Measurement and Motion 4

Measurement
On a holiday Ezhil went to market
with his father. First they went to a
grocer’s shop. Ezhil’s father asked for
the following.
Rice - 10 kg
Bengal gram - 500 gm
Groundnut oil - 2 litres
Ghee - 200 millilitres
The shopkeeper used a balance
for measuring rice and bengal gram.
He measured oil and ghee with a
measuring jar.
They went to a flower shop and
bought 5 cubits of garland. Then
they went to a textile showroom and
selected a shirt material and asked
for 2 metres. The salesman measured
2 metres of the cloth with a metre
scale and gave them.
Then, they went to a vegetable
shop and asked for the following
vegetables.
Ladies’ finger - 1kg
Green chillies - 100gm
Onions - 2kg
The shopkeeper weighed the
vegetables with the help of a balance.
After buying the vegetables they
went to a fruit stall and asked for a
dozen bananas. The shopkeeper
counted and gave them 12 bananas.
After getting them, they returned
home.
Ezhil had a doubt and asked his
father, “ Whenever an item is bought
why it is asked for in a different way?”
His father said, “ Go and prepare a list
of the things that we bought and the
instruments that were used to measure
them. I will clear your doubts.” Ezhil
got ready to prepare the list. Shall we
also help him?

Electronic balance
Balance
124 PHYSICS
 Measurement and Motion

Activity 1

Item Quantity Measuring Instrument

Activity 2
What are the instruments used to measure the following?
Discuss in small groups and write them down.
1. Shirt material
2. Sugar
3. Cooking oil
4. Tomatoes
5. Length of your science textbook __________________________
6. Time taken to reach school
7. Kerosene
8. Duration of Maths period
From the above activities, we have
learnt that measuring instruments like
metre scale, balance, clock,
measuring jar, etc. are necessary for
measuring different items.
What is measurement?
Now, shall we measure the length
of our classroom cupboard using a
metre scale? Have you measured the
length? If it is 2 metres then 2 is the
magnitude and metre is the unit of
length. Metre is a known constant
(accepted) quantity but the quantity
2 is to be determined. Here the length
of the cupboard is two times length of
1 metre.
In the same way, can we measure
the mass of your schoolbag using a
balance? If it is 3 kilograms, here 3 is
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
magnitude which has to be determined
and kilogram is the unit of mass.
Kilogram is a known constant quantity.
That is, the mass of the bag is 3 times
the mass of 1 kilogram.
Similarly, if it takes 20 minutes to
reach your school from home, here 20
is the magnitude which has to be
determined and minute is the unit of
time. Minute is a known constant
quantity. That is, the time to reach the
school from home is 20 times the
constant time unit 1 minute.
Measurement is a process of
comparison of an unknown quantity
with a standard (accepted) quantity of
the same kind. The known constant
quantity is called Unit. Here metre,
kilogram and minute are units.

SCIENCE 125
 Chapter - 4
The need for Standard Unit

Activity 3
With your friends measure the length of the table in your classroom in
terms of hand span. Fill up the following table.
Name of the Student The number of hand span measured
1. ___________________ ___________________

2. ___________________ ___________________
3. ___________________ ___________________
4. ___________________ ___________________

From the above activity we Fundamental quantities

observe that though the same table
is measured by different students,
each student gets a different value.
It is because the length of hand span
differs from person to person. That
is why there is a difference in the
measurement of the length of garland
in cubit by you and the shopkeeper.
Shall we individually measure the
length of the same table by a metre
scale? All of us get the same value.
What do we infer from this?
Any measurement that gives the
same value for all is called Standard
measurement. The units which are
used in Standard measurement are
called Standard units. Therefore, we
infer that cubit, hand span, etc. are
not standard units. Metre, kilogram
and second are standard units. Now
shall we learn about fundamental
quantities?
Length, Mass and Time are called
fundamental quantities, because
they can not be expressed in terms
of any other physical quantity. The
units which are used to measure the
fundamental quantities are called
fundamental units.
SI Units
(System International Units)
In different parts of the world
different system of units for measuring
length, mass and time were in use. A
few systems of units are
1.FPS system(Foot, Pound, Second)
2.CGS system(Centimetre, Gram,
Second)
3.MKS system(Metre, Kilogram,
Second)
In order to overcome the difficulties
of using different systems of units, an
International system was adopted in

126 PHYSICS
 Measurement and Motion
1960. This was accepted by scientists all over the world.
This system is called SI units. Shall we know the SI units of length, mass
and time?

Physical quantity SI Unit Symbol

Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Measurement of length

Draw a straight line in your

notebook. Plot two points A and B on
the line.

Measure the distance between the

two points using a scale. What you
have measured now is length. The
distance between two points is called
A B
length. The SI unit of length is metre.
To measure length we use measuring
tape, metre scale etc.

Activity 4
We shall measure the length of the following and write them
with appropriate units.
Length of your pencil _________________
Length of your thumb _________________
Length of your eraser _________________
Length of a leaf _________________
Length of your pen nib _________________
Length of the nail of your little finger _________________

Know yourself
• Length of cloth required for stitching your shirt ______________.
• Distance between your home and school ______________.
• Distance of your neighbouring town from your home ____________.
• Distance between Chennai and New Delhi _____________.

SCIENCE 127
 Chapter - 4
Shall we write down the different units of length used in the above activity?

Units of length

Multiples and submultiples of length

In the above activity, larger distances such as the distance between two
places are expressed in kilometre. This is called multiple of length. We express
smaller lengths such as length of a pencil, pen nib etc. in centimetre and
millimetre. These are called submultiples.

Physical SI unit Multiples Submultiples

quantity
millimetre,
Length metre kilometre
centimetre

1 metre = 1000 millimetres

Measurement of mass 1 metre = 100 centimetres

1 kilometre = 1000 metres

Activity 5
Have you ever been to a market? How do the merchants
measure rice, pulses, vegetables etc.? What instrument do they
use to measure? In what units do they measure? Why do they
not use the units millimetre and centimetre in measuring rice,
pulses, vegetables etc.? Discuss with your friends and find out
the answer.

128 PHYSICS
 Measurement and Motion
From the above activity we have learnt that all quantities are not measured
by the same unit. Different units are used for measuring different quantities.
Activity 6
Among the three, a handful of rice, a handful of sand and a handful of
cotton, which one is the heaviest?

Sand is the heaviest because the amount of matter contained in sand is

more than the amount of matter contained in rice and cotton.
The mass of a body is the amount of matter contained in it. The SI unit
of mass is kilogram. We use beam balance, physical balance and electronic
balance for measuring mass.
Multiples and submultiples of mass

We use units quintal and metric

tonne to measure larger quantities
of sugarcane bundles, cotton bales,
etc. Similarly, we use units gram
and milligram to measure smaller
quantities of gold, silver, spices,
etc. These are called multiples and
submultiples of mass.
Physical balance

Activity 7
Carefully observe the wrapper of the following items and write down
masses mentioned on it.
Mass of toilet soap ________________
Mass of a packet of tea ________________
Mass of a biscuit packet ________________

Know yourself

The quantity of rice purchased per month at home____________.

The quantity of vegetables used at home per day ______________.

Physical
SI unit Multiples Submultiples
quantity

Mass kilogram quintal, metric tonne gram, milligram

SCIENCE 129
 Chapter - 4

1 gram = 1000 milligrams

1 kilogram = 1000 grams

1quintal = 100 kilograms

1 metric tonne = 1000 kilograms

Measurement of time

We perform many activities in our daily life and many events also take place
but the duration of each event / activity differs from one another.

Activity 8
Look at the following activities. Discuss in small groups and
tabulate the events / activities according to their duration.

1. Time taken for bathing

2. Duration of sleep
3. Working hours of your school
4. Time taken to blink your eyes
5. Time taken for ripening of fruits
6. Time taken for a plant to grow into a tree
7. Time taken for curdling of milk
8. Time taken to weave a saree
9. Time interval between a new moon and a full moon
10. Duration between sowing the paddy until harvesting
11. Duration between the first term and the second term examination
12. Time of fall of a coconut from the tree

Events/ Events/ Events/ Events/ Events/

activities activities activities activities activities
occurring in occurring occurring in occurring in occurring in
seconds in minutes hours days / months years

130 PHYSICS
 Measurement and Motion
From the above events / activities, we have learnt that we use different units
for measuring time.
Time is the interval between two events. The SI unit of time is second.
For measuring time we use pendulum clock, wristwatch, wall clock, stop
clock etc. In olden days people used sundial, sand clock, water clock etc. For
measuring time accurately we use atomic clock.
Multiples and submultiples of time
Larger time intervals are expressed in minute, hour, day, week, month, year
etc. These are called multiples of time. Any time interval less than 1 second is
expressed in millisecond, microsecond etc. These are called submultiples of
time.

Physical
SI unit multiples submultiples
quantity
minute, hour, day, millisecond,
Time second
week, month, year microsecond

1 minute = 60 seconds
1 hour = 60 minutes
1 day = 24 hours
1 year = 365 1/4 days
1 second = 1000 milliseconds
1 second = 1000000 microseconds

SCIENCE 131
 Chapter - 4
Evaluation
I. Choose the correct answer.
1. SI unit of length is __________
a) centimetre b) millimetre c) metre d) kilometre
2. The symbol for SI unit of mass is ___________
a) g b) kg c) mg d) cg
3. 1 metric tonne is equal to __________
a) 1000 kilograms b) 100 kilograms c) 1 kilogram d) 10 kilograms
4. SI unit of time is ___________
a) second b) minute c) week d) day
5.1 hour = ____________ seconds.
a) 60 b) 3600 c) 24 d) 1000
II.Fill in the blanks.
1. One metre = _________ centimetre
2. One kilometre = _________ metre
3. One quintal = _________ kilogram
4. One minute = _________ second

III. Match the following with the correct units

1. Thickness of a five rupee coin - kilometre
2. Breadth of a classroom - centimetre
3. Distance between two places - millimetre
4. Height of your friend - metre

IV. Fill in the blanks with the correct answer.

1. The mass of gold is measured by the unit ____________
(gram/metre)
2. Rice, sugar etc are measured by the unit ____________
(milligram/kilogram)
3. Generally sugarcane is weighed by the unit____________(tonne/gram)
4. The mass of the chemicals present in a tablet are expressed in the
unit____________ (milligram/kilogram)

V. Arrange the following units in ascending order.

year, second, month, microsecond, hour, minute, week, millisecond.
132 PHYSICS
 Measurement and Motion
VI.Find the answer
1) Ravi took 90 minutes to draw a picture. Kumar took 1 hour to draw
the same picture. Who took more time to draw? How much more
time did he take ?
2) Thread and metre scale are provided to you, using them try to measure
the length of the given curved line AB.

B
A

VII.Answer the following questions

1. Define measurement and unit.
2. What is the significance of standard units?
3. What are fundamental quantities? Why are they called so?
4. What are the SI units of length, mass, and time? Mention their symbols.
5. Expand the following
(i) FPS (ii) CGS (iii) MKS (iv) SI

Project
1. Measure the length and breadth of your classroom and write them in
foot, hand span, centimetre and metre.

2. Make a model of a sand clock using two ink bottles. With the
model of the sand clock you have made,
a) using a clock find the time taken for the sand to completely
flow down.
b) find your pulse rate with reference to your model.

Let us know
(( The length of the largest sea animal, blue whale measures 30metres
approximately.
(( Mass of the sun = 1.99 x 1030 kilograms
(( Mass of the earth = 5.98 x 1024 kilograms
(mass of the sun is 3,20,000 times heavier than the earth)

SCIENCE 133
 Chapter - 4
Motion

We observe many objects in our daily life. Some of them move from one
place to another and some of them remain stationary.

Activity 1
On your way to school, observe your surroundings and classify the
objects under
Objects in motion Objects at rest
_____________ _____________
_____________ _____________

From the above activity we have learnt that some objects move and some
remain stationary.

Can we find out whether an object is at rest or in motion only by observing

them directly?

Activity 2

Do the earth, air etc. move ? If they move, how do we know it?
We may get more information through a small group discussion.

From the above discussion, we can

actually observe that some objects
change their position with time. In
some cases, though we can not see
the objects change their position, we
come to know their motion from the
effects they make.

If an object does not change its

position with respect to time, it is said
to be stationary or at rest.

If the object changes its position

with respect to time then it is said to
be in motion. Hence motion is defined
as the change of position of an object
with respect to time.

134 PHYSICS

How do we differentiate rest and motion?
Have you travelled in a bus? When
you look out from a moving bus, do
the trees, houses, lamp posts appear
to be stationary or in motion? Share
your experience in small groups.
Akilan had two friends, Mugilan
and Selvam. Akilan invited his friends
to his town for a circus show. The three
friends went to the circus and enjoyed
themselves. Akilan returned home.
His friends reached the bus terminus
and got into a bus. The bus passed by
Akilan’s house. As Akilan was in the
sit-out, he waved to his friends.
The next day when Akilan met
his friends in school, he said, “When
I was in the sit-out, I saw you in the
moving bus”.
Measurement and Motion
Mukilan and Selvam said, “Yes,
we both saw you sitting and waving.
From the moving bus both you and
your house appeared to be moving
backwards”.
What do we learn from this?
An object may appear to be
stationary for one observer and
appear to be moving for another. An
object is at rest in relation to a certain
set of objects and moving in relation
to another set of objects. This implies
that rest and motion are relative.
We have learnt about rest and
motion. Now discuss in small groups
and do this activity.
SCIENCE 135
 Chapter - 4

Activity 3
Are the following motions same 10. Wagging tail of a dog
or different type? Discuss in small
11. Children playing in a
groups and classify. playground
1. A sprinter running a 100 m race 12. Motion of flies and mosquitoes
2. A coconut falling from a tree 13. Children playing in a swing
3. Marching of soldiers 14. Flapping of elephant’s ears
4. The tip of hands of a clock 15. Movement of people in a bazaar
5. M
 ovement of your hand when you 16. Motion of people on a carnival
write on a notebook day
6. R
 evolution of the moon around 17. Motion of a spinning top
the earth
18. Motion of opening and closing of
7. T
 he movement of a ball in a foot a draw
ball match
8. R
 evolution of the earth around
the sun
9. C
hildren playing on a sliding
board

Moving in a straight line

Moving in a Moving in a
random manner Motion circle

Moving back and forth/

left and right

From the above activity, we have come to know that there are different types of motion.
Types of motion
falling from a tree? What type of path
Linear motion did they take during their motion?
Did you observe the vehicle moving Likewise, When an object moves
along a straight road and a coconut along a straight line, it is said to be in

136 PHYSICS

linear motion. Motion of a freely falling
body and motion of a lift are examples
for linear motion.
Circular motion
Take a stone, tie a thread to it and
whirl it with your hand and observe
the motion of the stone. The stone is
moving along a circular path, isn’t it?
In this motion we can see, in any point
in the circular path the distance of the
stone from the centre of the circle
(hand) remains the same, doesn’t it?
Similarly, let us observe the motion
of a child in the merry-go-round. Here
also, the distance between the child
and the centre of the merry-go-round
Measurement and Motion
remains the same at any point of the
circular path.
From this, it is clear that if an object
moves along a circular path,it is said
to be in circular motion. Motion of the
tip of hands of a clock and a point
marked on the blade of the fan are
some more examples for circular
motion.
Rotational Motion
If a body revolves about an axis, it
is said to be in rotational motion.
Eg.Spinning top
Motion of a fan
Motion of a merry-go-round
SCIENCE 137
 Chapter - 4
Periodic motion

If an object repeats the same type

of motion at regular intervals of time it
is said to be in periodic motion.

Random Motion
When an object moves at
different speeds and in different
directions, it is said to be in random
motion.
Eg. A fish swimming in a tank
The movement of a football

during a game
Eg.
Multiple Motion
ff M otion of a child in a swing.
ff Motion of the pendulum in a Can a body perform more than one
wall clock. type of motion at a time? We ride a
ff Motion of the string of veena bicycle. What type of motion does the
while plucking wheel perform? What type of forward
ff Motion of the moon revolving motion does the cycle perform?
around the earth The motion of the wheels of a
ff Motion of the earth revolving bicycle is rotational, whereas the
around the sun motion of the bicycle is linear. The
wheels of a bicycle perform rotational
as well as linear motion
simultaneously. Similarly, a rolling ball
and a drilling machine perform more
than one type of motion
simultaneously.

Can you think of any

Rotationa

other object performing

more than one type of
motion simultaneously?
Explain.
l motion

Linear motion

138 PHYSICS
 Measurement and Motion

Science Today
Robot
Issac Asimov invented robot. It is
he who named the machine as robot
(derived from Philippines language).
Robot is a human machine. We
programme (electronic signals) the
robot to do the work we want it to do.

The machinery parts of robot

follow and implement the commands
already programmed. Robots are
run by heavy batteries. Robot’s brain
is nothing but an electronic chip. The Robot
movements of robot are controlled
How nice would it be to have a
by electronic chip or computer.
robot to do our homework?
Nowadays well designed robots
are used for complicated and Imagine and draw the various
minute clinical surgeries. Very soon activities, a robot can do in your
we may have robots in our homes to school.
do household work.

Evaluation

I. Choose the correct answer.

1.Movement of a branch of a tree in air is an example for ________________

a) Linear Motion b) Circular Motion
c) Periodic Motion d) Rotational Motion
2.The motion of a rolling ball is ____________ motion
a) Circular b) Linear
c) Rotational d) Multiple
3. W
 hen a bicycle is in motion, the mouth which is used to fill the air will
perform__________
a) Random motion b) Periodic motion
c) Circular motion d) All of these
SCIENCE 139
 Chapter - 4
II. Look at the pictures and answer the following .
After 5 seconds

1. From the given pictures, identify objects which are,

In Motion 1.______________ 2.______________ 3.______________

At Rest 1.______________ 2.______________ 3.______________

2. Classify the following pictures based on the kind of motion. Among them
identify the pictures which work on more than one kind of motion.

III. Fill in the blanks .

1. The movement of the needle in a sewing machine is _____________
(linear motion, random motion)
2. 
The rotation of an object about an axis is _____________
(linear, rotational motion)
3. Motion is defined as the change of _____________ of an object with
respect to time. (position, mass)
IV. Give reasons for the following.
1. Name the organ in your body which works in periodic motion.
2. Is there any difference between a child who rides on a merry-go-
round and a child who takes part in a 50m race?

140 PHYSICS
 Measurement and Motion
3. Name the types of motion possessed by children playing in a playground.
Give reasons.
4. What is the name of the instrument in the given picture?
Specify its uses. What type of motion does it perform while
in operation?
5. You are given a thread with a spherical bob attached to
its one end. How many different kinds of motion could you
demonstrate with this?
V. Answer the following.
1. When do you say that an object is in motion?
2. Distinguish between linear motion and circular motion.
3. What is rotational motion? Give example.
4. What is periodic motion? Give example.
Do it yourself
Spread a large sheet of white paper on the
ground and keep a little sugar on it. Ants are
likely to be attracted to the sugar and you will
find many ants crawling on the sheet of paper
soon. For any one ant, try and make a small
mark with a pencil near its position when it has
just crawled on to the sheet of paper. Keep
marking its position often a few seconds as
it moves along on the sheet of paper. After
some time, shake the paper free of the sugar
and the ants, and connect the different points
you have marked with arrows to show the
direction in which the ant was moving. Each point you have marked shows
where the ant moved to, in intervals of a few seconds.
Motion seems to be some kind of a change in the position of an object
with time, isn't it?

further reference
Webliography:

http://www.tutorvista.com/content/science/science-i/motion/types-
motion.php
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/measurement
www.arvindguptatoys.com

SCIENCE 141
PHYSICS
6

6
physics

CHAPTER

MEASUREMENT

PHYSICS 174
 MEASUREMENT

Fig. 6.1.
Arun and his father went to see a plot of land they wanted to buy. The owner of
the land gave the size of the plot in square feet. Arun’s father asked the owner
to give the size of the plot in square metre. Arun knew that length is measured
in metre. He was confused with the terms square metre and square feet. Let
us help him to understand.
The measure of a surface is known obtain area from the fundamental
as area. Area is the extent of plane physical quantity - length.
surface occupied. The area of the
Volume and density are some
plot of land is derived by multiplying
other derived quantities.
the length and breadth.
One square metre is the area
Area = length x breadth enclosed inside a square of side 1m.
The unit of area will be Other units of measurement
metre x metre = (metre) read as
2

square metre and written as m2.

6.1. Derived Quantities 1m 1m2

You have already studied the

fundamental quantities (length, mass 1m
and time) in the sixth standard. The area of a surface is 10m2 means
Quantities got by the multiplication that it is equivalent to 10 squares each of
or division of fundamental physical side of 1m
quantities are called derived Breadth, height, depth, distance,
quantities. thickness, radius, diameter are all
different measures of length.
Area is a derived quantity as we
175
6 physics

Sl.No. Unit of Unit of area Activity 6.3

length
Name the unit convenient to
1. centimetre square measure the area of these surfaces
(cm) centimetre we see in everyday life [mm2, cm2,
(cm2) m2, ft2, acre].
2. millimetre square
(mm) millimetre Sl. Unit of
(mm2) Surface
No. area
3. feet square feet 1 Teacher’s table top
(ft) (ft2)
2 Black board
Area of agricultural fields is
measured in acre and hectare 3 Science text book
1 Acre = 4047 m2 = 100 cent 4 Measuring scale
1 hectare = 2.47 acre
5 Eraser

6 Class room
Activity 6.1
7 Play ground
Let us find the area of the given
figure. 8 Agricultural land
1m
1m
more To Know
A metre is much longer than a
foot. Do you know how many
feet make a metre?
Activity 6.2
1 metre = 3.28 feet
Let us find the area of the given figure
(coloured portion) in cm2 and mm2. So, 1 m2 = 10.76 ft2
The side of each small square is 1cm.

SELF CHECK
1cm2 = ------------- mm2

1 m2 = --------------- cm2

REMEMBER
Even though the area is given in
square metre, the surface need
not be square in shape.

176
 MEASUREMENT
The surfaces need not be a rectangle or square always. We use the following
formulae to calculate the area of some regular objects. (i.e.) objects which have
definite geometric shape.

