drives, in the
burgeoning computer industry. Pancake motors are still widely used in high-performance
servo-controlled systems, humanoid robotic systems, industrial automation and medical
devices. Due to the variety of constructions now available the technology is used in
applications from high temperature military to low cost pump and basic servo applications.

Homopolar DC motor

A homopolar motor has a magnetic field along the axis of rotation and an electric current that

at some point is not parallel to the magnetic field. The namehomopolar refers to the absence
of polarity change.
Homopolar motors necessarily have a single-turn coil, which limits them to very low
voltages. This has restricted the practical application of this type of motor.

It is not necessary for the magnet to move, or even to be in contact with the rest of the motor;
its sole purpose is to provide a magnetic field that will interact with the magnetic field
induced by the current in the wire. However, the magnet must be made of a conductive
material if it is being used to complete the battery-wire circuit. One can attach the magnet to
the battery and allow the wire to rotate freely while closing the electric circuit even at the
axis of rotation. Again, where at some point along the electric loop the current in the wire is
not parallel to the magnetic field, there occurs a Lorentz force that is perpendicular to both.
This Lorentz force is tangential and produces a torque in the wire, so that the wire rotates.

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Homopolar motor Homopolar motor Intensity, magnetic field lines and Lorentz force on
3D 2D Homopolar motor

Figure 9:Homopolar dc motor operation.

In contrast to other electrical motors, both the orientation and magnitude of the magnetic field
and the electric current do not change.

Like most electro-mechanical machines a homopolar motor is reversible so that when

electrical energy of a suitable kind is put into its terminals, mechanical energy can be
obtained from its motion and vice versa, (see homopolar generator for details on construction
and theory of operation).

Ball Bearing DC motor

A ball bearing motor is an unusual electric motor that consists of two ball-bearing-type

bearings, with the inner races mounted on a common conductive shaft, and the outer races
connected to a high current, low voltage power supply. An alternative construction fits the
outer races inside a metal tube, while the inner races are mounted on a shaft with a non-
conductive section (e.g. two sleeves on an insulating rod). This method has the advantage that
the tube will act as a flywheel. The direction of rotation is determined by the initial spin
which is usually required to get it going.

S. Marinov suggests that the device produces motion from electricity without magnetism
being involved, operating purely by thermal means. The same explanation is given by
Watson, Patel and Sedcole for rotating cylinders (instead of balls). However, H. Gruenberg
has given a thorough theoretical explanation based on pure electromagnetism (and neglecting
the thermal effects completely). Also, P. Hatzikonstantinou and P. G. Moyssides claim to
have found an excellent agreement between the results from the electromagnetic theory and
the experiments measuring the total power and efficiency of the motor.[4]

This motor could also be described as a concentric rail gun.

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Characteristic of DC Motor

DC motors respond to load changes in different ways, depending on the arrangement of the

windings.
Shunt wound motor
A shunt wound motor has a high-resistance field winding connected in parallel with the
armature. It responds to increased load by trying to maintain its speed and this leads to an
increase in armature current. This makes it unsuitable for widely-varying loads, which may
lead to overheating.
Series wound motor
A series wound motor has a low-resistance field winding connected in series with the
armature. It responds to increased load by slowing down and this reduces the armature
current and minimises the risk of overheating. Series wound motors were widely used
as traction motors in rail transport of every kind, but are being phased out in favour of
AC induction motors supplied through solid state inverters. The counter-emf aids the
armature resistance to limit the current through the armature. When power is first applied to a
motor, the armature does not rotate. At that instant, the counter-emf is zero and the only
factor limiting the armature current is the armature resistance. Usually the armature resistance
of a motor is less than 1 Ω; therefore the current through the armature would be very large
when the power is applied. Therefore the need arises for an additional resistance in series
with the armature to limit the current until the motor rotation can build up the counter-emf.
As the motor rotation builds up, the resistance is gradually cut out.
Permanent magnet motor
A permanent magnet DC motor is characterized by its locked rotor (stall) torque and its no-
load angular velocity (speed).