S.No. Shape Figure Area Formula

1. Square l length x length l2

2. Rectangle length x breadth lb

b

Triangle ½ x base x height 1

3. bh
2
h
b

r x radius x radius r r2
Circle r
4. 22
r= or 3.14
7

Let us try the method of measuring the area of irregular objects (i.e) objects which do not
have regular geometric shape .
We can use a graph sheet to measure their area.
Activity 6.4
(( T
ake a graph sheet and draw
a square of any size in it and
find its area in square millimetre
(mm2) and in square centimetre
(cm2).
(( R
 epeat the activity by drawing a
rectangle.
(( V
 erify your answer by using the
formula.
Fig. 6.2.
177
6 physics

Activity 6.5 Volume

Let us take an object having irregular
shape like a broken glass or a
broken tile and measure its area.
Follow the steps given below:
Kumar’s family lives in a small house.
They have no cupboard to keep their clothes.
Kumar asked his father to buy a cupboard.
His father refused to buy it as the cupboard
would occupy much space in the house.

1) P
 lace the object on a graph sheet The space occupied by a body is
and draw the outline (like shown called its volume.
in figure 6.2).
2) 
Count the number of small
squares enclosed within the Activity 6.6
outline. If more than half a square Shall we observe the following
is inside the boundary, count it as figures of the objects and get an
one otherwise neglect it. idea about their size and volume?
3) Each small square of the graph
sheet has a side of 1mm or area
1mm2.
4) Area of the irregular object = Number
of squares counted X 1 mm2
The area of the
= ------mm2.
irregular object
= ------ cm2.

Experiment Bicycle

1) Repeat the procedure to

find the area of a leaf.
2) Draw squares of the area
of one square metre Pen
and one square foot.
Compare the two areas. Nail

TO THINK
 ow would you find
H
the surface area of
(a) a banana and
(b) your palm?

Motorcycle

178
 MEASUREMENT

Bench

Chair

Bus
From your observation, name the objects in increasing order of size and answer
the following questions.
1) Which object is the smallest and which is the biggest in size?
2) Which object occupies the minimum space and which the maximum space?
3) What do you infer from the above?
[ Objects of smaller size occupy less volume and objects of larger size occupy
more volume ]
Shall we calculate the volume of regular objects ?
Volume of some regular objects is obtained by multiplying the base area by
their height.
Volume = base area x height
Can you tell the unit with which volume is measured?
It is, m2 x m = m3 which is known as cubic metre.
The volume may also be expressed with different units depending upon the
unit of measurement.

179
6 physics

Unit of
One cubic metre is the volume
Unit of volume of a cube of side 1m.
length
milli metre cubic millimetre
(mm) (mm3)
centimetre cubic centimetre
(cm) (cm3)
1m3
The volume of an object is 10m3
means that it is equivalent to 10 cubes
each of side 1m.

Activity 6.7 Activity 6.8

Let us calculate the volume of the
objects shown below:
The side of each small cube is 1 cm
in length.

1. How many small cubes

make the big cube shown in
the picture ?
2. If the side of each small
cube is 1 cm in length, find
the total volume of the big
cube.

Using the concepts discussed so far, try to write the names of the given
shapes and the formula for calculating their volume.

(a) (b) (c)

180
 MEASUREMENT

Measuring liquids

Fig. 6.3

Your mother asks you to get milk

from the milkman. When you buy milk
from the milkman, he will give it to Measuring cylinder
you in litres (i.e) volume of liquid is
measured in litres.
What is the meaning of 1 litre?
1 litre = 1000 cm3.
One cubic centimetre is otherwise
known as 1 millilitre written as ml.
What are the different instruments
used to measure the volume of liquids?

Pipette

Used to measure
and transfer a definite Fig 6.5
volume of liquid. Used to measure the
Fig 6.4 volume of liquid.

181
6 physics

Burette
Activity 6.9

cc

Let us find the volume of a stone

using a measuring cylinder.
Follow the steps given below.
Fig 6.6
1) Pour water in the measuring
Used to make a small fixed volume of cylinder up to a certain level.
liquid to flow.
2) Note the initial level of water.

Measuring flask 3)  Tie the stone by means of a

thread.
4)  
Lower the stone into the
water so that it is completely
immersed without touching
the sides.
5) Note the final level of water.
6)  The difference between the
final and initial levels gives
the volume of the stone.

more To Know

Fig 6.7 How will you express volume of

water stored in a dam or reservoir?
Designed to hold a fixed volume.
In thousand million cubic feet (tMc).

182
 MEASUREMENT

Density

sponge sheet iron ball

Fig. 6.8
Radha Seetha

Have a look at the pictures. Who is happier ? Radha or Seetha ?

Definitely Seetha will not be happy
as her load ( iron ball ) is heavier,
while Radha will be happy as her
load (sponge sheet) is lighter.
The lightness or heaviness of a
body is due to density. If more mass
is packed into the same volume, it
has greater density. So, the iron
ball will have more mass than the
sponge of same size. Therefore iron
has more density.
Density is the mass of unit volume
of the substance.
mass
Density = mass when compared to cork and
volume
The SI unit of density is kg /m3.
Activity 6.10
Let us take three balls (spheres) of
the same size but made of different
materials like cork (cricket ball), iron
(shot put) and rubber (bouncing
ball) Hold them separately in your
hand. Arrange them according to the
descending order of their mass.
1.
2.
3.
We see that the iron ball has more
rubber. It shows that iron has greater
density.

183
6 physics

Activity 6.11
SELF CHECK
1) Density of steel is 7800 kg/m3.
Will it float or sink in mercury?
2) Give the mass of water
contained in a tank of length 5m,
breadth 3m and height 2m.

Oil
TO THINK
A balloon filled with air does not
fly whereas a balloon filled with
Water
helium gas can fly. Why?

Mercury

Observe the diagram

Let us identify the following :

(i) 
The liquid denser than water is
________
(ii) 
The liquid lighter than water is
________

Hot air balloon

If a substance is lighter than
water, it will float; but if it is heavier
than water, it will sink.
more TO KNOW
The density of water is 1000 kg/m . 3
This means that water filled in a
tank of length 1m, breadth 1m and
height 1m, has a mass of 1000kg.
If the same tank is filled with
mercury it will have a mass
of 13,600 kg. So mercury is
13.6 times denser than water.
184
Why does this hot air balloon fly?
6.2. Measurement of time
Why do we need to measure time?
We need to measure time for many
reasons –to know when to go to school,
when to take food, when to watch TV
and when to sleep . The earlier clocks
like the sundial , water clock and hour
glass were not very accurate. There
was the need to have more accurate
and precise instruments . The earliest
pendulum clocks which had weights
and a swinging pendulum satisfied
this need.
 MEASUREMENT

Simple pendulum A simple pendulum is a small

Fig 6.9. swing
Have you been on a swing? The
back and forth motion of the swing is
an example of oscillatory motion. You
can observe the same in pendulum
clocks, which work on the principle of
the simple pendulum.
metallic ball (bob) suspended from
a rigid stand by an inelastic thread.
When the bob is pulled gently to one
side and released, it moves to and
fro. One complete to and fro motion is
called one oscillation. i.e. from one
end (extreme) to the other end and
back. The time taken to complete one
oscillation is called time period.
The distance between the point of
suspension and the centre of the bob
is called length of the pendulum.
Amplitude is the distance upto which
the bob is pulled from the position of rest.
point of
suspension

A story is told of Galileo. He went

to a church in Pisa (in Italy). He
noticed that a lamp suspended from
the roof by a long chain was swinging
periodically. Using his pulse beats length
he found that the time of swing of
the lamp remained constant even as
the swinging decreased. His keen
observation made him understand the
itude
importance of the constant time of the ampl
swing.

Fig 6.10. Simple pendulum

Before his death in 1642. He made plans for

the construction of a pendulum clock; but the first
successful pendulum clock was constructed by the
Galileo (1564-1642) Dutch scientist Christian Huygens only in 1657.

185
6 physics

Activity 6.12
1. Set up a simple pendulum in your class room with a thread of length 60cm.
2. Set the bob into oscillations
3. Note the time taken for 20 oscillations in seconds, using a stop clock.
time taken for 20 oscillations
4. Time period = Time for one oscillation = -------------------------------------------------------------------------
20

Experiment
Repeat the above experiment using
(i) bobs of different sizes without changing length of the pendulum.
(ii) threads of length of 80 cm and 100cm.
(iii) various amplitudes.
Do you notice any change in the time period?
In the first and third cases you will find no change in the time period
But in the second case the time period increases with increase in length.
So we infer that time period of a simple pendulum depends on the
length of the pendulum and is independent of mass of the bob and
the amplitude.

6.3. Astronomical distances

Meera and Sundar were very excited as their uncle had joined ISRO (Indian
Space Research Organisation). They were eagerly anticipating a visit to his new
work place to see rockets and satellites. Let us listen to a conversation between
Meera, Sundar and their uncle.

Meera : Uncle, will you become an astronaut?

Uncle : No, Meera, I will be joining a team responsible for the launch of
rockets.

Sundar : Rockets shoot up many thousands of kilometre in the sky, don’t

they?

Uncle : Yes, indeed they do. These rockets send satellites into orbits and
spacecraft on their journey into outer space. A spacecraft travels lakhs
and lakhs of kilometres in space. Don’t you feel that to measure such
long distances unique units of measurement are required?
186
 MEASUREMENT
Meera &
Sundar : What are these units? Do tell us!

Uncle : Now you see, to measure very long distances like the distance of
the sun, other stars and different planets from the earth we use
convenient units like astronomical unit and light year.

Astronomical Unit is the average distance between the earth and the sun.

1 Astronomical Unit = 149.6 million kilometre (14.96 crore km).

1 AU = 1.496X1011 m

Light year is the distance travelled by light in vacuum in one year.

1 Light year = 9.46 x 1012 km (9,46,000 crore kilometres). (or)

1 Light year = 9.46 x 1015 m

MORE TO KNOW
Light travels distance of 3 lakh
km in one second.

Imagine this boy is travelling at the

speed of light . He can travel around
the world seven and a half times
in one second. He would take eight
minute, and twenty seconds to reach
the earth from the sun . A racing car
travelling at 1,000 kilometres per
hour would take 17 years to complete
the same journey.

187
6 physics

evaluation

1. 
Anand’s father had a rectangular 3. Observe the given picture and note
plot of length 60 feet and breadth 40
feet. He built a house in the plot and
in the remaining area he planted a
garden as shown.

(i) Mass of the liquid ---------- gm

(ii) Volume of the liquid ---------- cc

(iii) Density of the liquid ---------- g/cc

4. Kandasamy, a farmer had a fenced

square shaped field in which he
allowed his cow to graze. He tied
his cow to a stake at the centre of
the plot by a rope of length 7 m.

Can you help Anand to find out the

area of his garden.

2. ‘Density is the lightness or heaviness

of a substance.

Kamala wanted to know whether

water or coconut oil had lesser
density. Her sister Mala asked her
to bring a cup of water and some
coconut oil. How did Mala clear
Kamala’s doubt?
Kandasamy’s son, Raju was amused
to see that the cow grazed over a large
circle of grass but left grass at the cor-
ners untouched. How could Raju find
out the area of the land not grazed by
the cow?

188
 MEASUREMENT

Projects

1. Take a vessel with water and a 25ml graduated beaker. Distribute the water by giving
100ml, 125ml, 175 ml and 200 ml respectively to each of your four friends with the
help of the beaker. How many times did you use the beaker for each friend?

2. Use a stop clock and determine how many times the following activities can be
repeated in a span of one minute.

Number of repetitions
S.No. Activity
in one minute.
1. Your friend inhales and exhales
2. The heart beat of your friend
3. blinking of eyes by your friend

3. Using an overflow jar and a measuring cylinder find the volume of different
stones.

Record Your observations:

Stone Volume
1.
2.
3.

further reference
Book:
1. Frame work of Science - Paddy Gannon, Oxford University Press,
New Delhi
Webliography:
http://www.kidastronomy.com
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/ks3bitesize/phys/html

189
 6. Measurements

In a warm summer vacation, Aruna We have been following many

is eagerly waiting for her friend Swathi. system of units to measure physical
Finally, Swathi came to Aruna’s home quantities. For example kilometre,
with an umbrella . mile, foot, centimetre etc., are all units
of length. Similarly kilogram, gram,
Aruna: Is it raining, Swathi?
pound etc., are units of mass.
Swathi: No Aruna, but my mother asked Le Systeme International d’ Unites
me to take this, as it is very hot (SI system of units)
outside.
To bring uniformity, the general
Aruna:  Of course, I heard in the TV conference on Weights and Measures
news that the temperature was in 1971, decided to have a uniform
420C yesterday and it seems to system of measurement called SI
SCIENCE

be more than that today. system of units. In SI system, the

units for all physical quantities are
Swathi: I am confused about the unit
fixed and derived. This is logically
that we use for temperature.
far superior to all the other systems.
We see people using celsius
It has certain features, they are based
but my brother said this
on the properties of atom. So, they do
morning that kelvin is the unit
not vary with time. SI system is more
for temperature.
convenient to practice.
Aruna: We will clear this doubt with my There are seven fundamental
father (who is a teacher). (They go quantities and many derived quantities
to Aruna’s father for clarification. in this system of units.
Aruna’s father explained them
clearly about units). We learnt about the units of length,
mass and time in SI system. Let us
You know that measurement is learn more about other basic units.
nothing but comparing an unknown
quantity with a standard quantity. The Temperature
standard quantity is called unit. For
example, if you say a distance as 300km, We know that temperature is a
measure of degree of hotness or
here 300 is its magnitude and km is its coldness of a body. Different scales
unit. We can’t measure anything without like celsius, fahrenheit, etc. are used to
a unit. measure temperature.

214
 Measurements

Lower fixed point Upper fixed point

Types of scales
(Melting point of pure ice) (Boiling point of water)
Celsius 0OC 100OC
Fahrenheit 32OF 212OF

There is also another type of scale 100
called the Kelvin Scale with which we C = (F-32) X
180
can measure the temperature. Kelvin
is the primary unit of temperature in 5
SI system. C = (F-32) X 9
The freezing point of water is 0OC. Using this we can convert a
in Celsius scale but at 0OC, water Fahrenheit temperature to a Celsius
molecules do not come to rest. Only at temperature. Similarly to convert
-273OC, all the molecular movement Celsius to Fahrenheit
comes to rest. Hence -273OC, has C
been fixed as the lower fixed point in (F-32) = X 180

SCIENCE
100
Kelvin Scale and is called as absolute
zero. 9C
(F-32) =
5
Hence,
9C
-273OC = 0 K F= + 32
5
0OC = 273 K
Converting Kelvin into Celsius scale
The usage of negative values in
-273OC = 0 K
Celsius scale can be avoided by
using Kelvin scale. 0OC = 273 K
Conversion of scales of 100OC = 373 K
Temperature
Worked out problems
Fahrenheit to Celsius
1. Convert 37OC to Fahrenheit scale
The number of divisions between
upper and lower fixed points in celsius 9C
F= + 32
scale is 100 and in Fahrenheit scale 5
is 180. 9 X37
C F - 32
F= 5 + 32
=
100 180 F = 98.60F

215
 Measurements

2. Convert 100OF to Celsius scale 3. Convert 40OC to Kelvin scale

5 -273OC = 0 K
C = (F-32) X
9
0OC = 273 K
5
C = (100-32) X
9 40OC = 273+40
C = 37.7
40OC = 313 OK
0 0
100 F = 37.7 C
Try yourself:

1. Convert 98OF to Celsius scale

2. Convert -40OC to Fahrenheit scale
3. Convert 32OC to Kelvin scale

Electric current Luminous intensity

SI unit for electric current is ampere. Candela is the SI unit for luminous
SCIENCE

intensity.
Amount of Substance
A candle emits light with a luminous
SI unit for amount of substance is
intensity roughly equal to one candela.
mole.

Length metre m

Mass kilogram kg

Time second s

Temperature kelvin K

Electric
ampere A
Current
Amount of
mole mol
substance

Luminous
candela cd
Intensity

216
 Measurements

Conventions to be followed in writing the units in SI system

●● The symbols for units should be written with a small letter
For example: m for metre, kg for kilogram
●● Units which are named after scientists should always be written with
small letter.
For example: newton, joule
●● The symbols of the units named after scientist should be written by capital
letter
For example: N for newton, W for watt
●● Symbols should not be written in plurals but in words, plurals are used.
For example: 30 kg or 30 kilograms
●● There should be no full stop at the end of a symbol for units
 or example: Symbol for unit of length is m(it is not m)
F

SCIENCE
1. The intensity of sound is measured in a unit called decibel (dB).
2. Intensity of earthquakes are measured in Richter scale.

Note : The following coversions are only for information. Need not be asked in
evaluation.
Units of Length
10 millimetres (mm) = 1 centimetre (cm)
10 centimetres = 1 decimetre (dm) =
100 millimetres
10 decimetres = 1 meter (m) = 1000 millimetres
10 metres = 1 decametre (dam)
10 decametres = 1 hectometre (hm) = 100 metres
10 hectometres = 1 kilometre (km) = 1000 metres
Units of Area
100 square millimetres (mm2) = 1 square centimetre (cm2)
100 square centimetres = 1 square decimetre (dm2)
100 square decimetres = 1 square metre (m2)
100 square metres = 1 square decametre (dam2) = 1 are
217
 Measurements

100 square decametres = 1 square hectometre (hm2) = 1 hectare (ha)

100 square hectometres = 1 square kilometre (km2)
Units of Liquid Volume
10 millilitres (ml) = 1 centilitre (cl)
10 centilitres = 1 decilitre (dl) = 100 millilitres
10 decilitres = 1 litre1 = 1000 millilitres
10 litres = 1 decalitre (dal)
10 decalitres = 1 hectolitre (hl) = 100 litres
10 hectolitres = 1 kilolitre (kl) = 1000 litres
Units of Mass
10 milligrams (mg) = 1 centigram (cg)
10 centigrams = 1 decigram (dg) = 100 milligrams
10 decigrams = 1 gram (g) = 1000 milligrams
SCIENCE

10 grams = 1 decagram (dag)

10 decagrams = 1 hectogram (hg) = 100 grams
10 hectograms = 1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 grams
1000 kilograms = 1 megagram (Mg) or 1 metric ton(t)

Some Common measurements used in our daily life.

1 Feet = 30.48 cm
1 Sq.feet = 30.48 cm x 30.48 cm = 929.0304 sq.cm
1 Ground = 2400 sq.feet
1 Kuzhi = 145.2 sq.feet
1 Cent = 435. 60 sq.feet
1 Acre = 43560 sq.feet = 300 Kuzhi = 100 Cent
In practice, we use only rounded off values of the above measurements.

6.1
Collect some other measurements that are used in your locality.

218
 Measurements

EVALUATION
1. Ramu and Madhu are friends. They wanted to measure the length of a
room. Ramu wanted to measure it in foot. But Madhu wanted to measure it
in metres. Who is right in measuring the room in the internationally accepted
system. Why?
2. Match the following

1 Temperature candela
2 Amount of Substance kelvin
3 Luminous Intensity kilogram
4 Mass second
5 Time mole
3. Which of the following statement is correct?

SCIENCE
a. The unit of force is Newton
b. The unit of force is newton
4. Murugan measured the electric current. What unit should he use?
5. Say true or false.
a. The symbol for units should be written with a small letter.
b. There should be a full stop at the end of a symbol for units.
c. We should not use plurals when we write the unit in words.
d. The SI unit for mass is KG.
Collect pictures of various measuring instruments and prepare an
Project : 
album.

further Reference
Books: 1. Physics vol (1) and(2) - Satya Prakash - Rahul Jain V K (India )
Enterprises, NewDelhi-2

2. The Physics Quick reference guide - E.Richard Cohen 1996 -

American Institute of Physics.

Webliography: www.metrication.com
www.surfnet.org/wiki/A-level-physics
www.physics.nist.gov/cuu/unit
219
 Chapter 5

M EASUREMENT AND
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
• Concept of small measurements
• Measuring length
• Vernier Caliper
• Measuring mass and weight
• Measuring time
 MEASUREMENT AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Nicolaus Copernicus
Nicolaus Copernicus GalileoGalilei
Galileo Galilei Tycho
TychoBrahe
Brahe Johannes Kepler
Johannes Kepler

Claudius Ptolemy (AD 90 – AD 168) was one of the most influential Greek writers
of his times. He wrote that the moon, the sun and all the planets revolved around the
Earth in an almost circular path. This remained the belief among people of Europe for
almost thousand four hundred years. It was based on the observation that the sun, the
stars and the moon rose in the east and set in the west.

Four sixteenth century astronomers Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543), Tycho Brahe

(1546 – 1601), Galileo (1564 – 1642) and Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) changed that
view completely. They dared to question the age-old belief. Based on keen observations
and accurate measurements, they realized that it was the earth that was going around
the sun; not the other way around.

Copernicus was the first to point out that Mercury, Venus, Saturn, Jupiter and Mars
moved in a path that seemed to be centred around the sun and not the Earth.

Tycho Brahe, one of the greatest observing astronomers of any age, devised the
most precise instrument available for observing the heavens. Observations of angular
measurement in his times were correct to ¼ of a degree; but Tycho’s were accurate
to 1/30th of a degree. He produced the most detailed study of planets and stars of his
time – an almanac of 777 stars.

SCIENCE
Galileo built his own telescope, an instrument to observe the skies. The instrument
gave a view of the heavens that was never before possible, affording close-up scrutiny
of stars and planets. He discovered the three moons of the Jupiter, the rings of the
Saturn and many other things in the skies. Based on his own observations, he supported
Copernicus’ view that the sun was at the centre of the orbits of the planets.

Kepler used the detailed record of observations made by Tycho particularly that of
the planet Mars. Kepler proved beyond doubt using mathematical calculations that the
planets followed an elliptical path around the sun rather than a circular one around the
Earth. He was the first to introduce mathematically precise calculations.

Finally, the thousand four hundred year old belief was put to rest. It was made
possible because of careful observations, accurate measurements using scientific
instruments and detailed calculations.