Calculation Of DC Motor

The torque constant Kt, describes the torque generated by the motor for a specific motor
current:

Kt = T / I

Or to put it another way,

Current through motor = torque produced / torque constant

I (Amps) = Torque (oz-in) / Kt (oz-in/A) in imperial units

I (Amps) = Torque (N-m) / Kt (N-m/A) in SI units

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Because of the interrelationship of torque, speed, current, and voltage, the constant current
operation of a DC motor produces constant output torque regardless of speed. Given a
constant load (i.e. torque) the speed of a motor is solely dependent on the voltage applied to
the motor. For DC motors operated at a constant voltage, the speed and torque produced are
inversely related (the higher the torque, the lower the speed of the motor).

We earlier saw that an EMF will be developed across a motor's brushes when its coil is
rotated by an external torque -- the magnitude of this EMF is dependent upon materials /
geometry factors, and upon the speed at which the coil is rotated. Once again, there is a
constant of proportionality which describes the relationship between coil rotational speed and
materials / geometry factors, commonly known as the back EMF constant (Ke). The back
EMF constant is typically given in volts per unit of rotational speed (which in turn is
generally expressed either in RPM or radians / second).

If one takes the reciprocal of the back EMF constant, the result is a proportionality constant
which relates the voltage applied to the motor terminals to the rotational speed of the coil.
This version of the motor constant is commonly known as the velocity constant, Kv. The
velocity constant is given in units of rotational speed (again, either RPM or radians / second)
per volt.

Since the motor construction does not change, regardless of what we're measuring, it turns
out that these three constants (Kt, Ke, Kv) are all essentially the same number. The
differences between the torque constant and the back EMF constant are simply a matter of the
units used, while the velocity constant is simply a useful form of the back EMF constant.

If the torque constant is specified in N-m / A and the back EMF constant in V-sec / rad, then:

Kt = Ke = 1 / Kv

Those of us who live in the U.S., though, are stuck with using more colorful units.
Commonly used units for small motors are oz-in for torque and RPM for rotational speed.
Using these units of measure, torque constants are often given in oz-in / A, back EMF
constants in mV / RPM, and velocity constants in RPM / V. In imperial units, the
relationships between motor constants are then as follows:

With
Kt in units of oz-in / A
Ke in units of mV / RPM
Kv in units of RPM / volt

Then

Kt = 1352.4 / Kv

Ke= Kt / 1.3524

Ke = 1000 / Kv

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Kv = 1000 / Ke

So what good is all this? It means that given a source of known rotational speed (an electric
drill, or drill press if you have one), you can compute Ke for a given motor (clamp the motor
shaft in the drill's jaws, measure the resulting open-circuit voltage, then do the math).

Ke, along with the above information will then give you Kt (so you can compute your motor's
theoretical torque at any given current), and Kv (so you can compute your motor's maximum
speed at any given voltage). If you can measure stall torque, you can then compute motor
efficiency (measured torque expressed as a percentage of the theoretical torque).

Knowing all this, you can then pick the best motor for your BEAMbot's own specific needs.

Conclusion

 There are two conditions necessary to produce a force on a conductor:-

- The conductor must be carrying current.

- The conductor must be within a magnetic field.

 The right-hand rule for motors states that when the forefinger is pointed in
thedirection of the magnetic field lines, and the centerfinger is pointed in thedirection
of current flow, the thumb will point in the direction of motion.

 The function of torque in a DC motor is to provide the mechanicaloutput todrive the

piece of equipment that the DC motor is attached to.Torque is developed in a DC
motor by the armature (current-carrying conductor)being present in the motor field
(magnetic field).

 CEMF is developed in a DC motor by the armature (conductor) rotating

(relativemotion) in the field of the motor (magnetic field).

 The function of the voltage that is developed in a DC motor (CEMF) opposes

theapplied voltage and results in the lowering of armature current.

 The speed of a DC motor may be changed by using resistors to vary the fieldcurrent
and, therefore, the field strength.

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Refrences

http://www.solarbotics.net/starting/200111_dcmotor/200111_dcmotor.html

http://www.solarbotics.net/starting/200111_dcmotor/200111_dcmotor2.html

http://www.solarbotics.net/starting/200111_dcmotor/200111_dcmotor3.html

http://www.solarbotics.net/starting/200111_dcmotor/200111_dcmotor4.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homopolar_motor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ball_bearing_motor

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