77
PHYSICS
5.1. IMPORTANCE OF ACCURATE
MEASUREMENTS
Have you read any detective stories or
novels? The detective looks at the scene
of crime, observes carefully, notices the
position of things and is able to tell how
the thief came into the room, what the thief
looked for, what was stolen and finally, how
the thief escaped from the scene of the
crime with the booty.
Great scientists are a bit like the
detectives, we come across in detective
novels. They observe carefully, notice
things, make the necessary measurements
and are able to guess what must be actually
happening in nature.
Look at the diagram given below. You
can observe a set of dots in it.
Using a pencil, you can draw whatever
pictures you want by joining the dots, in as
many ways as possible. It is not necessary
to use all the dots. Thereafter, erase all the
lines and join the dots in the sequence as
indicated by the numbers and see what the
artist had in mind.
Imagine that each dot is a fact or a
piece of data. The lines that join them are
our interpretations of the data. We could
give greater importance to some data by
using that dot more than once. We could
also avoid using some dots, if we think
78
CHAPTER - 5
ACTIVITY 5.1 I DO
Read the passage given in the
previous page and underline the words
that you do not understand. Read the
passage again and see if the meaning
of some of those words is explained in
the passage itself. Make a list of words
that you still don’t understand. Refer to
a dictionary, if possible. Bring it up for
a discussion in activity 5.2 or ask your
teacher.
What are the questions that come to
your mind? Write down those questions
in your note-book.
ACTIVITY 5.2 WE DO
Try this simple activity. The whole class
can divide themselves into small groups.
Discuss the questions given below:
ƒƒ According to the passage, what are
the two important requirements for
a better understanding of the world
around us?
ƒƒ Why should our observations be sharp
and keen?
ƒƒ Why should measurements be
accurate?
ƒƒ What are the three fundamental
quantities we have learnt about in our
earlier classes?
ƒƒ What are the SI units of the three
fundamental quantities?
ƒƒ What are the smaller and larger units
of Length, Mass and Time that we
already know? Check each other out
to make sure that every student is
able to recall the fundamental smaller
and larger units.
ƒƒ When do you use the smaller units
and when do you use the larger units?
ƒƒ Present a summary of the discussions
to the class and request your teacher
to give her / his feedback.
 MEASUREMENT AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
those pieces of data are less important
or less reliable. Such a construction is
called a Hypothesis in science. Thus many
interpretations or hypotheses are possible
with the given one set of data, but which one
is the right one? It is possible to decide on
that, only after we verify the hypotheses in
a number of different ways or by obtaining
additional data to see if they coincide with
the lines that we have drawn.
Quite often it happens that several
years later, fresh data comes up and in the
light of the fresh data our understanding
of what is actually happening changes.
Very often fresh data comes up with
technological advancements and
subsequently human beings are able to
make more accurate measurements than
what their forefathers did. A lot therefore
depends on the instruments that are used
to make the measurements. Are they
accurate? Are they reliable? Let us learn
more about measurements and measuring
instruments!!
5.2. THREE CHARACTERISTICS OF you had a Voltmeter that reads from 150V
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
There are three important characteristics
of measuring instruments that one must be
familiar with. They are:
ƒƒ Least Count
ƒƒ Range
ƒƒ Zero Error
The smallest value that any instrument
can measure is called the least count of
the instrument. For example, if you use
a scale then the smallest division is one
millimeter. It is the smallest value that the
scale can measure and is called the least
count of the scale. Some scales used for
engineering drawing have half millimeter
markings and therefore the least count of
such scales is 0.5mm. When we say that
the length can be measured correct to a
79
millimeter, then we mean that
the least count of the scale is
one millimeter. Can you find the
least count of the spring balance
shown in the picture on the right?
The values between the
minimum measurable value and
the maximum value that can be
measured is called the range
of the instrument. For example,
the range of the scale is zero
centimeter to thirty centimeters.
Usually, we state the maximum
value as the range since the
minimum value is generally zero.
When we say, the range of the
metre scale is 100cm, we mean
that the range is from zero to 100cm.
There are, however, special instruments
that are designed to measure from a
specific minimum value to a maximum
value. In such cases we say the range of
the instrument is from such and such value
to such and such value. For example, if
to 250V, then we say that the range of the
Voltmeter is from 150V to 250V. Usually
such instruments are built for a specific
purpose and optimized to give accurate
SCIENCE
readings within the design range and the
designer expects that the value will not go
outside the design range.
Often instruments do not read zero at
the minimum position. For example, the
needle of an Ammeter may read 0.02
amperes when it is not connected to the
circuit. Such an error is called zero error,
since the needle at the minimum position
is not reading zero. While using the
instrument, one has to apply a correction
to the reading to obtain the real value.
The value that is read off the instrument
is called the observed value to which we
apply the zero error correction and obtain
the measured value. We will learn more
PHYSICS CHAPTER - 5
about zero error and zero error correction Similarly 10-6 seconds of time can be
later when we read about the Vernier referred to as a microsecond. These
Caliper. prefixes can be used along with derived
SI units as well. 1000000(106) joules of
5.3. SI PREFIXES
energy can be referred to as a megajoule.
You already know the SI units for some You may be aware of some of these
selected fundamental quantities. Let us prefixes.
recall some of them:- Smaller Quantities
Factor Prefix Symbol
Dimension SI Unit
10-1 deci d
Length Metre
10-2 centi c
Mass Kilogram 10-3 milli m
Time Second 10-6 micro µ
Electric current Ampere 10-9 nano n

The metre, the gram, the second and

Larger Quantities
the ampere are known as the base units,
Factor Prefix Symbol
to which we can add some prefixes.
The international committee on weights 101 deca da
and measures also agreed on standard 102 hecto h
prefixes to base units to express smaller 103 kilo k
and larger quantities in terms of the base 106 mega M
units. As far as possible, the SI unit was 109 giga G
kept as the base unit. The SI unit of mass,
the kilogram, however was an exception – The kilogram is an exception. The
can you guess why? base unit for mass is the gram, however
Thus one-tenth of a metre or 0.1 of a the SI unit of mass is the kilogram and it
metre can be referred to as a decimeter. already uses a prefix “kilo” which means
ACTIVITY 5.3 I DO 1000 grams. The prefixes are added to the
base unit ‘gram’ e.g.– milligram, decagram
Find the least count and range of the
etc. A thousand kilograms would make a
different instruments used in your school
megagram; it is also referred to as a tonne
physics laboratory.
or a metric ton.
I observe the divisions of my
measuring scale. I check the number of 5.4. SOME HELPFUL TIPS
divisions in 1cm. From my observation 5.4.1. Tips for making accurate
I find, if 10 divisions are seen, then 10 measurements
divisions = 1cm;
1. N
 ever use the edge of the metre scale
i.e. 1 division = 1/10 cm = 0.1cm = 1 mm to measure the length of an object as
Hence, I conclude that the least count it is invariably worn out and introduces
of the scale is 0.1cm or 1mm. an unspecified amount of zero error.
In the same way, I find the least Instead, align any centimeter mark to
count of different instruments used in my the left end of the object. Now take the
school laboratory. reading of the left edge and that of the

80
 MEASUREMENT AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
right edge. The difference between the Wornout edge
two readings will give the length of the
object.
2. R
 eadings must be taken with one eye
closed. The line joining the eye, the edge
of the object and the scale marking must
be perpendicular to the scale to avoid
what is called parallax error. Eye position
1 in the given figure is incorrect as pointer
would appear to read 12.2. Eye position
3 is incorrect as the pointer would appear
to read 11.8. Eye position 2 is the correct
one, where the observed reading is the
same as the actual reading.
3. R
 eadings must be exact multiples of the
least count. For example, if the length of
the object lies between two markings on
the scale, the length must be read off to
the nearest marking on the scale. Never estimate the value by interpolating. In the
figure given, pencil A is exactly 16 cm since the tip of the pencil coincides with the
16cm mark. In case B, however, the crayon’s length lies between 2.75 inches and 3
inches and is closer to 3 inches than to 2.75 inches. The length should therefore be
recorded as 3 inches. This “error” is actually a limitation of the instrument being used
for measurement and not the fault of the person making the measurement. It is called
the uncertainty in measurement and you will learn more about it in higher classes.

5.4.2. Tips for recording measurements

1. Recorded values of measurements must always be accompanied by the appropriate

SCIENCE
units. B
2. As far as possible, measurements must be tabulated.
3. Values must be recorded to the appropriate decimal place. For example, if the length
is measured correct to a millimeter, say 40mm, but is recorded in centimeters then it

81 A
PHYSICS
must be recorded as 4.0cm and not as
4cm. The ‘0’ after the decimal indicates
that the measurement has been made
correct to the millimeter. On the other
hand, if it is recorded in meters then it
must be recorded as 0.040m and not as
.04m. Once again the ‘0’ after the digit
‘4’ indicates that the measurement has
been made correct to the millimeter.
The recording 0.04 indicates that the
value has been measured correct to the
centimeter. The last digit ‘0’ therefore
signifies the least count to which the
measurement has been made.
5.5. MEASURING LENGTH
5.5.1. Vernier caliper
The vernier caliper is a device that is
used a great deal in engineering work and
in workshops which manufacture things. It
is an ingenious device where two scales
with fairly large least counts are used in
conjunction with one another to measure
very small values of length. The auxiliary
scale, now called the Vernier scale after
the inventor, is used nowadays in almost
every instrument meant for accurate
measurement such as the barometer, the
microscope, the sextant (for measuring
small angles), etc.
5.5.2. The principle of the vernier
The principle of the Vernier is delightfully
simple. Let us say, you have two scales,
one with a least count of 1.0mm(main
scale) and the other with a least count of
0.9mm (auxiliary or Vernier scale) you can
then measure an object whose length is
0.1mm quite easily. Refer to the diagram
alongside; by aligning the left edge of the
object with the zero of the main scale and
butting the edge of the auxiliary scale to the
edge of the object, you would find that the
first marking of the auxiliary scale would
exactly coincide with the first marking of
the main scale (object length, 0.1mm +
82
CHAPTER - 5
Pierre Vernier (1580 - 1637 ) was a
French government official. Vernier was
taught Mathematics and science by his
father who was a lawyer and engineer.
His father introduced Pierre to the works
of Tycho Brahe. He worked for much
of the time as an engineer, working
on the fortifications of various cities.
Like many other mathematicians and
scientists of that period, Vernier worked
on cartography and on surveying. He
collaborated with his father in making
a map of the Franche-Comté area. His
interest in surveying led him to develop
instruments for surveying and this
prompted the invention for which he
is remembered by all scientists. In his
publication La Construction, l’usage,
et les propriétés du quadrant nouveau
de Mathématiques, he explains the
use of the auxiliary scale in making
measurements – now called the Vernier
scale. He also compiled a huge table of
natural sines – a table from which the
angle of a triangle can be obtained if
the length of the sides of the triangle is
known, about which you will learn in your
maths class.
vernier division, 0.9mm = 1.0mm, the first
main scale division).
Going the other way around, if we did not
know the size of the object and we found
that the first vernier division coincided with
the first main scale division, we could state
that the size of the object must be 0.1mm,
since:-
object length, 0.1mm = 1.0mm, the
first main scale division - vernier division,
0.9mm
You could now say that the least count of
the combination of scales is 0.1 mm, which
is the difference between the two least
counts. Popularly it is written as follows:-
 MEASUREMENT AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
L.C. (of the instrument) = 1 MSD – 1 VSD
If on the other hand, the size of the object
being measured is 0.2mm long and the
auxiliary scale is butted against the object
the second vernier marking will coincide
with the second main scale division (object
length, 0.2mm + two vernier divisions,
1.8mm = 2.0mm). Going the other way
around, if we did not know the size of the
object and we observed that the second
vernier division coincided with the second
main scale division we could say that the
size of the object is 0.2mm.
object length, 0.2mm = 2.0mm, the
second main scale division – two x vernier
divisions, 1.8mm
There is a pattern here and we could
try extending by using the same logic and
saying that if the object was 0.4mm long
then the fourth vernier division would
coincide with the fourth main scale division.
Further if it was 0.9mm long, then the ninth
vernier division would coincide with the
ninth main scale division. I could write this
as:
Object length, 0.9mm = 9.0mm, the
ninth main scale division – nine x vernier
divisions, 8.1mm
0.9mm = 9*Main scale division –
9*Vernier scale division
Isn’t this quite an ingenious way of
measuring correct to 0.1mm, when you
have two scales with much larger least
count?
We have discovered a pattern and we
know how to extend the pattern using the
83
same logic. Now let us try to generalise. To
generalise means to write the same thing
in terms of an unknown variable(X) which
we call a formula - a formula which will be
valid for all real values of X. So let us say
that the Xth vernier division coincides with
a main scale division. Then :-
object length, 0.X mm = X*Main scale
division – X* Vernier scale divisions
object length, 0.X mm = X(Main scale
division – Vernier scale division)
object length, 0.X mm = X(Least
Count)…….[remember? Least count = 1 MSD
– 1 VSD]
Let us consider a case where the size
of the object is something like 3.24 cm
(32.4mm). On the main scale, the edge of
the object would lie between 3.2cm and
3.3cm. This could be written as 32mm+
X mm.
SCIENCE
The 0.4mm of length extending beyond
the 3.2cm (32mm) mark would be the
extent of uncertainty as read on the main
scale. When the auxiliary scale is slid in
place, the fourth vernier division would
coincide with some main scale division (we
don’t really care which). Using the formula
given above, we know that the extra length
can be obtained by multiplying the vernier
coincident 4, by the least count which in the
example happens to be 0.1mm. Therefore,
Object length, 32.X mm = 32+X*(Least
Count)
We finally arrive at the most useful form
of the formula which is:
PHYSICS CHAPTER - 5

Object length = Main scale reading + (Vernier coincident*least count)

5.5.3. Description of vernier caliper

The Vernier Caliper used in the laboratory is a modern version of the age-old one. A
picture of a Vernier Caliper is shown below.
The Vernier Caliper consists of :-
ƒƒ A thin long steel bar graduated in cm and mm (4). This is the Main scale.
ƒƒ F
 ixed perpendicular to the bar at the left end of the steel bar carrying the main scale
is an upper fixed jaw and a lower fixed jaw.
ƒƒ T
 o the right of the fixed jaws mounted on the steel bar is a slider with a upper movable
jaw and a lower movable jaw.
ƒƒ The slider can be fixed to any position using the tightening screw or friction nut.
 he Vernier scale (6) is marked on the slider and moves along with the movable
ƒƒ T
jaws and the slider.
ƒƒ T
 he lower jaws (1) are used to measure the external dimensions and the upper jaws
(2) are used to measure the internal dimensions of objects.
ƒƒ T
 he thin bar attached to the Vernier scale at the right side (3) is called the depth probe
and is used to measure the depth of hollow objects.
5.5.4. Using the vernier caliper
The first step in using the vernier Caliper is to find out its characteristics Least
count, Range and Zero error.

2a 2b
7
8

1a 1b
1. Lower Jaws 2. Upper Jaws 3. Depth Probe 6. Vernier
1a. Lower Fixed Jaw 2a. Upper Fixed Jaw 4. Main Scale 7. Friction Nut
1b. Lower Movable Jaw 2b. Upper Movable Jaw 5. Retainer 8.Slider

84
 MEASUREMENT AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Least Count:
The least count is ascertained using the
formula we obtained earlier in para 5.5.2.
 .C (of the instrument) = 1 MSD – 1
L
VSD
The main scale division is easily obtained
by inspecting the main scale. Invariably it
will be in centimeters, further divided into
millimeters. The least count of the main
scale or main scale division is therefore
usually one millimeter. The vernier scale
division is obtained by measuring the
vernier scale against the main scale. In the
vernier Caliper, nine main scale divisions
would be divided into ten equal parts
(9mm/10 = 0.9mm). The least count would
therefore be 1 MSD – 1VSD, 0.1mm (1mm
– 0.9mm).
Zero Error:
Loosen the friction nut and close the
jaws of the Caliper by moving the slider to
the extreme left position. Check whether
the zero markings of the main scale and
the vernier scales coincide. Suppose the
zero mark of the vernier is shifted slightly
to the right, then we need to remember to
subtract that amount from the observed
value to get the measured value. The error
is therefore considered positive and the
correction you need to apply is negative
(subtract). On the other hand, if the vernier
zero is shifted to the left of the main scale
zero marking then it is considered negative
zero error and the correction for it is to add
(+) the error value to the observed value.
Rarely will the zero error exceed a mm,
since the Vernier Caliper is an accurate
instrument.
Positive zero error:
To obtain the value of the zero error
simply count the number of the vernier
scale division that coincides with any one
of the main scale division and multiply it
85
with the LC of the instrument. Suppose the
fifth vernier division coincides with a main
scale division, then multiply five with the
least count (0.1mm) to get + 0.5mm.
Negative zero error:
If the zero error is negative, then you
need to imagine the main scale extending
backwards by one division which we shall
call negative 1(-1.0 mm). Therefore, we
would need to add the vernier reading
to -1.0mm. Let us say we find the 8th
vernier division which coincides with any
main scale division. Using the formula we
evolved earlier:
Object length = Main scale reading +
(Vernier coincidence*least count)
We get zero error = (-)1.0+8*0.1
= (-)1.0+0.8 =(-) 0.2mm
Range: Now move the slider to the
extreme right position without slipping off
the bar. Note the maximum value that can
be read off the main scale. The range of
the instrument decides the maximum size
object that can be measured using Vernier
Caliper.
Measure the dimensions of familiar
objects using the Vernier Caliper. You could
try measuring length, width and height of
SCIENCE
objects and calculate their volume. For
example, you could measure the inner
diameter of a beaker (use the appropriate
jaws) as well as its depth (use the depth
probe) and calculate the inner volume of
the beaker.
Coincident
Positive Zero Error
PHYSICS CHAPTER - 5
Tabulate the values as shown in the Imagine Coincident
sample table below.
Least Count ………..cm Zero Error
…(+ or-)…….cm Zero Error Correction …
(- or +)……cm Negative Zero Error

Main Observed Corrected or

Vernier
Scale Reading(OR) Measured
S.No Coincidence
Reading Reading
(VC) = MSR+(VC x LC)
(MSR) OR ± ZEC

cm divisions cm cm

1.

2.

3.

5.5.5. Digital vernier caliper

Digital Vernier Caliper has a digital display on the slider. The slider also houses the
electronic calculator which calculates the measured value that is then displayed. The
user need not manually calculate the least count, the zero error etc. or take the trouble of
finding the vernier coincident manually.
Digital Vernier Caliper

5.6. MEASURING MASS

When we go to a shop to buy something, say a kg of rice, we often buy it in terms of the
‘weight’. In layman’s parlance what is called ‘weight’ is actually mass in science parlance.
Many things are measured in terms of the mass in the commercial world. We buy gold
which is measured in grams or milligrams, medicines in 500mg or 250mg values, load
trucks in terms of tons etc. Can we use the same instrument for measuring milligrams of
medicine or gold and the tens of tons of cargo that is loaded on an aeroplane? What kinds

ACTIVITY 5.4 I DO
Take a cylindrical glass beaker from your school lab and using a vernier caliper
find the volume of glass used to make the beaker. Plan out the activity and discuss
with your teacher.
Hint: You would need to use both pairs of jaws and the depth probe.
Can you think of other ways of doing the same thing?

86
 MEASUREMENT AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
of instruments are used in measuring such
quantities? In this section, we will go over
some of the instruments that are used for
measuring mass.
Common (beam) balance
A beam balance compares the sample
mass with a standard reference mass
(known masses such as 100g, 200g etc.).
Least counts of 20g to 50 mg are possible.
Two pan balance
This type of balance is commonly used
for measuring mass in shops. This balance
too compares the sample mass with a
standard reference mass. The pans rest on
top of the beam and can be conveniently
placed on a table top. Least counts are
generally in the region of 10g to 50g.
ACTIVITY 5.5
This activity needs to be done in the
company of an adult with whom you need
to visit as many of the following places
and find out the least count, range and
zero error (if any) of the instrument used
to measure mass.
ƒƒ Provision shop – Beam balance
ƒƒ Grocery store – Two pan balance
ƒƒ J ewellery shop
ƒƒ R  ailway parcel office
87
Physical balance
It is used in laboratories. It is similar
to the beam balance but is a lot more
sensitive and can measure mass of an
object correct to a milligram.
5.7. MEASURING TIME
The pendulum as a reliable measure
of time was first articulated by Galileo in
1602. In those days many lamps would
be mounted on a large glass arrangement
suspended from the ceiling. Such an
elaborate arrangement was called a
“chandelier”. Watching the glass chandelier
of the church move to and fro in the wind,
SCIENCE
Galileo realized that a simplified form of
the pendulum could be used to keep time.
5.7.1. The pendulum
A pendulum is a heavy bob suspended
by a light thread. The length [L] of the
pendulum is measured from the point
of suspension or pivot to the centre of
gravity of the bob. When the pendulum
is displaced from the centre position and
released, it begins to swing to and fro. One
complete to and fro motion is called an
oscillation. The maximum displacement of
the bob from the mean position is called
the amplitude of the oscillation. The time
taken for one oscillation (one complete to
PHYSICS CHAPTER - 5
and fro movement) is called the time period MORE TO KNOW
of the pendulum (T). The time period of the
pendulum: The prehistoric man, by simple
ƒƒ d
 oes not depend on the amplitude and observation of the stars, change of
this can be verified experimentally. seasons, and the day-night cycle
came up with very primitive methods
ƒƒ is proportional to the square root
of the length of the pendulum. of measuring time. This was necessary
[ Tα√L]. for planning nomadic activity, farming,
sacred feasts, etc. The earliest time
ƒƒ is inversely proportional to the square
measurement devices before clocks and
root of the acceleration due to gravity.
__
1
[ Tα ]. watches were the sundial, the hourglass
√g and the water clock. The Egyptians, in
Putting both together along with the about 3500 B.C. built tall pillars to use
constant of proportionality, 2π, we get the the shadow as a way of telling time. Over
final form of the formula:
__ time, these grew into more sophisticated

√
T = 2 π __L instruments such as the sundial, yet they
g could not read the time at night or in
You will be doing an experiment related to cloudy weather or when the length of the
this formula in your practical class, giving the days changed with the seasons.
time period of the pendulum. Alternatively,
knowing the length, L; the time period, T; The Greeks invented the water clock
we can determine the acceleration due to and the sand hourglass. Both these were
gravity, g. great improvements over the sundial.
They could give the time during the day
5.7.2. Clocks
as well as the night and had a much
Sundial better least count.
The sundial has a stick or object to cast
a shadow on the horizontal surface. As
the sun moves across the sky, the position
of the shadow moves on the dial face to
indicate time. The least count of such
sundials again varied a great deal and
improved from about one hour to about 15
minutes in the later years.
Water Clock

It was an evenly marked container with

a float and pointer into which water dripped
in at a fixed rate. As the water dripped into
the container, the level of water increased.
The time was read off on the level markings
on the wall of the container. Since the rate
of flow of water depended on the level
of water in the upper container it was

88
 MEASUREMENT AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
improved to provide a constant rate of flow
as shown in the diagram alongside. The
least count of such instruments varied a
great deal but people were happy to have
a least count of about a quarter of an hour.
Sand Clock
It was made up of two rounded glass
bulbs connected by a narrow neck of
glass, between them. When the hourglass
is turned upside down, a
measured amount of sand
particles stream through from
the top bulb to the bottom
bulb of the glass. These
were more like timers which
measured one hour typically
and were therefore also called
“hourglass” and had to be
inverted every hour. They can also be built
to measure smaller units of time for special
purposes.
5.7.3. Another characteristic of instruments
- accuracy
You would have observed that some
watches keep correct time, while some
lose or gain time. Some watches lose or
gain as much as five minutes in a day
89
(24 hrs.). Some watches, on the other
hand, lose or gain about five minutes in
a whole month. The latter are said to be
more accurate than the former.
Do not confuse accuracy with least
count. If we take two clocks with the same
least count of 1 second but one loses 5
minutes every day and the other loses
five minutes in 30 days; the second clock
is said to be more accurate since the time
measured by the second clock is closer to
the actual value.
5.7.4. Atomic clock
Atomic clocks are the most accurate
timekeepers ever known. The best
ones lose or gain 1 second in 109 days
(approximately 2739726 years). This
means that once synchronized, for
generations your family members need not
reset the clock. Therefore, these clocks are
used as primary standards for international
time. Atomic clocks can be made to look
like any other clock with a least count of
one second or with a least count of one
millisecond for scientific purposes.
SCIENCE
PHYSICS CHAPTER - 5
ACTIVITY 5.6 I DO MORE TO KNOW
Try building your own sundial or water
In India, the time standard is provided
clock at home. Plan out the activity and
by the atomic clock kept at the National
discuss with your teacher. Present what
Physical laboratory, New Delhi.
you did in the class.

MODEL EVALUATION
PART A
1. 5 x 107 μs is equivalent to _________________ .
a) 0.5 s b) 5 s c) 50 s d) 500 s

2. Which of the following parts of a Vernier caliper are used to measure the internal
diameter of a cylindrical pipe?
(depth probe, retainer, lower jaws, upper jaws)

3. 
Write the Zero error of the Vernier caliper shown in the adjacent diagram.
Zero error = _________________ .
Coincident

4. What is the least count of your wrist watch? Is it same for all kinds of watches?

5. Name the clock which is used to measure the short time intervals accurately.
0
6. The wavelength of monochromatic light is 6000 A . Write this value in nm.

PART B
1. Match the following:

Sl.No. Device Place of use

1. Beam balance Jewellery shop
2. Medical scale Laboratories
3. Physical balance Hospitals
4. Digital balance Markets

2. In a Vernier caliper, the difference between I MSD and 1 VSD is found to be 0.1 mm.
What does it represent?

3. Kavitha wants to measure the thickness of a sheet of paper of her science textbook,
which contains 250 pages, using a Vernier caliper. Explain how she can do this
appropriately.

90
 MEASUREMENT AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
4. A student measures the diameter of a bead using a digital Vernier caliper. The reading
on the digital caliper scale is 4.27 cm. If he wants to verify the result with the ordinary
Vernier caliper with no error,

i) where will the zero of the vernier lie in the main scale?

ii) which divisions of the Vernier scale reading will coincide with the main scale reading?

5. Calculate the correct readings of the Vernier caliper from the given table:

Least count =0.01 cm; Zero correction = Nil

Observed Reading
Correct Reading
Sl.No. MSR VC = MSR + (VC x LC)
OR ± ZC cm
cm
1. 3 4
2. 3 7

6. Complete the table choosing the right term from the list given in brackets:

(109, micro, d, 10-9, milli, m, M)

Factor Prefix Symbol

10-1 deci
10-6 μ
giga G
106 mega

7. What is the need of measurement? Explain.

8. Copy and complete the table shown below:

Measurement Unit Symbol

SCIENCE
Length
Kilogram
s

9. The diagram shows a Vernier caliper.

B C

A F
E D

a) In the diagram, label the parts marked A,B,C,D,E and F.

b) State the functions of the parts A,B,C and F.

91
PHYSICS CHAPTER - 5
10. Read the main scale and the vernier scale of the Vernier caliper shown in the figure
given below. What is the length recorded by this caliper?
0 10

3 4
11. A
 Vernier caliper has a zero error +0.06 cm . Draw a neat labelled diagram to
represent it.

12. A student writes the length of an object measured from a metre ruler as 4.20 cm. Is
he justified in writing this value? Explain.

13. Which is more sensitive: a stop watch or a stop clock? Give a reason to your answer.
14. Name any two units of length which are bigger than the metre. Write the relation
between each of those units and the metre.
PART C

1. i) Define the least count of an instrument.

ii) Explain the types of Zero error of the Vernier caliper.

iii) Write the steps involved in measuring any dimension of a given object using a
Vernier caliper.

Explore and Answer

1. The sundial cannot be used during the nights. Give reason.

2. Match the following:

a) IST b) Quartz Clock c) Digital Balance d) Spring Balance

i) Strain gauge ii) Weight iii) Liquid Crystal Display iv) GMT

3. Which one has more quantity of matter, a cricket ball or an iron sphere of the same
size? Why?

4. Solve the crossword puzzle:

Left to Right
1. The smallest measurement that can be measured with a device.
2. The prefix of 10-9
Top to Bottom
a. Separation between two ends of a thread.
b. A measuring device used in classroom.
c. ‘Second’ is the unit of this quantity.

92
 MEASUREMENT AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

2
1
a b c

5. A device works on the principle of periodic vibrations taking place within a ceasium
atom. Give the significance of the device.

SCIENCE

Further reference
Books: 1. Fundamentals of Physics - David Halliday & Robert Resnick JohnWiley
2. Complete Physics for IGCSE – Oxford publications

Webliography: h
 ttp://www.nist.gov/pml/
http://www.teach-nology.com
http://www.splung.com
http://www.khanacademy.org

93
 Chapter 14
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Physics is the most basic science, which
deals with the study of nature and natural
phenomena. It is a science of measurement.
The ultimate test of any physical quantity
is its agreement with observations and
measurement of physical phenomena. One
of the major contributions of physics to
other sciences and society are the various
measuring instruments and techniques
that physics has developed. One such
instrument is the screw gauge.
14.1. SCREW GAUGE
The Screw Gauge is an instrument to
measure the dimensions of very small
objects upto 0.01 mm.
The Screw Gauge consists of
‘U’ shaped metal frame (Fig. 14.1.).
A hollow cylinder is attached to one end
of the frame.
Grooves are cut on the inner surface of
S2 S1 Hollow Cylindrical tube
Index line
U-Shaped Frame
the cylinder through which a screw passes.
On the cylinder parallel to the axis of the
screw a scale is graduated in millimeter
called Pitch Scale.
One end of the screw is attached to a
sleeve. The head of the sleeve is divided
into 100 divisions called the Head Scale.
The other end of the screw has a plane
surface (S1). A stud (S2) is attached to the
other end of the frame, just opposite the tip
of the screw.
The screw head is provided with a Ratchat
arrangement (safety device) to prevent the
user from exerting undue pressure.
a Principle of the Screw Gauge
The screw gauge works under the
principle of the screw. When a screw is
rotated in a nut, the distance moved by the
tip of the screw is directly proportional to the
number of rotations.
Milled Head
Safety device
Pitch Scale (Ratchat)
Head Scale
Fig 14.1
229
 Pitch of the Screw For example the 5th division of the head
scale coincides with the pitch scale axis.
The pitch of the screw is the distance
then the zero error is positive.(Fig.14.3)
between two successive screw threads. It
and is given by,
is also equal to the distance travelled by the
tip of the screw for one complete rotation of
the head.

Distance travelled on the pitch scale

Pitch =
No.of rotations of the head scale

Least Count of a Screw Gauge

The distance moved by the tip of the
screw for a rotation of one division on the
head scale is called the least count of the
Screw Gauge.
Pitch
L.C =
No.of divisions on the head scale
Zero Error of a Screw Gauge
When the plane surface of the screw and
the opposite plane stud on the frame are
brought into contact, if the zero of the head
scale coincides with the pitch scale axis,
there is no zero error (Fig. 14.2).
No Zero Error
Fig. 14.3
Z.E = + (n x L.C),
= + (5 x L.C),
and the Zero Correction
Z.C = – (5 x L.C)
Negative Zero Error
When the plane surface of the screw
and the opposite plane stud on the frame
are brought into contact, if the Zero of the
head scale lies above the pitch scale axis,
the zero error is negative.
For example the 5th division coincides
with the pitch scale axis, then the zero
error is negative (Fig. 14.4). and is given
by,

Fig. 14.2

Positive Zero Error

PHYSICS

When the plane surface of the screw Fig 14.4

and the opposite plane stud on the frame Z.E = – (100 – 5) x L.C,
are brought into contact, if the zero of the and the Zero Correction
head scale lies below the pitch scale axis,
Z.C = + (100 – 5) x L.C
the zero error is positive.

230
 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

To measure the diameter of a thin wire
using Screw Gauge
•• 
Determine the Pitch, the Least Count
and the Zero Error of the Screw Gauge.
•• Place the wire between the two studs.
•• Rotate the head until the wire is held
firmly but not tightly, with the help of
ratchet.
•• 
Note the reading on the pitch scale
crossed by the head scale (PSR) and
the head scale division that coincides
with the pitch scale axis (H.S.C).
We now have digital Screw Gauge
which give the reading immediately.
14.2 Measuring Long Distances
For measuring long distances such as
distance of the moon or a planet from the
earth, special methods are adopted. Radio
echo method, laser pulse method and
parallax method are used to determine very
long distances. Units such as astronomical
unit and light year are used to measure
distance in space.
Astronomical Unit

•• 
The diameter of the wire is given by Astronomical Unit is the mean distance
P.S.R + (H.S.C x L.C) ± Z.C of the centre of the sun from the centre of
the earth.
•• 
Repeat the experiment for different
portions of the wire. 1 Astronomical Unit (AU) = 1.496 x 1011 m

•• Tabulate the readings. Light year

•• 
T he average of the last column Light year is the distance travelled by
reading gives the diameter of the light in one year in vacuum.
wire. Distance travelled by light in one year
Total Reading in vacuum = Velocity of light x 1 year
H.S.C
S. P.S.R H.S.C
x L.C
P.S.R + (in seconds)
No. (mm) (division) (H.S.C x L.C)
(mm) = 3 x 108 x 365.25 x 24 x 60 x 60
± Z.C (mm)
1 = 9.467 x 1015 m
2 Therefore , 1 light year = 9.467 x 1015 m
3

MODEL EVALUATION
PART - A
1. Screw Gauge is an instrument used to measure the dimensions of very small objects
CHAPTER 14

upto (0.1 cm, 0.01 cm, 0.1 mm, 0.01 mm)

2. In a Screw Gauge, if the zero of the head scale lies below the pitch scale axis, the zero
error is .(positive, negative, nil)
3. 
The Screw Gauge is used to measure the diameter of a .
(crowbar, thin wire, cricket ball )

231
 4. One light year is equal to .
i) 365.25 x 24 x 60 x 60 x 3 x 108 m ii) 1x 24 x 60 x 60 x 3 x 108 m
iii) 360 x 24 x 60 x 60 x 3 x 108 m
5. One astronomical unit is the mean distance between the centre of the Earth and centre
of the i) Moon ii) Sun iii) Mars
PART - B
1. Correct the mistakes if any, in the following statements:
i) Astronomical unit is the mean distance of the surface of the sun from the surface of
the earth.
ii) L
 ight year is the distance travelled by light in one year in vacuum at a speed of
3x108 m per minute.
2. Match the items in group A with the items in group B:
Sl.No. Group – A Group – B
1. 11111111

Small dimensions Kilometre

2.

2.11111111
Large dimensions Screw gauge
3. 11111111
Long distance Scale
4. 11111111
Small distance Light year
Altimeter
3. ­Fill in the blanks:
The special methods adopted to determine very large distances are and
. .
(Laser pulse method, Light year method, Radio echo method, Astronomical method)
4. Least count of a screw gauge is an important concept related to screw gauge. What do
you mean by the term least count of a screw gauge?
5. Label the following parts in the given screw gauge diagram.
i) Head scale ii) Pitch scale
iii) Index line iv) Ratchet

FURTHER REFERENCE
PHYSICS

Books: 1. Complete physics(IGCSE) - Oxford University press, New York

2. Practical physics – Jerry. D. Wilson – Saunders college publishing, USA
Webliography: www.tutorvista.com science.howstuffworks.com

232
and low production costs.
The legitimate purpose of technology is to serve poeple. Our society
is becoming more and more science-oriented. We can become better
members of society if we develop an understanding of the basic laws of
physics.

1.2 Forces of nature

Sir Issac Newton was the first one to give an exact definition for
force.
“Force is the external agency applied on a body to change its state
of rest and motion”.
There are four basic forces in nature. They are gravitational force,
electromagnetic force, strong nuclear force and weak nuclear force.

Gravitational force
It is the force between any two objects in the universe. It is an
attractive force by virtue of their masses. By Newton’s law of gravitation,
the gravitational force is directly proportional to the product of the
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them. Gravitational force is the weakest force among the fundamental
forces of nature but has the greatest large−scale impact on the universe.
Unlike the other forces, gravity works universally on all matter and
energy, and is universally attractive.

Electromagnetic force
It is the force between charged particles such as the force between
two electrons, or the force between two current carrying wires. It is
attractive for unlike charges and repulsive for like charges. The
electromagnetic force obeys inverse square law. It is very strong compared
to the gravitational force. It is the combination of electrostatic and
magnetic forces.

Strong nuclear force

It is the strongest of all the basic forces of nature. It, however,
has the shortest range, of the order of 10−15 m. This force holds the
protons and neutrons together in the nucleus of an atom.

15
Weak nuclear force
Weak nuclear force is important in certain types of nuclear process
such as β-decay. This force is not as weak as the gravitational force.

1.3 Measurement
Physics can also be defined as the branch of science dealing with
the study of properties of materials. To understand the properties of
materials, measurement of physical quantities such as length, mass,
time etc., are involved. The uniqueness of physics lies in the measurement
of these physical quantities.

1.3.1 Fundamental quantities and derived quantities

Physical quantities can be classified into two namely, fundamental
quantities and derived quantities. Fundamental quantities are quantities
which cannot be expressed in terms of any other physical quantity. For
example, quantities like length, mass, time, temperature are fundamental
quantities. Quantities that can be expressed in terms of fundamental
quantities are called derived quantities. Area, volume, density etc. are
examples for derived quantities.

1.3.2 Unit
To measure a quantity, we always compare it with some reference
standard. To say that a rope is 10 metres long is to say that it is 10
times as long as an object whose length is defined as 1 metre. Such a
standard is called a unit of the quantity.
Therefore, unit of a physical quantity is defined as the established
standard used for comparison of the given physical quantity.

The units in which the fundamental quantities are measured are

called fundamental units and the units used to measure derived quantities
are called derived units.

1.3.3 System International de Units (SI system of units)

In earlier days, many system of units were followed to measure
physical quantities. The British system of foot−pound−second or fps
system, the Gaussian system of centimetre − gram − second or cgs
system, the metre−kilogram − second or the mks system were the three

16
systems commonly followed. To bring uniformity, the General Conference
on Weights and Measures in the year 1960, accepted the SI system of
units. This system is essentially a modification over mks system and is,
therefore rationalised mksA (metre kilogram second ampere) system.
This rationalisation was essential to obtain the units of all the physical
quantities in physics.
In the SI system of units there are seven fundamental quantities
and two supplementary quantities. They are presented in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 SI system of units

Physical quantity Unit Symbol

Fundamental quantities
Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Temperature kelvin K
Luminous intensity candela cd
Amount of substance mole mol

Supplementary quantities
Plane angle radian rad
Solid angle steradian sr

1.3.4 Uniqueness of SI system

The SI system is logically far superior to all other systems. The
SI units have certain special features which make them more convenient
in practice. Permanence and reproduceability are the two important
characteristics of any unit standard. The SI standards do not vary with
time as they are based on the properties of atoms. Further SI system
of units are coherent system of units, in which the units of derived
quantities are obtained as multiples or submultiples of certain basic units.
Table 1.2 lists some of the derived quantities and their units.

17
 Table 1.2 Derived quantities and their units
Physical Quantity Expression Unit

Area length × breadth m2

Volume area × height m3
Velocity displacement/ time m s–1
Acceleration velocity / time m s–2
Angular velocity angular displacement / time rad s–1
Angular acceleration angular velocity / time rad s-2
Density mass / volume kg m−3
Momentum mass × velocity kg m s−1
Moment of intertia mass × (distance)2 kg m2
Force mass × acceleration kg m s–2 or N
Pressure force / area N m-2 or Pa
Energy (work) force × distance N m or J
Impulse force × time N s
Surface tension force / length N m-1
Moment of force (torque) force × distance N m
Electric charge current × time A s
Current density current / area A m–2
Magnetic induction force / (current × length) N A–1 m–1

1.3.5 SI standards
Length
Length is defined as the distance between two points. The SI unit
of length is metre.
One standard metre is equal to 1 650 763.73 wavelengths of the
orange − red light emitted by the individual atoms of krypton − 86 in a
krypton discharge lamp.
Mass
Mass is the quantity of matter contained in a body. It is
independent of temperature and pressure. It does not vary from place

18
to place. The SI unit of mass is kilogram.
The kilogram is equal to the mass of the international prototype of
the kilogram (a plantinum − iridium alloy cylinder) kept at the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sevres, near Paris, France.
An atomic standard of mass has not yet been adopted because it
is not yet possible to measure masses on an atomic scale with as much
precision as on a macroscopic scale.

Time
Until 1960 the standard of time was based on the mean solar day,
the time interval between successive passages of the sun at its highest
point across the meridian. It is averaged over an year. In 1967, an
atomic standard was adopted for second, the SI unit of time.
One standard second is defined as the time taken for
9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to unperturbed
transition between hyperfine levels of the ground state of cesium − 133
atom. Atomic clocks are based on this. In atomic clocks, an error of one
second occurs only in 5000 years.

Ampere
The ampere is the constant current which, flowing through two straight
parallel infinitely long conductors of negligible cross-section, and placed in
vacuum 1 m apart, would produce between the conductors a force of
2 × 10 -7 newton per unit length of the conductors.

Kelvin
1
The Kelvin is the fraction of of the thermodynamic
273.16
temperature of the triple point of water*.

Candela
The candela is the luminous intensity in a given direction due to a

* Triple point of water is the temperature at which saturated water vapour,

pure water and melting ice are all in equilibrium. The triple point temperature of
water is 273.16 K.

19
source, which emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 1012 Hz
1
and of which the radiant intensity in that direction is watt per steradian.
683

Mole
The mole is the amount of substance which contains as many
elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon-12.

1.3.6 Rules and conventions for writing SI units and their symbols
1. The units named after scientists are not written with a capital
initial letter.
For example : newton, henry, watt
2. The symbols of the units named after scientist should be written
by a capital letter.
For example : N for newton, H for henry, W for watt
3. Small letters are used as symbols for units not derived from a
proper name.
For example : m for metre, kg for kilogram
4. No full stop or other punctuation marks should be used within
or at the end of symbols.
For example : 50 m and not as 50 m.
5. The symbols of the units do not take plural form.
For example : 10 kg not as 10 kgs
6. When temperature is expressed in kelvin, the degree sign is
omitted.
For example : 273 K not as 273o K
(If expressed in Celsius scale, degree sign is to be included. For
example 100o C and not 100 C)
7. Use of solidus is recommended only for indicating a division of
one letter unit symbol by another unit symbol. Not more than one
solidus is used.
For example : m s−1 or m / s, J / K mol or J K–1 mol–1 but not
J / K / mol.

20
 8. Some space is always to be left between the number and the
symbol of the unit and also between the symbols for compound units
such as force, momentum, etc.
For example, it is not correct to write 2.3m. The correct
representation is 2.3 m; kg m s–2 and not as kgms-2.
9. Only accepted symbols should be used.
For example : ampere is represented as A and not as amp. or am ;
second is represented as s and not as sec.
10. Numerical value of any physical quantity should be expressed
in scientific notation.
For an example, density of mercury is 1.36 × 104 kg m−3 and not
as 13600 kg m−3.

1.4 Expressing larger and smaller physical quantities

Once the fundamental Table 1.3 Prefixes for power of ten

units are defined, it is easier Power of ten Prefix Abbreviation
to express larger and smaller
10−15 femto f
units of the same physical
quantity. In the metric (SI) 10−12 pico p
system these are related to the 10−9 nano n
fundamental unit in multiples
10−6 micro µ
of 10 or 1/10. Thus 1 km is
10−3 milli m
1000 m and 1 mm is 1/1000
metre. Table 1.3 lists the 10−2 centi c
standard SI prefixes, their 10−1 deci d
meanings and abbreviations.
101 deca da
In order to measure very 102 hecto h
large distances, the following
103 kilo k
units are used.
106 mega M
(i) Light year 109 giga G
Light year is the distance 1012 tera T
travelled by light in one year
1015 peta P
in vacuum.

21
 Distance travelled = velocity of light × 1 year
∴ 1 light year = 3 × 108 m s−1 × 1 year (in seconds)
= 3 × 108 × 365.25 × 24 × 60 × 60
= 9.467 × 1015 m
1 light year = 9.467 × 1015 m

(ii) Astronomical unit

Astronomical unit is the mean distance of the centre of the Sun
from the centre of the Earth.
1 Astronomical unit (AU) = 1.496 × 1011 m

1.5 Determination of distance

For measuring large distances such as the distance of moon or
a planet from the Earth, special methods are adopted. Radio-echo
method, laser pulse method and parallax method are used to determine
very large distances.

Laser pulse method

The distance of moon from the Earth can be determined using
laser pulses. The laser pulses are beamed towards the moon from a
powerful transmitter. These pulses are reflected back from the surface
of the moon. The time interval between sending and receiving of the
signal is determined very accurately.
If t is the time interval and c the velocity of the laser pulses, then
ct
the distance of the moon from the Earth is d = .
2
1.6 Determination of mass
The conventional method of finding the mass of a body in the
laboratory is by physical balance. The mass can be determined to an
accuracy of 1 mg. Now−a−days, digital balances are used to find the
mass very accurately. The advantage of digital balance is that the mass
of the object is determined at once.

1.7 Measurement of time

We need a clock to measure any time interval. Atomic clocks provide
better standard for time. Some techniques to measure time interval are
given below.

22
Quartz clocks
The piezo−electric property* of a crystal is the principle of quartz
clock. These clocks have an accuracy of one second in every 109 seconds.
Atomic clocks
These clocks make use of periodic vibration taking place within
the atom. Atomic clocks have an accuracy of 1 part in 1013 seconds.

1.8 Accuracy and precision of measuring instruments

All measurements are made with the help of instruments. The
accuracy to which a measurement is made depends on several factors.
For example, if length is measured using a metre scale which has
graduations at 1 mm interval then all readings are good only upto this
value. The error in the use of any instrument is normally taken to be half
of the smallest division on the scale of the instrument. Such an error is
called instrumental error. In the case of a metre scale, this error is
about 0.5 mm.
Physical quantities obtained from experimental observation always
have some uncertainity. Measurements can never be made with absolute
precision. Precision of a number is often indicated by following it with
± symbol and a second number indicating the maximum error likely.
For example, if the length of a steel rod = 56.47 ± 3 mm then the
true length is unlikely to be less than 56.44 mm or greater than
56.50 mm. If the error in the measured value is expressed in fraction, it
is called fractional error and if expressed in percentage it is called
percentage error. For example, a resistor labelled “470 Ω, 10%” probably
has a true resistance differing not more than 10% from 470 Ω. So the
true value lies between 423 Ω and 517 Ω.
1.8.1 Significant figures
The digits which tell us the number of units we are reasonably
sure of having counted in making a measurement are called significant
figures. Or in other words, the number of meaningful digits in a number
is called the number of significant figures. A choice of change of different
units does not change the number of significant digits or figures in a
measurement.
* When pressure is applied along a particular axis of a crystal, an electric
potential difference is developed in a perpendicular axis.

23
 (2) Wrong recordings of the observation.
(3) Not taking into account sources of error and precautions.
(4) Usage of wrong values in the calculation.
Gross errros can be minimised only if the observer is very careful
in his observations and sincere in his approach.

(iv) Random errors

It is very common that repeated measurements of a quantity give
values which are slightly different from each other. These errors have
no set pattern and occur in a random manner. Hence they are called
random errors. They can be minimised by repeating the measurements
many times and taking the arithmetic mean of all the values as the
correct reading.
The most common way of expressing an error is percentage error.
If the accuracy in measuring a quantity x is ∆x, then the percentage
∆x
error in x is given by × 100 %.
x

1.9 Dimensional Analysis

Dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which the
fundamental quantities must be raised.

displacement
We know that velocity =
time

[L]
=
[T ]
= [MoL1T−1]

where [M], [L] and [T] are the dimensions of the fundamental quantities
mass, length and time respectively.

Therefore velocity has zero dimension in mass, one dimension in

length and −1 dimension in time. Thus the dimensional formula for
velocity is [MoL1T−1] or simply [LT−1].The dimensions of fundamental
quantities are given in Table 1.4 and the dimensions of some derived
quantities are given in Table 1.5

26
 Table 1.4 Dimensions of fundamental quantities
Fundamental quantity Dimension
Length L
Mass M
Time T
Temperature K
Electric current A
Luminous intensity cd
Amount of subtance mol

Table 1.5 Dimensional formulae of some derived quantities

Physical quantity Expression Dimensional formula
Area length × breadth [L2]
Density mass / volume [ML−3]
Acceleration velocity / time [LT−2 ]
Momentum mass × velocity [MLT−1]
Force mass × acceleration [MLT−2 ]
Work force × distance [ML2T−2 ]
Power work / time [ML2T−3 ]
Energy work [ML2T−2 ]
Impulse force × time [MLT−1 ]
Radius of gyration distance [L]
Pressure force / area [ML−1T−2 ]
Surface tension force / length [MT−2 ]
Frequency 1 / time period [T−1]
Tension force [MLT−2 ]
Moment of force (or torque) force × distance [ML2T−2 ]
Angular velocity angular displacement / time [T−1]
Stress force / area [ML−1T−2]
Heat energy [ML2T−2 ]
Heat capacity heat energy/ temperature [ML2T-2K-1]
Charge current × time [AT]
Faraday constant Avogadro constant ×
elementary charge [AT mol-1]
Magnetic induction force / (current × length) [MT-2 A-1]

27
Dimensional quantities
Constants which possess dimensions are called dimensional
constants. Planck’s constant, universal gravitational constant are
dimensional constants.
Dimensional variables are those physical quantities which possess
dimensions but do not have a fixed value. Example − velocity, force, etc.

Dimensionless quantities
There are certain quantities which do not possess dimensions.
They are called dimensionless quantities. Examples are strain, angle,
specific gravity, etc. They are dimensionless as they are the ratio of two
quantities having the same dimensional formula.

Principle of homogeneity of dimensions

An equation is dimensionally correct if the dimensions of the various
terms on either side of the equation are the same. This is called the
principle of homogeneity of dimensions. This principle is based on the
fact that two quantities of the same dimension only can be added up,
the resulting quantity also possessing the same dimension.
The equation A + B = C is valid only if the dimensions of A, B and
C are the same.

1.9.1 Uses of dimensional analysis

The method of dimensional analysis is used to
(i) convert a physical quantity from one system of units to another.
(ii) check the dimensional correctness of a given equation.
(iii) establish a relationship between different physical quantities
in an equation.

(i) To convert a physical quantity from one system of units to another

Given the value of G in cgs system is 6.67 × 10−8dyne cm2 g−2.
Calculate its value in SI units.
In cgs system In SI system
Gcgs = 6.67 × 10−8 G = ?
M1 = 1g M2 = 1 kg
L1 = 1 cm L2 = 1m
T1 = 1s T2 = 1s

28
 The dimensional formula for gravitational constant is ⎡⎣M −1L3T −2 ⎤⎦ .

In cgs system, dimensional formula for G is ⎡⎣M1x L1 T1z ⎤⎦

y

In SI system, dimensional formula for G is ⎡M 2x Ly2 T2z ⎤

⎣ ⎦
Here x = −1, y = 3, z = −2

∴ G ⎡⎣M 2x L2yT2z ⎤⎦ = Gcgs ⎡M1x L1yT1z ⎤

⎣ ⎦
x y z
⎡ M1 ⎤ ⎡ L1 ⎤ ⎡T1 ⎤
or G = Gcgs ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣M2 ⎦ ⎣ L2 ⎦ ⎣T2 ⎦
−1 3 −2
⎡1g ⎤ ⎡1 cm ⎤ ⎡1 s ⎤
= 6.67 × 10−8 ⎢ ⎥ ⎢⎣ 1 m ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 s ⎥⎦
⎣1 kg ⎦
−1 3
⎡ 1g ⎤ ⎡ 1 cm ⎤
[1]
−2
= 6.67 × 10−8 ⎢ ⎥ ⎢100 cm ⎥
⎣1000 g ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

= 6.67 × 10−11
∴ In SI units,
G = 6.67 × 10−11 N m2 kg−2

(ii) To check the dimensional correctness of a given equation

Let us take the equation of motion
s = ut + (½)at2
Applying dimensions on both sides,
[L] = [LT−1] [T] + [LT−2] [T2]
(½ is a constant having no dimension)
[L] = [L] + [L]
As the dimensions on both sides are the same, the equation is
dimensionally correct.

(iii) To establish a relationship between the physical quantities

in an equation
Let us find an expression for the time period T of a simple pendulum.
The time period T may depend upon (i) mass m of the bob (ii) length l
of the pendulum and (iii) acceleration due to gravity g at the place where
the pendulum is suspended.

29
 (i.e) T α mx l y gz
or T = k mx l y gz ...(1)
where k is a dimensionless constant of propotionality. Rewriting
equation (1) with dimensions,
[T1] = [Mx] [L y] [LT−2]z
[T1] = [Mx L y + z T−2z]

Comparing the powers of M, L and T on both sides

x = 0, y + z = 0 and −2z = 1

Solving for x, y and z, x = 0, y = ½ and z = –½

From equation (1), T = k mo l½ g−½

1/2
⎡l ⎤ l
T = k ⎢ ⎥ = k g
⎣g ⎦

Experimentally the value of k is determined to be 2π.

l
∴ T = 2π g

1.9.2 Limitations of Dimensional Analysis

(i) The value of dimensionless constants cannot be determined
by this method.
(ii) This method cannot be applied to equations involving
exponential and trigonometric functions.
(iii) It cannot be applied to an equation involving more than three
physical quantities.
(iv) It can check only whether a physical relation is dimensionally
correct or not. It cannot tell whether the relation is absolutely correct

1 2
or not. For example applying this technique s = ut + at is dimensionally
4
1 2
correct whereas the correct relation is s = ut + at .
2

30
 Types of Energy
A students' Science Conference
was held on the terrace of a multi-
storeyed building. Many high school
students took part in this conference.
They used different modes of transport
to reach the venue.
(( One student flew by a mini
helicopter and landed on the
terrace.
(( A few students travelled by a motor
boat to reach the destination as
the building was located close to
a river.
70 PHYSICS
3
(( A few students rode a bicycle to
reach the spot.
(( 
Some took a bus to reach the
place.
 Some students used the lift to reach
the terrace, while others climbed the
stairs.
In each case, a different type of
energy has been used. Before we
discuss various types of energy, let us
learn what energy is.
 Types of Energy

We need energy to perform both mental and physical activities like thinking,
reading, analysing, running, walking, cycling, climbing, playing and jumping.
How do we perform these activities? Don't we need energy to do these activities?
Where does this energy come from? We obtain energy from the food we eat.
When we are tired and hungry, we lack energy to do our work.

The bus, the boat and the helicopter get the energy to run from fuel. Have
you seen ants and bees working busily? They need energy to do work and they
get that energy from the food they eat.

Energy in day-to-day activities

Activity
Activity1
1(Teacher) We Observe

Take a pinch of baking soda in a small bottle and add a few drops of lime
juice or vinegar to it. Close the bottle lightly with a cork. What do you see?
What happens to the cork after sometime?
We see bubbles form inside the bottle and the cork is soon ejected from
the mouth of the bottle. Why does this happen? It is because of the formation
of bubbles, which indicate that a gas has evolved. The gas pushes the
cork out.

SCIENCE 71
 Chapter - 3

Activity 2 I Do

List out a few sources from which we get energy to carry out our daily
activities:
My list
Sl.No Activity Required energy
1 To dry clothes heat energy from the sun.

2 To run a bus energy from diesel or petrol.

3
4

I have inferred
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

Based on the above activity, we

can define energy as the capacity or stretched
ability to do work. The unit of energy rubberband
is joule.
There are many different types of
energy.
Some of them are: compressed
spring
Mechanical energy, chemical
energy, light energy, sound energy,
electrical energy, heat energy, wind
energy. Let us learn more... Similarly, things like a compressed
spring or a stretched rubberband
1. Mechanical energy: have potential energy due to its
Mechanical energy is the energy configuration.
possessed by an object due to its Hence, the energy possessed
movement or position. There are by an object by virtue of its position
two types of mechanical energy. or configuration is called potential
i) Potential energy ii) Kinetic energy. energy.

i)  P
 otential energy: Water stored in
a dam, a rock on top of a mountain
and water stored in a tank possess
potential energy due to its position.
ii) K
 inetic energy: A flowing river,
a moving bus, a galloping horse
or a freely falling stone possess
mechanical energy due to their
motion.

72 PHYSICS

The energy possessed by a body
by virtue of its motion is called kinetic
energy.
Potential energy and kinetic energy
are interconvertible. This property
is used to generate electricity in
hydro-electric power stations.
When water is stored in a dam,
the stored water contains potential
energy. When this water is allowed
to flow down, it changes into kinetic
energy.This kinetic energy of water
is used to rotate the turbines and
generate electricity.
We also observe that the
mechanical energy of the rotation of
turbines is converted into electrical
energy in a generator.
"Heat is a form of
energy" - James Joule.
The unit of energy (joule)
is named after him.
Types of Energy
Mechanical energy
Uses:
i) 
Mechanical energy can bring
a moving body to rest or can make
a body at rest to move.
ii) Using wind energy, we can generate
electricity through windmills.
2. Chemical energy
Energy that is stored in the bonds
of chemical compounds is called
chemical energy. Chemical energy is
released during a chemical reaction,
often in the form of heat and light.
A type of energy is released, when
wood, charcoal, petrol etc., are burnt.
This is because of a chemical reaction
that takes place when they burn.
The food we eat undergoes
chemical reaction and releases
energy to enable us to work.
Chemical
energy
In Mettur and Bhavani-
sagar, electricity is
generated using
hydroelectric power.
SCIENCE 73
 Chapter - 3
Uses:
1. The chemical energy stored in the
food of plants and animals is used
for their growth and function.
2. A battery or an electric cell converts
chemical energy into electrical
energy.
3.While using fuels, chemical energy
is converted into heat energy and Wind mill- (Electric power generation)
light energy. at Kayathar (Thirunelveli),
3. Electrical energy Aralvoimozhi (Kanyakumari) and also
in Coimbatore, Tirupur Districts.
Do you know how a fan rotates or
an electric bulb glows, when we switch
them on? In an electric bulb, electrical kerosene or LPG for cooking? What
energy is converted into light energy energy is released when you burn
and in an electric fan, electrical energy wood, kerosene or LPG?
is converted into mechanical energy. The chemical energy stored in
In a windmill, the wind energy (kinetic wood, kerosene and LPG is converted
energy) is converted into electrical into heat energy. Rub your hands
energy. together and feel your palm. They feel
Uses: warm because friction causes heat.
Due to friction and chemical reaction,
1. 
In industries, electrical energy is
heat energy is produced. Discuss with
used to operate machines and is
your friends and find out the various
also used in telecommunication.
other sources of heat energy.
2. In cities, electrical energy is used
to run electric trains.

Electrical energy
Heat energy
4. Heat energy
Activity 3 We Observe
Can you guess what the primary
source of heat energy is? It is the Sun. Hold a magnesium ribbon with
What fuel do you use for cooking tongs and burn it. Observe the
in your houses? Do you use wood, energy changes that occur in it.

74 PHYSICS
 Types of Energy
Uses:
1. 
We get rain due to evaporation
of water from water bodies. It is
because of the heat energy from
the sun.
2. 
In a thermal power station, of
electricity is generated from the heat
energy obtained by burning coal.
3. 
In an electric stove, electric iron
etc., electrical energy is converted
into heat energy.
5. Solar energy
The energy obtained from the sun
is called solar energy. What are the
types of energy obtained directly from
the sun? Can you list them?
Uses: Different ways of using
1. Solar energy is directly used in solar solar energy
heater, solar cooker etc., Do you know?
2. Solar cells are used in artificial ln 212 BC, the Greek scientist,
satellites, watches, calculators and Archimedes used magnifying
is used to operate solar vehicles. glasses to burn Roman warships
Can we convert one type of energy with solar energy.

Activity 4 We Do
Let us know how energy is obtained directly from the sun.
We need :
Magnifying lens and bits of paper.
1. Using the magnifying lens, focus the sunlight
on the bits of paper.
2. Observe what happens to the bits of paper,
after sometime.
We observed and inferred
_____________________________________
_____________________________________

Share what you have observed in this activity with your friends.

SCIENCE 75
 Chapter - 3
into another?
Look at the pictures given below.
What do we understand from them?
We know that most forms of energy
are obtained from the sun.
1. In Tamilnadu, at Neyveli and
Ennore, thermal power stations,
coal is burnt to generate electricity.
Here the chemical energy of coal is
first converted into heat energy and
then into electrical energy.
2. The loudspeaker converts electrical
energy into sound energy.
3. 
When water stored at a height
flows down, its potential energy is
converted into kinetic energy, which
rotates the turbine of a generator
and generates electrical energy.
4. 
When wood, charcoal, petrol,
diesel and other fuels are burnt,
chemical energy is converted into
heat energy.
76 PHYSICS
5. 
During photosynthesis, plants
convert light energy from the sun
into chemical energy and store it.
6. In electric doorbells and horns of
automobiles, electrical energy is
converted into sound energy.
7. In a torch light, the chemical energy
of the cell is first converted into
electrical energy and then into light
energy.
From the above examples, we
have learnt that one type of energy
can be converted into another type
of energy. When one type of energy
is used, an equal amount of another
type of energy is released.Therefore
in any conversion of energy, the total
amount of energy will not change.
Hence, we say that energy can
neither be created nor be destroyed,
but can be transformed from one form
into another. This is called the Law of
Conservation of Energy.
 Types of Energy
Moreover
Activity in any conversion of energy the total amount of energy
5 Wewill
Do not be
changed.
We shall form small groups and discuss the various uses of solar energy
in our daily life to list them hereunder.
My list
1. To get salt from sea water 2. For rain
3. ____________________ 4 . ___________________
5 . ____________________ 6. ___________________

Activity
Activity6
6 We Do

Discuss in small groups how diesel and petrol can be consumed

economically . Present a report.

For example, let us see how energy conversion takes place, when an electric
motor pumps water.
To operate the electric motor, electrical energy is used. This electrical energy
is converted into kinetic energy, sound energy and heat energy.

Electrical energy → Kinetic energy + Sound energy + Heat energy

(To operate the (to lift water) (released when electric motor works)
electric motor)

Activity 7 We Do
A man carried a heavy load on his head to his house located
on top of a hill slope. He left the load by the side of his house and
took rest for sometime.When he came back, he noticed that the
load had rolled down to the bottom of the hill.
1. From where did the man get the energy to lift the load?
2. What energy did the load possess when it was placed on the mountain?
3. From where was the energy obtained for the load to roll down the slope?
4. What energy did the load possess while rolling?
5. What energy did the load possess on reaching the ground?
6. W
 rite down the energy changes that occurred in the above activity,in
sequential order.

SCIENCE 77
 Chapter - 3

We answer
Shall we discuss and answer the above questions related to this event?
Our answers
1 . ___________________________________________________

2 . ___________________________________________________

3 . ___________________________________________________

4 . ___________________________________________________

5 . ___________________________________________________

6 . ___________________________________________________

We have learnt

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

Evaluation

I. Choose the correct answer :

1. Energy required to dry clothes quickly is ______.
a) solar energy b) sound energy
c) kinetic energy d) potential energy
2. "Heat is a form of energy". This was discovered by _______.
a) Volta b) James Joule
c) Thomas Alva Edison d) Galileo
3. Which of the following requires electrical energy?
a) windmill b) industry
c) bicycle d) parachute
4. The _______energy cannot be used to run vehicles.
a) solar b) chemical
c) electrical d) sound

78 PHYSICS
 Types of Energy
5. When charcoal is burnt, chemical energy is converted into______energy.
a) heat b) sound
c) mechanical d) solar

II. Tick the correct answer:

1. Energy obtained by wind energy in wind farms
(Chemical energy / Electrical energy)
2. Energy possessed by a rustling leaf
(Kinetic energy / Chemical energy)
3. Energy possessed by a person landing from a parachute
(Kinetic energy of wind / Chemical energy in food)
4. Energy produced by rubbing the two palms of your hands
(Heat energy / Electrical energy)

III. Match the following:

1. Electric bell : Electrical energy
Solar cooker : ______________
2. The sailing of yacht : ______________
Air filled in a balloon : potential energy
3. For the growth of living things : Chemical energy in food
To run vehicles : Chemical energy in__________

IV. Say true or false:

1. Energy is the capacity or the ability to do work.
2. Potential energy and kinetic energy are types of mechanical energy.
3. Electrical energy is released during chemical reaction.
4. Heat energy can be produced by friction.
5. One type of energy cannot be converted into another type of energy.

V. What type of energy do the following possess?

1. sun 2. charcoal 3. water in a lake
4. solar cell 5. waterfalls 6. compressed spring
7. fuel 8. moving cloud 9. firewood

SCIENCE 79
 Chapter - 3
VI. Find out the energy conversion that takes place in the following:
1. Torchlight _________ _________
2.
Radio _________ _________
3. Iron (box) _________ _________
4. Generator _________ _________

VII. Explore and answer:

1. We know that we need energy to ride a bicycle, to play cricket or to do any
kind of work. How do we define the energy used in these activities and
what is the unit of measurement?

2. 
The coconut in the picture possesses
three types of energy. Can you find out
what they are?
1. ______________

2. ______________

3. ______________

3. What type of energy is stored in each of the objects shown in the pictures
given below? In which way is this energy useful to us?

Diesel can Gas cylinder Plant

(1) (2) (3)
1.__________________________________________________

2.__________________________________________________

3.__________________________________________________
4. We know that the water stored in Mettur dam and Bhavanisagar dam is
used to generate electricity. List the conversion of energy that occurs in
the hydroelectric power stations.
80 PHYSICS
 Types of Energy
5. Observe the pictures given below and write down the energy possessed
by the stone at each level.

a stone is thrown upwards.... ....when the stone falls down

energy stored
in the muscles the stone at
a particular when the stone
height falls down
stone moves
up
when the stone
hits the ground

Chemical energy
_________ _________ _________ Heat energy

VIII. Answer the following:

1. Differentiate potential energy from kinetic energy.
2. Explain the Law of Conservation of Energy with an example.

IX. Project work

Write down the names of the gadgets used in your house, the changes in
energy that happens and their uses in the tabular column given below.

Name of the
S.No Change in energy Use
gadget
Electric energy into light
1. Electric bulb to get light
energy

2.

3.

4.

5.

FURTHER REFERENCE
Webliography:
http://www.tutorvista.com
http://www.arvindguptatoys.com
http://www.wikipedia.org

SCIENCE 81
PHYSICS
7

7
physics

CHAPTER

motion

PHYSICS 190
 MOTION
7.1. Speed
Two of the most exciting events in any sports
meet is the 100m dash and 4x100m relay. Though
all athletes run the same distance, the athlete who
runs the distance in the shortest time will be the
winner. In other words, the athlete who has the
highest speed or is the fastest will win.
The most obvious feature of an object in motion
is speed. It is a measure of how fast or slow an
object is moving. Fig 7.1

MORE TO KNOW
Usain Bolt won the 100m in 9.63 seconds and 200 m in 19.23 seconds at
the London Olympics in 2012. He also won the 4 x 100 m relay along with
his team mates. His high speed made the media call him ‘Lightning Bolt’.

Activity 7.1
Let us observe a car, a cycle and a bullock-cart as they move on the road.
Which of these takes the shortest time to cover a certain distance?
The car is the fastest as it takes least time. The bullock-cart is the slowest as it
takes longest time. The cycle moves at a speed between that of the car and the
bullock-cart.
A fast moving object has high speed and a slow moving object has slow speed.
Now, what about an aeroplane?

Car

Cycle
Bullock cart

191
7 physics

7.2. What is speed? 1 km = 1000m and

Speed of a body is the distance 1 hour = 60x60 s =3600 s
travelled by the body in one second. 1000 m
So, 1 km/h =
Distance travelled 3600 s
Speed = 5
Time taken = m/s
18
Distance travelled is measured in
Example : 5
metre and time in second
a) 2 km/h = 2 x m/s
Therefore, the unit of speed is 18
metre / second . [m / s].
5
It can also be expressed in b) 3 km/h = 3 x m/s
18
kilometre / hour [ km / h ]
What do you mean by saying the If you know the speed of an object,
speed of a car is 50 km/h? you can find out the distance covered
by it in a given time. All you have to do
It means that the car travels a is to multiply the speed and time.
distance of 50 km in one hour.
Distance covered = Speed x Time

Activity 7.2
Let us give a cricket ball to a group of four friends and ask each of them to throw the
cricket ball from a given point. Mark the point up to which each of them throws the ball.
Measure the distance thrown and discuss the speed of the ball.

SELF CHECK
____
a) 36 km/h = m/s d) 15m/s = ____ km / h
b) 72 km/h =
____
m/s e) 25m/s = ____ km / h
____ ____
c) 180 km/h = m/s f) 35m/s = km/ h

Activity 7.3

192
 MOTION

Let us organise a toy car race to understand the concept of speed. Divide
the class into 5 groups. Draw a line at the starting point .
One from each group should roll the toy car along the ground. Another
should note the time taken by the car from the instant the car crosses the
line to the instant it stops. Measure the distance. Calculate the speed of
each car and record it.

Distance travelled by
S.No Group Time taken Speed
the car
1 I
2 II
3 III
4 IV
5 V

Find
1 ) Which group is the fastest?
2 ) Which group is the slowest?

Variable Speed
The speed of a bus during a journey may vary. When the bus is nearing a bus
stop, its speed decreases.
On the highways the bus travels with greater speed. But in a city or town it
travels with less speed due to heavy traffic.
The bus has different speeds at different time intervals. So we say that it has variable
speed.
20 km 35 km 15 km 60 km 40 km

0 1 hr 2 hr 3 hr 4 hr 5 hr
Fig 7.2. Variable speed
For such bodies, we can calculate the average speed:

Total distance travelled

Average speed =
Total time taken

193
7 physics

If a body moves with the same speed at all times we say that it has uniform
speed.
40 km 40 km 40 km 40 km 40 km

0 1 hr 2 hr 3 hr 4 hr 5 hr
Fig 7.3. Uniform speed

Graphical representation
Runs
Have you seen a graph 10
shown on your television 9
screen while watching a cricket 8
match? 7
6
It gives you an idea of
5
the runs scored and also
4
compares the performances of 3
two teams. 2
Why is graphical representa- 1
tion used? 0 5 10 15 20
Overs
Fig 7.4. Graphical representation
When you are given a set of numbers which are relative to one another, it
may not give you a clear idea of the relationship between them.
If the same numbers are represented on a graph, it gives a beautiful visual
representation and a clearer idea of the relation.
Hence, change of distance with time may be represented by a distance - time graph.

Science today

Have you noticed a meter fitted in the front of

a scooter or a motorcycle?
Such meters can be found on the dashboard
of cars, buses etc,. This meter has provision to
measure both speed and distance. One of the
meters has km/h written. This is a speedometer.
It gives the speed of the vehicle every instant
in km/h. There is another meter also which
measures the total distance covered by the
vehicle in metre. This is called an Odometer. Speedometer with odometer

194
 MOTION

7.3. Distance – Time Time in Distance in

graph S.No
minutes km
Rajesh was travelling with 1 0 0
his father in their car from
2 5 5
Erode to Coimbatore. He kept
himself busy by noting the 3 10 10
distance travelled by the car 4 15 15
every 5 minutes.
5 20 20
This is what he noted in the
first 30 minutes. 6 25 25
7 30 30

You can make a graphical representation of his observations:

Follow these simple steps.
Taking axes and scale:
Take a graph sheet and draw two lines
perpendicular to each other.
Mark the horizontal line as OX(x-axis)
and the vertical line as OY (y-axis).
Y Y-axis : 1 cm = 5 km
Distance
Time is taken on the X-axis
and distance on the Y-axis.
Choose scales to represent
distance and time.
For example, the scales
could be
X-axis : 1 cm = 5 minutes

35 Plotting the graph :

30
Mark the values on the
axes for time and distance
25
according to the scales you
have chosen.
20
According to the values
noted, mark the points on the
15
graph sheet. Join the points.
10 You will get a straight line.
For uniform speed, the
5
distance time graph is always
a straight line.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
X
For variable speed, it could
Time
be of any shape.
Fig 7.5. Distance Time Graph

195
7 physics

60

40
Distance (km)

20

0 1 2 3 4
Time (Hour)
Fig 7.6

Greater the speed, steeper will be the graph.

Activity 7.4

Three cars, A, B and C travel from Madurai to Salem. The time taken
and the distance covered are given in the table below.

S.No Time taken Distance travelled in km

in hours Car A Car B Car C
1 1 20 50 40
2 2 40 100 80
3 3 60 150 120
4 4 80 200 160
5 5 100 250 200
Plot the distance-time graph for the three cars in the same graph sheet.
a) What do you infer?
b) Which car had the maximum speed?

196
 MOTION
self check
What do the following graphs represent?

Distance
Distance

Distance

Distance
Time Time Time Time
(a) (b) (c) (d)

(a) and (d) represent variable speed. (b) represents an object at rest.
(c) represents uniform speed.

7.4. VELOCITY
Every day when you go to
school from your house,you
could take path 1 or path 2 or
path 3. Do these paths have
the same distance? No, the
distance is not the same; it
varies with the path taken.
Imagine that you travel
from your house to school in a
straight line.
Fig 7.7.

This will be the shortest distance among

them, called displacement. In the picture, it is
represented by a dotted line.

Displacement is the shortest distance

between two points in a particular direction.

more To Know

Anemometer is a device used for measuring

wind speed. It has aluminium cups which turn
on a spindle. As the wind speed increases the
cups rotate faster.
Fig 7.8 Anemometer

197
7 physics

Velocity is the displacement of a

SELF CHECK
body in one second. C

Displacement
Velocity =
Time taken
Its unit is m / s.
Velocity is nothing but speed in a
definite direction.
7.5. ACCELERATION
Do you ride a bicycle to school? If
you are late, what would you do?
Obviously, you would pedal faster to
reach school on time. In other words,
you would increase your velocity or
accelerate.
So, acceleration is the measure of
change in velocity.
Acceleration is the change of
velocity in one second.
Change in velocity
Acceleration =
Time taken
Its unit is m / s2.
If a car has an acceleration of 5 m/s2
every second its velocity increases by
5 m/s.
If the velocity of a moving body
decreases, we say that it has
negative acceleration or retardation or
deceleration.
Example : A train slows down to
stop at a station.
Acceleration due to gravity
Let us see what happens when a
ball is thrown up vertically?
A B
Suresh walks from point A to B
and then from B to C.
a ) What is the distance he has
travelled?
b) What is the displacement?
As the ball rises, its velocity
gradually decreases till it becomes
zero ie., the body is decelarated. When
the ball falls down its velocity gradually
increases ie., it is accelerated.
The decelaration or acceleration is
due to the earth’s gravitational force.
It is known as acceleration due to
gravity. It has an average value of
9.8 m/s2 on the surface of the earth
and is represented as g.
g=9.8m/s2
This means that the velocity of
a body decreases by 9.8 m/s every
second when it is thrown up and the
velocity increases by 9.8 m/s every
second when it falls down.
To Think
A marble and a big
stone are dropped
simultaneously from a
particular height. Which
will reach the ground
first?

198
 MOTION
7.6. SCIENCE TODAY - Adventure sports
Have you ever dreamed of flying like a bird or gazed up at flying birds and
longed to join them.
1. Hang gliding
Hang-gliding is a sport in which a pilot flies a light un-motorized aircraft called
a hang glider launched by foot.

Most modern hang-gliders are made of aluminium alloy. The pilot is safe when
fastened to a harness suspended from the frame of the glider.

2. Paragliding

Paragliding is the latest aero sport. A paraglider is a non-motorised, foot

launched inflatable wing, easy to transport, launch and land. It is basically a
parachute made of special nylon or polyester fabric. The pilot is clipped to a
harness in a comfortable sitting position. A paraglider is much lighter than a
hangglider and easier to operate.

Yelagiri in Vellore district of Tamil Nadu is a hill station with gentle slopes
ideal for paragliding. Tamil Nadu Tourism holds a paragliding festival at
Yelagiri in August- September every year.

199
7 physics

evaluation
1. Selvi goes for a morning walk in the park near her house. She starts from point ‘A’,
walks a circular path of radius 7m and returns to the same point ‘A’.
A

(i) What is her displacement?

(ii) Find the distance she has walked.

2. Mani and Shankar walk from their home to the market in 20 minutes, Mani
takes path 1 while Shankar takes path 2.

(i) What are their speed?

(ii) What is their velocity?
(iii) What do you infer?
3. Raju is travelling in a train moving at a speed of 72 km/h. In order to stop the
train, the driver decreases the speed. The rate of decrease in speed of the
moving body is known as deceleration or retardation.

If the deceleration of the train is 10m/s2, how much time will it take to come
to a stop?

200
 MOTION
4. The given graph depicts the motion of a bus. Interpret the motion the bus.

a) AB represents _________ B

Distance
b) BC represents _________ C
c) CD represents _________

A Time
Projects
1. Take a graph sheet. Draw a distance – time graph with the data given below.

Time (minute) 10 15 20 25 30
Distance (km) 10 20 30 40 50

2. Conduct a race and find who is the fastest among your friends.
Make 4 friends run a distance of 50 m one by one and note the time taken by
each. Complete the given table.

S.No. Name of the friend Time taken (second) Speed (m/s)

1.
2.
3.
4.

further reference
Books:
1. Physics for higher Tier - Stephen people, Oxford University Press,
New Delhi.
2. Fundamentals of Physics - Halliday, Resnick and Walker, Wiley India
Pvt.Ltd.

Webliography:

http://www.sciencemadeeasy.com

201
 7. FORCE AND PRESSURE
Murugan and Nila are students of 8th standard. In their day-to-day life the
following activities take place.

SCIENCE
Actions like opening the door, lifting UNIT OF FORCE
a bag, kicking a ball, pulling a drawer,
pushing a box are some of the tasks In the International system of units (SI
we do every day. All these actions System), the unit of force is newton (N).
result in the change of position of an
object.
Do you notice that each of these
activities involve a push or a pull?
­
From this we infer that to move any
object, effort is needed (push or pull). Sir Issac Newton (1642 - 1727)
This effort is called a force. One of the greatest scientists the
world has ever seen. He was an
Force is a push or a pull acting on
English mathematician, physicist
an object which changes or tends
and astronomer. The SI unit of force
to change the state of the object.
is named after him.
221
 Force and Pressure
There are also other units that are
used to measure force. They are
dyne, kilogram weight and pound
weight.
7.1. STATE OF MOTION
Let us play a game with marbles to
understand what happens when force
acts on an object.
Set a marble A in motion. Hit it from
behind with another marble B. What
do you notice?
The marble A moves faster. It is
­because the marble B exerted a force
SCIENCE
on A.
Take two more marbles C and D. Let
them move in the opposite direction
and collide with each other. After the
collision, the marbles C and D change
their directions of motion as shown in
the figure. This is due to the exertion of
force between them.
B A
C D
222
Hence a force changes either the
speed of an object or its direction of
motion.
A change in either the speed of an
object or its direction of motion or both
is described as a change in its state
of motion. Thus, a force may bring
a change in the state of motion of an
object.
A force does not always result in
a change in the state of the object.
For example, the wall of a room
may not move at all even if we
apply the maximum force that we
can exert. This does not mean that
we are not applying force, but the
force that we are applying is not
sufficient to move the wall.
7.1
Ask your friend to bowl a cricket
ball towards you. Hit the ball with
a cricket bat. What happens to the
state of motion of the ball?
 Force and Pressure

7.2. Action of force and ●● can change the state of an object

its effects (rest to motion/ motion to rest)
●● may change the speed of an object
7.2
if it is already moving.
Some situations have been given
●● may change the direction of motion
in the column 1 of the ­ table;
of an object.
column 2 shows diagrams of
­
some actions. Match the situation ●● may bring about a change in the
in column ­­1 with suitable diagram shape of an object.
in column 2. ●● may cause some or all of these
Table effects.
It is important to note that none of
Column 1 Column 2 these actions is possible without the
action of a force.
Moving an
7.3. Contact Forces
object which

SCIENCE
is at rest Can you lift a pot of water without
holding it? Can you push this ta­
­ ble
without touching it?
Changing
the speed of Generally, to apply force on an
an already object, we need to come in contact
­
moving
­object.

Changing
the direction
of motion of
an object

Changing
the shape of
an object

From the above activity, you would

have realised that a force
223
 Force and Pressure

with that object. A force that can cause

or change the motion of an object by Non-contact Forces
touching it is called Contact Force.
In the above activities, the force
is caused by the action of muscles.
Hence this force is known as ­muscular Magnetic Gravitational Electro Static
force. Do you agree that muscular force force force
force is a contact force?
Are there other types of contact 7.3
forces? Come, let us find out.
Take a pair of bar magnets. Place
A ball rolling on the play ground
one of the magnets on a smooth
gradually slows down and comes to
surface such as a table. Now bring
rest. If the ground is made smooth,
one end of the other magnet to one
the distance covered by the ball would
be more than that what was covered end of the magnet on the table and
­earlier. Why? observe what happens.
SCIENCE

The ball slows down due to the Next, separate the two magnets,
force acting between the ball and the and bring the other end of the
ground. It is the force of friction which magnet you are holding to the same
causes the ball to rest. The frictional end of the magnet on the­­ table.
force is always in a direction opposite Again, watch what ­happens.
to the direction of motion of the object.
The force of friction arises due to
contact between the ball and ground.
It acts between any two bodies when
both are in contact with each other and
either any one or both are moving. Is
friction also a contact force? Yes.

7.4. Non-contact Forces

A non-contact force is any force
­applied to an object by another body
without any contact.

7.4.1. Magnetic Forces

Is it necessary to bring the two force between them? No. A magnet
magnets in contact to observe the can exert a force on another magnet

224
 Force and Pressure

without touching it. Magnetic force is a 7.4.3. Electrostatic Force

non contact force.
7.4.2. Gravitational Force
Have you wondered why the cricket
ball hit high by a batsman falls back
to the ground? Or why a mango or an
apple falls to the ground? Why are
objects fall towards the earth? It is
because the earth pulls them down.
This force is called the force of gravity.
This is an attractive force. This is an
example for non-contact force.

7.4

SCIENCE
When you switch off the
Television in your house after
watching for some time, you can
notice that hairs in your hands
are getting attracted towards the
screen. Why?

The television screen becomes

electrically charged and it ­
exerts
an electrostatic force on the hair
of your hand. This force is a ­non-
contact force because, there is no
contact between the screen and
the hair.

Gravity is not a property of the earth
alone. In fact, every object in the
universe whether small or large,
­
­exerts a force on every other ­object.
This force is also known as the ­grav­
itational force.
225
The force exerted by a charged body
on another charged or uncharged body
is known as electrostatic force. This
force acts when the bodies are not
in ­contact. The electrostatic force is
­another ­example of non contact force.
 Force and Pressure

7.5. Pressure

7.5
Take two bags of the same
size. Let the strap of one bag
be narrow and that of the other
broad.
Place your books in the bag
with broad strap. Hang the bag
on your shoulder and walk for
some time. How do you feel?
Transfer the books to the other
bag with narrow strap. Hang
it again on your shoulder and
walk for some time. How do you
SCIENCE

feel?
It is comfortable to carry the bag with broad strap. Isn’t it? Why?
when you hang a bag with broad strap, the weight of the books is distributed
over a larger area of the shoulders and hence the pressure on your shoulders
is less.

7.6
Let us take a pencil and a paper. Try to make a hole in the paper by pressing
the blunt end of the pencil on the paper.
Now try to make a hole in the paper by
pressing the sharp end of the pencil.
Which was easier why?
Although the force applied on the pencil
is almost the same in both the cases, the
sharp end of the pencil is able to make a
hole. In this case the area over which the
force acts on the paper is very small and
its effect on the paper is much greater
(it makes a hole in the paper).

226
 Force and Pressure

From these activities we ­understand

that the effectiveness of the force
applied depends on the area on which
it is acting.
Now we will define a new physical
quantity, pressure.
Pressure is defined as the force
­acting on a unit area
Force Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)
Pressure = ———————————
Area on which it acts One of the greatest ­scientists of the
17th ­century. He was a child prodigy.
The SI unit of pressure is N/m2. It is A French ­m athematician,
also called pascal (Pa) . physicist, inventor, writer and
­philosopher. The SI unit of ­pressure
Can you say which brick will
is named after him.
give more pressure why?

SCIENCE
B

Substituting the values

Pressure = 100N / 2m2
= 50 N/m2
A Pressure = 50 N/m2
C

Solved Problem 1: A liquid’s force is acting over an

A liquid gives force of 100N over an area of 4m2. If the pressure is
area of 2m2. What is the pressure? 25 N/m2, what is the force?
Force = 100N
7.6. Pressure exerted by
Area = 2m2
Liquids and Gases
Pressure = ?
You know that liquids and gases
Force
are called fluids. Solids always exert
Pressure = ———————————
pressure downwards. But the fluids
Area on which it acts ­exert pressure in all directions.

227
 Force and Pressure

Fluids exert pressure on all bodies immersed in them and also on the walls
of the container that holds them.
Pressure exerted by Liquids

7.7
Take a transparent glass tube or a plastic
pipe. Also take a piece of thin good quality of
rubber (Piece of a rubber balloon). Stretch
the rubber sheet tightly over one end of
the pipe. Hold the pipe vertically. Ask one
of your friends to pour some water in the
pipe. Does the ­rubber ­balloon bulge out?
Notice the height of the water column in
the pipe. Pour some more water. Observe
again the bulging in the rubber balloon and
the height of the water column in the pipe.
SCIENCE

This shows that the pressure exerted by

­liquids at the bottom depends on the height
of the liquid column.

7.8
Take a discarded plastic water bottle, fit a
glass tube near the bottom of the bottle.
You can do so by slightly heating one end of
the glass tube and then quickly inserting it.
Make sure that the water does not leak from
the joint. Cover the mouth of the glass tube
with thin rubber b ­ alloon as you did in Activity
1. Now fill the­­ ­bottle with water up to half of
the bottle. What do you ­observe? Why does
the rubber sheet bulge this time? Now pour
more water and watch, what happens to the
rubber sheet?

This shows that liquid exerts pressure on

the walls of the container.

228
 Force and Pressure

7.9
Take a plastic bottle and
drill four holes all around
near the bottom of the
bottle. Make sure that the
holes are at the same
height from the bottom.
Now fill the b ­ ottle with­
­ ater. What do you notice?
w
Do the ­ different streams
of water coming out of
the holes fall at the same
distance from the bottle?

Inference: Liquid exerts

equal pressure at the
same depth.

SCIENCE
7.10
Take a plastic bottle,
drill three holes at
­different heights
from the bottom.
Now fill the bottle
with water. What do
you observe? You
can see that three
different streams of
water fall at different
distances from the
bottle.

Inference:The
pressure of the liquid
i ncreases with the
­
increase in depth.

229
 Force and Pressure

7.11
Let us take two identical
glass beakers. Take some
water in one beaker and an
equal amount of mercury or
caster oil in other beaker.
Let us approximately find
out which beaker is heavier by
keeping both the beakers on
our palms.
Is the pressure exerted by Water Mercury
both the beakers same?
No, the pressure is different. The pressure exerted by the beaker
containing ­mercury or caster oil is more than that of the beaker containing
water. This is ­because mercury or caster oil has more ­density than water.
Hence we can infer that ­pressure depends on ­density of a liquid.
SCIENCE

Is the pressure exerted by a glass d = density of the liquid

of water the same on the earth and
g = acceleration due to gravity
the moon?
No, on the earth we have more
gravitational force and hence the
­ • Deep sea divers wear specially
designed suits to protect them
pressure exerted by the glass of
­
from the huge pressure of the
water will be more.
water underneath.
On the moon, the gravitational • The walls of the dams are
force is less compared to our earth. made stronger and thicker at
Hence the pressure exerted by a the bottom than at the top of
glass of ­water is less on the moon. the dam to withstand the huge
So, pressure of a liquid depends lateral pressure of water at
the bottom
on gravitational force.
7.7. Pascal’s Law
The pressure of a liquid can also
be calculated by using a formula The pressure applied to an e ­ nclosed
liquid gets transmitted equally to every
p = hdg
part of the liquid. This property was first
p = pressure of a liquid demonstrated by Pascal and is called
h = height of the liquid column Pascal’s law.

230

7.12
Take a rubber ball and make
many holes in it with a needle. Fill
the ball with water. Squeeze the
ball with your hand. What do you
see?
Water rushes out through the
holes with equal forces. What do
you ­infer from this?
Hydraulic devices, like earth
­excavators (JCB) and car brakes work
on the above principle.
Take a stout flask with holes of equal
size at different places as shown in the
figure. Fit a piston which can be moved
up and down along the neck of the flask.
When a force is applied on the piston,
the piston moves down and the water
flows out equally in all directions through
holes. This shows pressure exerted on
water is transmitted equally throughout
the water. So that water comes out of all
holes with equal force.
231
Force and Pressure
Try yourself
Take three kinds of vessels as
shown in figure. Make holes in
SCIENCE
them at the same height from
the bottom. Pour water into the
vessels so that the height of the
water level is same in all the
vessels. In which case the
pressure is more. Give reason?
7.8. P
 ressure exerted by
air
We must have walked on the road
while there is a strong wind. How did
we feel? Did we feel any force while
walking against the wind?
What happens to the bicycle tube
when it has a puncture?
 Force and Pressure
From the above observations you
can say that air also exerts pressure
on the walls of their container.
7.9. Atmospheric pressure
SCIENCE
The earth is surrounded by air
all around. This thick envelope of
air is called the atmosphere. The
atmospheric ­air­extends up to many
­ what ­happens?
kilometers above the surface of the
earth. The pressure exerted by this air
column is known as the atmospheric
pressure.
We know pressure is force per unit
area, and if we imagine a unit area
and a very long cylinder standing
on it filled with air, up to the height
of ­
atmosphere, then the weight of
the air in this ­cylinder is atmospheric
pressure.
The atmospheric pressure at sea
level is approximately 1,00,000 N/m2 or ink and release your
(or 10 5 N/m2). As we go higher and
higher above the earth surface, the
­atmospheric pressure decreases.
232
Measurement of atmospheric pressure
The atmospheric pressure is not the
same at all places. It decreases as we go
above the earth’s surface. The ­instrument
used to measure the ­ atmospheric
pressure is called ­Barometer.
In 1643, an Italian scientist named
Torricelli invented the first barometer.
It was a mercury barometer. Aneroid
barometer and Fortin’s barometer are
other instruments used to measure the
atmospheric pressure.
7.13
Take a glass of water. Suck a little
water through a straw. Hold your
finger above the straw. Pull the
straw out of the water. What do
you observe? Now remove your
finger from the top of the straw.
7.14
Take an ink-filler. Press
its bulb with your finger
to pump air out of it. Now
keep its open end in water
finger. What happens
now?

Why do astronauts wear a s­ pecial
dress to go into the space? The blood
pressure inside our body would need
air pressure ­outside to keep us safe.
When we go above the earth’s
atmosphere, the pressure outside is
­ move any ­surface, we have to apply
very less. But, the pressure inside our
body is very high. Due to this our body
will burst. So, to avoid this astronauts
wear a special dress.
7.10. Friction
We must have seen children skating.
These children wear shoes with
wheels. Is it possible to skate on bare
feet?
The force which opposes the action
of sliding your foot on the floor is called
‘friction’.
We saw earlier that the frictional
force is a contact force.
Friction is the force created
whenever two surfaces move or try to
move over each other.
233
Force and Pressure
Friction is caused by the
­irregularities on the two surfaces in
contact. Even those surfaces which
appear very smooth have a large
number of ­ irregularities on them.
­Irregularities on the two surfaces lock
into one ­another. When we attempt to
a force to overcome the interlocking.
On rough surfaces there are larger
number of­­irregularities. So the force
of friction is greater if a rough surface
is involved.
7.10.1. Factors affecting friction
The force of friction depends on
two main factors
SCIENCE
1. Mass of the body
2. Nature of the surfaces in contact
As the mass of the body
increases, the force of friction also
increases. A football when kicked
goes farther than a cricket cork ball
since the mass of the cricket ball is
more than that of the foot ball.
Friction is less when the
surface is smooth. This you can
understand by rolling a stone on
a tar road( rough surface) and a
house floor(smooth surface).
7.10.2. Friction
Friction plays, an important role in
our daily life. Friction opposes motion
and it has both advantages and
disadvantages.
 Force and Pressure

Advantages of Friction 7.10.3. Increasing and reducing

1. We are able to walk or run
properly on the floor because
of friction. If there is less or no
friction we will slip and fall down.
2. It would not be possible to light
a match stick without friction
between its head and the side of
the matchbox.
3. Cars and buses are able to run
on the roads because of the
friction between the wheels and
the road.
4. We cannot write on paper without
friction between the tip of a pen
SCIENCE
friction
We have seen in the earlier section
that friction is desirable in some
situations. Can we increase this friction?
You may have seen that the sole of
shoes and footwear are grooved. Why
is it so? Have you ever thought of it?
It is done to provide them better grip
on the floor, so that you can move safely.
This means you have increased the
­friction.
The treaded tyres of cars, trucks and
bulldozers provide better grip with the
ground.

or a p­ encil and the paper.

Sand and gravel are strewn on the
­slippery ground during rainy season to
increase the friction.
Just as we can increase the friction,
we can also reduce the friction.

Disadvantages of Friction
1. Friction produces heat. This
heat causes wear and tear of the
­machinery parts.
2. Vehicle tyres and soles of
footwear wear out because of
friction.
234
 Force and Pressure

Friction can be reduced 4. By the use of ball bearings.

1. By using suitable lubricants, Ball bearings have small balls
friction can be reduced. eg. oil of steel between metal surfaces.
(for light machinery), grease They are placed between hubs and
(for heavy machinery) , the axles of ceiling fans, bicycles,
motor cycles etc. to reduce friction.

Ball bearing

2. If the surfaces are polished, they

SCIENCE
become smooth and in turn,
reduce friction between them.
3. By the use of wheels .

Ball
bearing.

Friction can never be entirely

­eliminated. No surface is perfectly
smooth. There are always some
irregularities.

235
 Force and Pressure

EVALUATION
1. Choose the correct answer.
The SI unit of pressure is N/m2.This unit is otherwise called
a) 
_____________ (pascal, newton, joule)
b) Atmospheric pressure at sea level is approximately equal to ________
(105 N/m2, 107 N/m2, 103 N/m2)
2. Fill in the blanks
Friction is a __________ force (contact / non-contact)
3. Match the following
i) wheels and ball bearings non-contact force
ii) grooves based on Pascal’s law
iii) earth excavators increases friction
SCIENCE

iv) fall of an apple from the tree decreases friction

4. Correct the given statement.
The gravitional force of moon is equal to the gravitational force of earth.
5. List out the following actions on the basis of contact force and non contact
force
a) lifting a chair
b) the falling of a coconut from the tree
c) friction between the road and the tyre of a car
d) a comb attracts bits of paper
e) attraction between two magnets
6. By observing the diagram, answer the following.
a) How does the pressure at A differ from the
pressure at B.?
b) The pressure at B is greater than the pressure
at D. Is it true?. Justify your answer.
c) Compare the pressure at A and C.
d) If the water is replaced with mercury, how would this affect the pressure
at A and D?
236
 Force and Pressure

Force
7. We know Pressure = _______

Area
If 50 N force is applied on a liquid and it experiences 25 N/m2 pressure.
Find out the area on which the force is applied?
8. Aswin and Anwar were playing with four bricks each. Aswin arranged his
four bricks as shown in figure A. Anwar arranged his bricks as shown in
figure B, in order to be a taller one.
Now let us complete the following sentences by choosing the right option
below
( equal to, less than, more than )
a) 
The force of A on the ground is
__________ the force of B on the
ground.
b) The area that A occupies is ________ B on

SCIENCE
the ground.
c) The pressure exerted by A is _______ the pressure exerted by B.
9. We know that pressure can also be calculated by using the formula p=hdg
A rectangular storage tank is filled with paraffin. The height of the tank is
2m. Density of paraffin is 800 kg/m3, the value of g is 10 m/s2
Calculate
a) the pressure at the bottom of the tank
b) the pressure at a depth of 1 m.
10. Swetha is wearing a sharp edged high heeled footwear. Madhu is
wearing a flat footwear. If both the girls are having same weight
and both are stepping over your foot, whose footwear will cause
more pain to your foot? Why?
11. Swathi went by car to Ooty last week, when the car was climbing the
mountain, her ears popped. She felt uneasy but after sometime she felt
better. Why did her ears pop when she climbed the mountain?
12. As we go higher and higher atmospheric pressure _______ (increases /
decreases)

237
 Force and Pressure

13. Kumaran went to a shop near his house on a bicycle. The bicycle made a
lot of noise when he pedalled it. After coming home, he applied some oil on
some parts of the bicycle. Then there was no noise, why?
14. We know that friction depends upon mass of the body when we roll down an
iron ball and a football on the ground, which ball will travel more distance?
Why?
15. When we “suck” using a straw, the liquid travels up into it. Explain why?
16. In a car, friction is essential in some parts but needs to be reduced in some
parts. Give two examples of where friction is a) Essential and b) Needs to
be reduced in a car.
17. Arasu went to an exhibition. There he saw a magician lying on a bed of nails.
To his wonder, the magician was not hurt at all. Help Arasu to understand
the phenomenon.
SCIENCE

Project Work

Take a brick. Measure its length, breadth and height. Weigh the brick on a
balance and note its weight. Now keep the brick on a table in various positions
in turn. Find its area of contact with the table. The weight of the brick is the
force applied by the brick. Now calculate the pressure applied by the brick on
the table in various positions. Prepare a chart showing your observations.
Similarly find the pressure exerted by a book, a wooden block, etc., and
note your observations in the chart.

238
 Force and Pressure

Magdeburg Hemispheres
Otto von Guericke, a German scientist of the 17th century, invented
a pump to extract air out of a vessel. With the help of this pump, he
demonstrated dramatically the force of the air pressure. He joined
two hollow metallic hemispheres of 51cm diameter each and pumped
air out of them. Then he employed eight horses on each hemisphere to pull
them apart. So great was the force of air pressure that the hemispheres
could not be pulled apart.

SCIENCE
further Reference

Books: Advanced Physics - Keith Gibbs-

Cambridge University Press (1996)

Physics Foundations and Frontiers - G.Gamov and
J M Cleveland - Tata McGraw Hill 1978
Complete Physics for IGCSE - Stephen pople-
Oxford University Press

Webliography: www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/pressure

www. starwars.wikia.com/wiki/the force

www.powermasters.com/heat energy.html

www.thetech.org/exhibits/online/topics/lla.html

www.kidwind.org

239
 Chapter 6

M OTION
• Types of motion
• Distance and displacement
• Speed, velocity and acceleration
• Graphical representation of motion
• Equations of motion
• Uniform circular motion
 MOTION

Karthik and his parents were

travelling to their native place
by train to celebrate the Pongal
festival. Karthik was watching the
scenery through the window. He
was surprised to see the trees going
backwards. He asked his mother
whether the trees really moved
backwards. The mother explained
that the trees were at rest. The
trees seem to be receding because
the train is moving forward. Let us
explain ‘rest’ and ‘motion’ to Karthik
and others.

6.1 REST AND MOTION In activity 6.1, perhaps you arrived at

the conclusion that if the position of an
How do we know whether an object is
object does not change over time, then
stationary or is moving? Sitting in a train,
we know that it is not moving. But position
it seems as if the trees are moving in the
itself is measured relative to another object.
opposite direction. Looking at another train
Therefore, to know if an object is moving or
overtaking ours it appears as if our own
not, we need another object that we are
train is moving in the opposite direction
sure is not moving. To check if the second
(i.e. backwards). Let us look deeper into
object is not moving, we need a third object
this question. Some scientists who went
that we are sure is not moving…. Now this
quite deep into this question were Newton
is proving to be more difficult than what we
and Einstein.
thought. So where do we start? We shall
start with the understanding that, the idea

SCIENCE
ACTIVITY 6.1 I DO
of rest and movement are very relative.
Try this small activity. The whole
class can divide themselves into small On the earth, we take a point on the
groups. Discuss the questions given ground and we measure all distances
below:- with respect to this point which we call the
datum. Of course we know that the earth
ƒƒ H
 ow do you know if an object is
itself is moving around the sun and the sun
stationary?
in turn is moving through space. But then,
ƒƒ H
 ow do you know if an object is we sort of ignore all that, since we are
moving? only going to discuss movement of objects
ƒƒ H
 ow do we know if one object is on the earth. You can select any point on
moving faster than another object? the earth and call it your own datum. You
make all measurements relative to your
ƒƒ P
 resent a summary of the discussions
datum. You could then draw imaginary
to the class and request your teacher
lines horizontally to represent the x and y
to give her / his feedback.
axes and a third line vertically through the

95
PHYSICS
point to represent the z axis. The three
imaginary lines representing the three
axes together with the datum is called the
frame of reference. It is helpful to take a
prominent point or object that is easily
recognisable as the datum.
Z and is part of a larger galaxy. The galaxy
Y itself is moving around amidst many
object
datum
Fig 6.1 Position of object
X = 500m
Y = 10m
Z = 0m
Secondly, you have to determine the
position of the object under observation
in relation to the datum. This is easy and
can be done by representing the position
of the object in terms of its x distance, y
distance and z distance exactly, as you
would on a graph paper, if only this is in
three dimensions.
Thirdly, you have to observe the object
over a period of time say an hour or so. If
the position of the object does not change
during this time, then we could conclude
that the object has been at rest with respect
to the datum or frame of reference during
the period of observation. If the position
of the object changes with respect to the
datum or frame of reference during this
period, then we say that the object has
moved during the period of observation.
A body is said to be in the state of
rest when it remains in the same position
relative to a datum over time.
CHAPTER - 6
MORE TO KNOW
One of the real mysteries of life is to
find an object that is truly and absolutely
at rest. Objects on the earth seem
stationary but we know the earth itself is
moving and is a part of the solar system.
The solar system itself is moving around
other galaxies. Is there any object in
this universe, which we could say with
certainty that it is at rest?.....`
A body is said to be in the state of
motion, when it changes its position with
X respect to a datum over time.
To summarise, therefore, to determine
whether an object is ‘at rest’ or ‘in motion’
three parameters are required. They are:
ƒƒ A datum and a frame of reference
ƒƒ T
 he position of the object in relation to
the datum or frame of reference
ƒƒ Time
6.2. TYPES OF MOTION
Movement can be classified under the
following heads for convenience sake:
ƒƒ L
 inear motion – where the object
moves along a straight line.
ƒƒ C
 ircular motion – where the object
moves along a circular path.
ƒƒ O
 scillatory motion – where an object
describes a repetitive to and fro
movement retracing its original path in
the opposite direction.
ƒƒ R
 andom motion – where the motion of
the object does not fall in any of the
above categories.
6.3. DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT
Distance : It is the length of the actual
path followed by an object or body while
96
 MOTION
moving from one point to another. In the Market

example shown alongside, the length Market

of the left side path is 1.5km and we say
that the distance between the two points km
following the left hand path is 1.5km, while 1.5 1
th
pa
the distance is 2.5km following the right km
1
hand path. Distance is a scalar quantity
km
and the direction is not important. It always 2.5 2
th
increases with time. pa

Displacement : It is the shortest distance

between two points and is a vector quantity
where direction is an essential feature. It is
not merely sufficient to state the shortest
distance between the two points but it is
also necessary to state the direction. In the
example above, the displacement of the
destination is one km in the north easterly
House
Fig 6.2
direction from the originating point.
Let us compare the two terms, distance
and displacement to understand the
similarities and differences:-

Distance Displacement
It is the length of the actual path followed It is the shortest distance between two
by an object or body, while moving from points.
one point to another.
It is a scalar quantity (having only It is a vector quantity (having magnitude
magnitude). and direction)
It is measured in metres in the SI system. It is measured in metres in a particular
direction in the SI system.
It is not a unique quantity and is always It is only dependent on the starting point
path dependent. and the ending point and is independent

SCIENCE
of the path followed. It is unique to a given
pair of points.
It can either be equal to or greater than It is either equal to or lesser than the
displacement. distance.
Distance in any direction would be It can be a negative quantity. If displacement
a positive quantity, since direction is in one direction is assumed to be positive
inconsequential. then the displacement in the opposite
direction would be a negative quantity.

ACTIVITY 6.2 I DO
I walk from one corner of my classroom to the opposite
corner along the sides. I measure the distance, I have
covered. Now I walk diagonally across to the opposite
corner and measure the displacement. I note the difference.
_______________________________________________

97
PHYSICS CHAPTER - 6
ACTIVITY 6.3 I DO
B I draw a semicircle of radius 10cm and
I measure the path ABC (distance) and AOC
(displacement).
I can observe that the distance = 31.4 cm
and the displacement = 20 cm.

A o C
10cm 10cm

6.4. SPEED, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

Speed is the rate of change of distance with respect to time or the distance travelled
per unit time. The SI unit of speed is metres per second. It is a scalar quantity.

Velocity is the rate of change of displacement with respect to time. It is the displacement
per unit time. The SI unit of velocity is metres per second. It is a vector quantity and
therefore, the direction must always be specified along with the magnitude and the units.

Let us compare the two terms speed and velocity to understand the similarities and
differences:-

Speed Velocity

It is the rate of change of distance with It is the rate of change of displacement

respect to time. with respect to time.

It is a scalar quantity (having only It is a vector quantity (having magnitude

magnitude) and direction).

Speed is velocity without a particular

Velocity is speed in a particular direction.
direction.

It is measured in metres per second in the It is measured in metres per second in a

SI system. particular direction in the SI system.

Distance can either be equal to or greater Displacement is either equal to or lesser

than displacement. than the distance.

Velocity can be a negative quantity. If

Speed in any direction would be a positive
velocity in one direction is assumed to be
quantity, since distance in any direction is
positive, then the velocity in the opposite
a positive quantity.
direction would be a negative quantity.
Acceleration:

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time or it is the rate of
change of velocity in unit time. It is a vector quantity. The SI unit of acceleration is m/s
per second, also written as m/s2 or ms-2.

98

The velocity of a car moving in a
particular direction changes from 10 m/s
to 50 m/s in 10 seconds. What will be
its acceleration? Look at the box on the
right to find it out. The acceleration is 4m/
s2, which means that every second the
velocity increases by 4m/s. If the velocity
is reduced from 50m/s to 10m/s, then
we would get an acceleration value that
is negative, indicating that the velocity is
reducing. Try and work this out by yourself
MOTION
When we look at the distance-time
graph of Murugan’s walk, we notice certain
things. Firstly, it looks like a straight line.
We also notice that Murugan covers equal
distances in equal intervals of time. We
could therefore conclude that Murugan
walked at a constant speed. Can you find
the speed at which Murugan walked? Think
about this for some time before you read
on. See if you can find that out by yourself.
Y

and ask your teacher for a feedback. Scale

X axis 1cm = 5 minute
3000 y axis 1cm = 500 metre
Change in Velocity
________________
Acceleration =
time 2500

Final velocity - initial velocity B

= _________________________ 2000
s2

time taken Distance (metre)

s1
A
1500 C
50m/s-10m/s 40m/s
= ____________ = _______
10s 10s 1000

6.5. GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION 500

OF MOTION ALONG
A STRAIGHT LINE 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
X

Time (minute)

6.5.1. The distance/displacement -time Fig 6.3

graph The speed at which Murugan walks can
be found from the distance-time graph as
Plotting a graph of distance/
shown in Fig 6.3. Consider a small part
displacement or speed/velocity on a graph
AB. From B, draw a line perpendicular to x
helps us visually understand certain things

SCIENCE
axis. From A, draw a line parallel to x axis.
about time and motion. The following table
These two lines meet each other at C to
shows the distance walked by Murugan at
form a triangle ABC. Now on the graph,
different times.
BC corresponds to the distance covered
Time (minute) Distance (metre) (s2-s1), and AC denotes the time interval
0 0 (t2-t1). The speed at which Murugan walks
5 500 can be calculated as follows:-
10 1000 The parameter is referred to as the
15 1500 slope of the line. The steeper the slope
20 2000 (in other words the larger the value ) the
25 2500 greater is the speed.
A graph is drawn by taking ‘time’ along Let us take a look at the distance time
the x-axis and ‘distance’ along the y axis. graphs of three different people – Murugan
The graph is known as distance – time walking, Kavitha cycling and Swamikannu
graph. going in a car, along the same path. We

99
PHYSICS CHAPTER - 6
ACTIVITY 6.4 WE DO
The whole class can divide
themselves into small groups. Study
the graph of the bus travelling from
Chennai to Bangalore and discuss the
questions given below.
ƒƒ W
 hat is the total distance between
Chennai and Bangalore?
ƒƒ H
 ow long did the bus take for the full
journey?
Fig 6.4 ƒƒ W
as the speed of the bus
know that cycling can be faster than constant?
walking, and a car can go faster than a ƒƒ D
id the bus halt for some time
cycle. The distance time graphs of the during the journey?
three would look something like that given
ƒƒ If it halted, how long was the halt?
in fig. 6.4. The slope of the line on the
distance – time graph becomes steeper as ƒƒ S
 imply by looking at the inclination
the speed increases. of the graph line, can you tell when
the speed was the greatest?
If we plotted displacement in the graph
ƒƒ W
 hat was the maximum speed
instead of distance, then we would be
that the bus attained during the
able to calculate the velocity of the object.
journey?
We need to note that the direction is not
indicated on the graph and needs to be remains constant over time. In the world
stated in words separately. If it is not stated around us, we notice that the speed of
then it is assumed that the displacement is objects keeps changing from time to time.
in a single direction. In such a case the distance/displacement
– time graphs would not be a straight line.
6.5.2. Uniform and non-uniform speed/
velocity 6.5.3. The velocity-time graph
In the case that we discussed in the The magnitude of the velocity of an
previous section, the speed/velocity of object moving in a straight line can be
all objects were uniform. Uniform speed/ Y
velocity means that the speed/velocity 12.5

10 E
Velocity (km h-1)

7.5

A D
5

2.5

B C
X
0
5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (second)
Fig 6.5 Fig 6.6.

100
 MOTION
ACTIVITY 6.5 I DO ACTIVITY 6.6 I DO
Study the velocity-time graph of the Study the velocity-time graph of
car in fig 6.6 and answer the questions the car on a test drive and answer the
given below:- questions given below:-
ƒƒ W
 hat is the maximum value of ƒƒ W
 hat is the change in velocity in the
velocity during the journey? time interval t1 = 10 seconds and
ƒƒ W
 as the velocity constant during t2= 20 seconds?
any part of the journey? If so, when ƒƒ What is the time interval t2-t1 ?
was it?
ƒƒ R
 ecall the formula for finding the
ƒƒ W
 hat was the maximum value of
value of acceleration. If you cannot
acceleration during the journey?
recall the formula then refer to the
When did it occur?
book and find out. Try to do this by
ƒƒ When did the car slow down? yourself. Do not ask anyone.
ƒƒ W
 hat was the value of acceleration ƒƒ W
 hat is the value of
during the final slowdown? acceleration?(calculate using the
ƒƒ S
 how your working to your teacher formula)
and obtain a feedback.
ƒƒ W
 hat are the units of acceleration in
this case?
plotted against time to give a velocity-time
graph. What can we learn from a velocity ƒƒ S
 how your working to your teacher
time graph? The following table shows the and obtain a feedback.
velocity of a car at regular intervals during
a test drive. The velocity-time graph for the
motion of the car is shown as in Fig 6.6.
When we look at the velocity-time graph of
the car, we notice certain things.

Firstly, it looks like a straight line. We
also notice that the car velocity is increasing
steadily by equal amounts in equal intervals
of time. We could therefore conclude that
the car is moving with uniform acceleration.
Can you find the rate of acceleration of the
car? It would be possible to do that and the
method is quite similar to finding the speed
from a distance-time graph.
The value DE/AD is called the slope
of the line. The steeper the slope of the
velocity-time graph, the greater is the
acceleration. Sometimes the acceleration
need not be uniform and may vary over
time.Fig 6.6 shows the velocity-time graph
of a moving car.
SCIENCE
Fig 6.7
6.5.4. Finding displacement from the
velocity-time graph
Let us see how we can find the
displacement from a velocity-time graph
(or distance from a speed-time graph). The
following graph shows the velocity-time
graph for a car moving with uniform velocity
of 40km/h. In this graph, time is taken along
the x axis and velocity is taken along the y
axis. We notice that the velocity time graph

101
 PHYSICS CHAPTER - 6
is a straight line that is horizontal ( parallel Where u is the initial velocity, v is the
to the x –axis) indicating that the value of final velocity, a is the acceleration and s is
velocity remains unchanged. If we take a the displacement.
time interval of say two hours from t1=1h
These equations can be derived from
to t2=3h (shown in blue on the graph), we
the graphs. Consider the velocity- time
would notice that AC or BD represents
graph in fig 6.9 where the velocity changes
the velocity and AB or CD represents the
from u at point A to v at point B. From A,
duration. Since the velocity is constant, if
draw two perpendiculars, one to the x
we multiply the velocity by time we would
axis (AC) and another to the y axis (AD).
get the distance covered in the two hour
Similarly, perpendicular lines are drawn
duration, which is represented by the area
from B (BE & BF). AG is the perpendicular
of the rectangle (width x length). We could
drawn from A to BE.
conclude that the area under a velocity- Y
time graph represents the displacement.
This would be true even if the velocity
B
is not constant. Let us take a look at the F

graph given if fig. 6.8, which is reproduced

alongside. To find the area under the
graph from t=4h to t=8h, we split it up into D A
G
a rectangle and a triangle. The area would
Velocity

therefore be:

(40x4)+ (½ X4X40)=160+80=240KM
Y

A B O C E X
40
Time
30 Fig 6.9.
Velocity (km h-1)

20

10
C t1 t2 D
0 1 2 3 X
Time (hour)

Fig 6.8
6.6. EQUATIONS OF MOTION
Instead of plotting a graph and
calculating the area, slope etc. in order to
find the displacement or acceleration, it is Fig 6.10
possible to evolve some formulae which
Equation for velocity at a time
can enable us to calculate these values.
The three standard equations of motion By definition, using the symbols we
are: could say Rearranging we get,
v = u + at
____
BG
s = ut + ½ at2 Acceleration = slope = AG

v2 – u2 = 2as change in velocity

= ______________
time

102

final velocity - initial velocity
________________________
=
time elapsed
a = (v-u)/t
This can be rearranged to become,
v = u + at
Equation for displacement after a given
time
To obtain the second equation we
need to find ‘s’ the displacement, which is
nothing but the area under the line AB. This
as we know can be obtained by adding
the areas of the rectangle ACEG and the
triangle AGB. The area of rectangle ACEG
is given by multiplying AC(initial velocity, u)
with AG(time elapsed, t) which is equal to
ut. To this, we add the area of the triangle
AGB which is half the base multiplied
by the height. The base is AG which is
nothing but the elapsed time, t. The height
of the triangle is BG which is nothing but
the change in velocity, v-u which in turn is
equal to ‘at’. Thus,
Total area of ABEC
= area of ACEG + area of AGB
1 at2
s = ut + 1─ x t x at = ut + ─
2 2
Equation for velocity at a given position
In the graph,
Displacement = Area of the trapezium
CABE
1 ƒƒ A
s = ─ x(u+ v) x t
2 around – in athletics, such a sport is
(v-u)
= 2s = (u+ v) x _____
(Substituting the value
a of t from the equation
v = u+ at)
= 2as =v2 - u2
= v2 - u2 = 2as
Acceleration due to gravity
What do we observe when a body is
thrown vertically upwards?
The velocity of the body gradually
decreases and becomes zero at which
103
MOTION
stage, it reaches its maximum height. The
velocity then gradually increases in the
downward direction till the body reaches the
ground. There is a constant acceleration
in the downward direction due to gravity,
which is responsible for the decrease in
velocity followed by an increase in velocity
in the downward direction. This constant
downward acceleration is referred to as
the acceleration due to gravity denoted by
the letter ‘g’. The average value of ‘g’ is
9.8 m/s-2. The velocity of the body thrown
vertically upwards will decrease by 9.8m/s
every second and the velocity of a body
falling down increases by 9.8m/s every
second. Since the acceleration due to
gravity is a constant value, the equations
of motion can be applied to any object that
falls vertically or is thrown up vertically.
6.7. CIRCULAR MOTION
6.7.1. Uniform circular motion
The movement of an object in a circular
path is called circular motion. Some
examples of circular motion are :-
ƒƒ A
 person sitting on a merry-go-round
goes around in a circular path.
ƒƒ A
 car moving on a circular road or a
SCIENCE
curved racing track follows a circular
path.
ƒƒ A
 n electron having a circular orbit
around the nucleus.
 stone tied to a string and whirled
called the hammer throw.
In real life, some of the objects may
not follow an exactly circular path but
may follow a near circular path as for
example, the electrons or the planets that
orbit around the sun. If the object moves
at uniform speed on a perfectly circular
path then we call it uniform circular motion.
In this section, we will discuss the ideal
case of a perfectly uniform circular motion.
PHYSICS CHAPTER - 6
6.7.2. Centripetal Acceleration

Uniform circular motion is a special

case, where the speed of an object
remains constant but the direction keeps
on changing. We could therefore say that
the velocity changes when the direction
of motion changes. Since the velocity is
changing then there must be acceleration,
since the change in velocity must be Fig 6.11
happening over a period of time. Further, 6.7.3 centripetal force
since the speed is uniform, the object
Tie a stone to a piece of rope and rotate
is changing direction at a uniform rate
it in a circle. You will find that you have to
and therefore we could conclude that
exert a force (in the direction shown by the
the acceleration is uniform. You will later
arrow in the diagram) to keep the stone
learn how to derive an expression for this
going around in a circle. If you let go of
acceleration and also prove mathematically
the rope, the stone along with the rope,
that it is a constant acceleration. This
will fly off in a straight line as shown in the
uniform acceleration that causes uniform
diagram (tangent to the circle). This force
circular motion is called Centripetal
that keeps the body going around in circular
acceleration. Centripetal acceleration
motion is called the Centripetal force. The
always acts perpendicular to the direction
Centripetal force acts perpendicular to the
of the velocity and always acts radially
velocity and is always directed radially
towards the centre. Can you give reasons
inwards towards the centre of the circle.
why the centripetal acceleration should be
E.g.:
perpendicular to the velocity and always
1. In the case of the stone tied to the end
act radially towards the centre? Think
of a string and rotated in a circular path,
about it for some time and check your
the centripetal force is provided by the
reasoning with that given in the text box.
tension in the string.
TWO REASONS….

1. If the acceleration were to act in the

direction of the velocity, then the
magnitude of the velocity (speed)
would change. We however see
that the speed does not change;
therefore, we could conclude that it
must be perpendicular to the velocity.
2. When a car takes a turn on the road, the
2. The arrow representing the
frictional force between the tyres and
velocity is a tangent to the circle.
the road provides the centripetal force.
The line perpendicular to it must be
radial (passing through the centre of 3. In the case of electrons revolving round
the circle) as we know, the property the nucleus, the centripetal force is
of a circle is that the tangent is provided by the electrostatic force of
perpendicular to the radius. attraction between the nucleus and the
electron.

104
 MOTION
MODEL EVALUATION
PART A
1. Arrange the following speed in the ascending order.
(7 m/s, 15 km/h, 2km/minute, 0.1 m/millisecond)
2. When a body starts from rest, the acceleration of the body after 2 seconds is _______
of its displacement. (half, twice, four times, one-fourth)
3. The gradient or slope of the distance-time graph at any point gives ______.
(acceleration, displacement, velocity, time)
4. The area under the velocity-time graph represents the _______ the moving object.
(velocity of, displacement covered by, acceleration of, speed of)
5. In a 100 m race, the winner takes 10 s to reach the finishing point. The average speed
of the winner is ______ m/s.
(5 , 10 , 20, 40)
6. Give an example of a motion in which the displacement is zero, but the distance
travelled is not zero.
7. Is acceleration a scalar or a vector quantity?
8. What determines the direction of motion of an object - velocity or acceleration?
9. What is the nature of the displacement time graph of a body moving with constant
acceleration?
PART B
1. Complete the table:
Sl. No Physical quantity Unit

SCIENCE
1 Velocity
2 Acceleration
3 Angular displacement
4 Angular velocity
2. i) Match the following graphs with their corresponding motions.
ii) What is the value of acceleration in graph ‘B’?

a) Unaccelerated b) Non-uniformly c) Uniformly

Motion
motion accelerated motion accelerated motion
(A) (B) (C)
Velocity

Velocity

Velocity

Graph

Time Time Time

105
PHYSICS CHAPTER - 6
3. A
 motorcycle travelling at 20 m/s has an acceleration of 4 m/s2. What does it explain
about the velocity of the motorcycle?
4. A bus travels a distance of 20 km from Chennai Central to Airport in 45 minutes.
i) What is the average speed?
ii) Why does the actual speed differ from the average speed?
5. Statement: ‘In a uniform circular motion, the magnitude and direction of velocity at
different points remain the same’. Check whether the above statement is correct or
incorrect. Reason it out.
6. A car moving along a straight line covers a distance of 1km towards the east in 100 s.
Find (i) the speed of the car. (ii) the velocity of the car.
7. A student takes 15 minutes to travel from his home to school with a uniform speed of
5km/h. What is the distance of his school from the home?
8. The speed of a particle is constant. Will it have an acceleration? justify with an example.
9. A boy moves along the path ABCD. What is the total distance covered by the boy?
What is his net displacement?
A
50 m

D
20 m

B 40 m C

10. State whether the following statements are true or false:

(a) The velocity – time graph of a particle falling freely under gravity would be a straight
line parallel to the axis.
(b) If the velocity- time graph of a particle is a straight line inclined to time axis, then
its displacement - time graph will also be a straight line?
11. Mention the uses of velocity- time graphs.
12. A car manufacturer advertises that the brakes are so perfect that when applied, the
car would stop instantaneously. Comment on this.
13. Can the speed of a body be negative?
14. The value of ‘g’ remains the same at all the places on the earth’s surface. Is this
statement true?
15. A car starting from rest acquires a velocity of 180 m/s in 0.05 h. Find its acceleration.

106
 MOTION
PART C
1. A coin is tossed with a velocity of 3 m/s at A.

a) What happens to the velocity along AB, along DE and at C?

b) What happens to the acceleration of the coin along AC and CE?
c) What is the distance and vertical displacement covered by the coin between A
and E.

2. The diagram shows the position of a ball as it rolls down a track. The ball took 0.5 s to
roll from one position to the other.
A
B
C
D
E
F

a) State whether the motion of the ball is uniform or non-uniform.

SCIENCE
b) What is the distance travelled by the ball in 2.5 s?
c) Find the average velocity of the ball from A to F.

3. Consider the motions in the following cases.

(i) A moving car

(ii) A man climbing up a ladder to the terrace and coming down

107
PHYSICS CHAPTER - 6
(iii) A ball that has completed one rotation

a) In which of the above cases the displacement of the object may be zero.
b) Justify your answer.
4. The following graph shows the motion of a car.
Speed

Time
a) W
 hat do you infer from the above graph along OA and AB?
b) What is the speed of the car along OA and along AB?
5. Derive the three equations of motion by graphical method.
6. The adjacent diagram shows the velocity-time graph of a body.
40
B C
30

20
a
10

A D
0 2 4 6 8 10

a) D
 uring what time interval is the motion of the body accelerated?
b) F
 ind the acceleration in the time interval mentioned in Part (a).
c) What is the distance travelled by the body in the time interval mentioned in Part(a).
7. Complete the following sentences:
a) A body is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 1000 m/s. Its velocity when it
reaches the point of projection, during the fall will be _______.
b) T
 he acceleration of the body that moves with a uniform velocity will be _______.
c) A train travels from station A to station B with a velocity of 100km/h and returns from
station B to station A with a velocity of 80km/h. Its average velocity during the whole
journey is _______ and its average speed is _______.

108
 MOTION
Explore and Answer
1. A
 student measures the circumference of a sector formed by an arc of a circle,
which forms the angle one radian at its centre as 3 times the radius. Is his answer
correct? Justify.
2. A
 girl observes the motion of a crab which makes a forward motion of 2 cm and
reverse motion of 1 cm every time. If it takes a time of 1 second to move 1cm,
plot a graph to find out how long it will take to reach a point, 5 cm from the start.
3. A
 particle moves at a constant speed in a circular path. Is it accelerated?
Give reason for your answer.
4. From the following table, check the shape of the graph.

v (m/s) 0 20 40 40 40 20 0
t (s) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12

5. A girl starting from a point walks in a circular park of radius 70 m and comes back to
the same point. Is the distance covered and the displacement, the same? Justify.
6. 
Observe the following motions and classify them as uniform motion,

non-uniform motion and circular motion. Motion of a football player, motion of a fan,
motion of an ant, motion of a town bus, motion of the moon, motion of spectators in
an auditorium, motion of the arms of clock.
7. Find the displacement of a car which increases its speed from 20 m/s to 80 m/s in
12 seconds.

SCIENCE

Further reference
Books: 1. General Physics - Morton M. Sternhein - Joseph W. Kane - John Wiley
2. Fundamentals of Physics – David Halliday, Robert Resnick & John Wiley
Webliography: http://www.futuresouth.com
http://www.splung.com

109
PHYSICS CHAPTER - 6

WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

One day Kumar went to see his father in their paddy field. The crop had been harvested
and the yield was good. Nature had been kind and his father was happy that there were
nearly a 100 bags of grain this year. His father said, “There is so much work to do. We
have to load all these 100 bags of grain into the truck and transport it to the rice mill.
Kumar, can you please call Ramu, Somu and Kittu?” Kumar ran to bring them.
The three workers arrived and loaded the bags quickly into the truck, as Kumar
watched. The three workers were sweating. He noticed that Ramu loaded as many as
32 bags in the same time that Somu loaded 26 bags and Kittu loaded 42. He shared his
observation with his father. His father wondered at his son’s keen sense of observation.
He appreciated Kumar for it and explained that Ramu had more power when compared to
Somu and hence was able to do more work in the same duration of time. He added that
it had something to do with energy. Now, let us help Kumar and others understand more
about work, power and energy as well as the relationship among the three.

90
 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY
WORK, POWER AND ENERGY no work is done either by the force on
In earlier classes, you have learnt the body or against the force. The
about wind energy, solar energy and how work done is said to be zero.
electrical energy can be generated from When a cart man applies a force on the
chemical energy in a battery or cell. You cart and the cart moves forward, then work
have also learnt about non-renewable can be said to be done by the force applied
and renewable sources of energy. In this by the cart man on the cart.
chapter, you will learn:
((How to define and explain ‘work’, ‘power’
and ‘energy’ with examples.
((The different forms of energy, in
particular, kinetic and potential energy.
((The law of conservation of energy.
6.1. WORK
We shall first learn about ‘Work’. When
we write or read or when we lift or move an
object like a chair; in everyday language Fig. 6.1. work done by a force
we call it ‘work’. In physics, however, the The weight of an object is the force
word ‘work’ has a very specific definition of gravity acting on the object. When the
and is related to force and movement. object is lifted up from the ground to a
Work is said to be done, when a force point above, then work is said to be done
acts on a body and the point of application against the force of gravity.
of the force is displaced in the direction of
force.
We must note that when a force acts
on a body at rest, it results in acceleration,

SCIENCE
which in turn results in velocity and
displacement. In the definition of work, In the example of the cart man pushing
however, we are merely concerned about the cart, no work is done by the force of
the resultant displacement and not the gravity and no work is done against it,
rate at which the displacement happens since the displacement is perpendicular to
(velocity). the force of gravity.
(i) If the body is displaced in the same
direction as the force, then work is said
to be done by the force.
(ii) If the body is displaced in the opposite
direction to that of the force, then work
is said to be done by the body against Force Displacement
the force.
(iii)  If the body is displaced in the direction
perpendicular to that of the force, then Gravity

91
PHYSICS CHAPTER - 6
Work (W) is measured as the product
James Prescott Joule
of the force (F) and the displacement (S) in
the direction of the force.
W = F x S
When work is done by a force, then
both force and displacement are positive
and the work done is also positive. When
work is done against the force, then force
has a positive sign but displacement has
a negative sign and the work done has a
negative sign. James Prescott Joule experimentally
established that a pound weight falling
The SI unit for measuring the quantity
through seven hundred and seventy-
of work done is the joule. One joule of work
two feet could generate enough heat to
is said to be done when a force of one
raise the temperature of a pound of water
newton acting on a body displaces it by one
exactly by one degree Fahrenheit, thus
metre. The SI unit of work is named after
establishing the equivalence between
James Prescott Joule an eminent British
the amount of work done and the quantity
scientist who was one of the pioneers in
of heat produced. The SI unit of work is
the field of work and energy.
named after him. He also established
For example, if a force of 10N acting the law according to which, heat is
on a football moves it by 20m in the same produced in a conductor of electricity
direction as the applied force, then the when electric current is passed through
work done is calculated as follows:- it. He also established the equivalence
W = F x S = 10N x 20m = 200J among the quantity of electric work, the
quantity of heat energy and the quantity
Imagine lifting a small apple or a large
of mechanical work.
banana (about 100g) through a height of
one metre. This would amount to one joule Imagine a young boy running up a flight
of work. It is a very small quantity of work. of stairs in 10 seconds and an old man
To measure larger quantities of work, we climbing up the same flight of stairs in 20
use larger units of work such as the kilo seconds. The work done by both of them
joule (103 joules) and the mega joule (106 is the same. The boy, however, does it in
joules). lesser time. The boy is said to be producing
6.2. POWER more power than that of the old man. The
boy produces twice as much power as the
In everyday language, the word ‘power’
old man.
is often used to imply ‘a large force or
electric power supply’ and the word
‘powerful’ to mean ‘strong’. In physics, the
word “power” has a very specific definition
and is related to work.
Power (P) is defined as ‘the rate of
doing work’. It can also be defined as ‘the
work done per unit time’.

92

Power (P) is calculated by dividing the
work done (W) by the time taken (t) to do
that work.
work done
Power =
time taken
w (( Mixie - ___________________
P=
t (( Grinder - ________________
The SI unit for measuring power is
Watt. Power is said to be one watt when
one joule of work is done in one second.
One watt of power is the same as one joule
per second. The SI unit of power is named
after the Scottish inventor and engineer,
James Watt.
Imagine lifting a small apple or a large
banana (about 100g) through one metre
in one second. This would amount to one
watt of power. If the same work is done in
two seconds, it would amount to half a watt.
The watt is a fairly small unit of power. To
measure larger quantities of power, we use
larger units of power such as the kilowatt
(103 watts) and the megawatt (106 watts).
6.3. ENERGY
Energy is defined as the capacity to do
work.
We must note that by definition the
concepts of energy and work are related to
each other. Energy is invisible but work is
not. So when we see work being done, we
James Watt (1736-1819)
A Scottish inventor
and mechanical
engineer James
Watt was interested
in the technology
of steam engines.
Watt improved the
efficiency of the steam
engine greatly and its cost-effectiveness.
93
WORK, POWER AND ENERGY
Find out and write the power (in watt)
consumed by the following electrical
appliances in your house.
(( Tube light - ______________
(( Ceiling Fan - _____________
(( Water heater - ____________
(( Air-conditioner - ___________
(( ________________________
(( ________________________
conclude that energy must be present for
that work to be done. Usually an object (or
even a liquid or gas) generates the force
that does the work. Therefore energy is
associated with the object (or liquid or gas)
that generates the force which does the
work. For example, when water is boiled
and steam is released, the steam can
generate a force that can move a whole
train.
We can, therefore, conclude that the
steam must have had energy, since it has
done a work. When a leaf sways due to the
SCIENCE
force of the wind, then work is done by the
wind and wind must have had energy that
was used to do the work. If X units of work
is done we assume that the same number
of units of energy must have been used up
and the energy within the object or agency
doing the work must have been reduced
by the same quantity.
The SI unit for measuring energy is the
same as that of measuring work, which is
the joule. The larger units for measuring
energy are also correspondingly kilo joule
and mega joule.
The practical unit of measuring
electrical energy is the kilowatt-hour which
PHYSICS
is also colloquially referred to as “unit”.
One kilowatt-hour is the energy consumed
at the rate of one kilowatt for one hour. This
is equivalent to 3600000J [1000W x 3600s
= 3600000J
= 3.6 x 106 J].
Example: How much electrical energy will
be consumed when a hundred
watt bulb is used for 10 hours?
Energy = 100 watt x 10 hour
= 0.1kW x 10h = 1kWh.
Different forms of energy
Anything that can do work contains
energy. We understand that heat can
do work from the example of the steam
engine. Therefore, heat is a form of energy.
Electricity can produce heat when it is
passed through a resistance.
Electricity is also used to run fans and
lights. Therefore, electricity must also be a
form of energy. Wind can be used to do
work and so it is also a form of energy.
Thus there are various forms of energy
and all of them can perform some work.
Some important forms of energy are:
chemical energy, light energy, heat energy,
electrical energy, nuclear energy, sound
energy and mechanical energy. We shall
discuss mechanical energy with a little
more detail, later in this chapter.
6.4. OBTAINING ENERGY
In the preceding section, we spoke
about how energy gets lost by steam (or
any other object) while doing work. The
question that naturally arises is: “Where
does an object get its energy from?” The
answer to this question leads us to one of
the most important laws in mechanics after
Newton’s Laws.
An object can acquire energy in two
different ways. It can get energy when,
94
CHAPTER - 6
MORE TO KNOW
The earliest evidence for controlled
use of fire was found at an Early Stone
Age excavation site in the Middle east,
(now Israel) 790,000 years ago, from
where charred wood and seeds were
recovered. Evidence also shows that
human beings have used wind from
about 3500 BCE.
Systematic use of these elements
from nature (earth, water, wind and
fire) to do pieces of work, which human
beings would otherwise have had to do
with their own hands started from the
time of the Greeks around 200 BCE.
Yet, surprisingly, it was not until 1802
that the term ‘energy’ was used in the
modern scientific sense for the first time.
Even more surprising is the fact
that importance was not given to the
concept of energy, till the late nineteenth
century, when two important concepts
were proven beyond doubt.
The first was that ‘energy’ could
neither be created nor destroyed and
that it could only be converted from one
form to another. The second was that
every time energy is converted from one
form to another, a part of that energy is
invariably converted into a form that is
not usable thereafter (loss of energy).
Let us learn more about these two
concepts.
TRY THIS
((How long will a 40W bulb need to
glow in order to consume one unit
of electricity?
((How much electric energy will be
consumed when a 500W motor
runs for four hours?

(i) energy in some other form is converted
and added to the energy that the object
already possesses. Energy can never
be created.
(ii) work is done.
6.4.1. 
OBTAINING ENERGY THROUGH
ENERGY CONVERSION – THE
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF
ENERGY
The law of conservation of energy
states that:
‘Energy can neither be created nor
destroyed; it can only be changed from
one form to another.’
A car engine burns fuel, converting the
fuel’s chemical energy into heat energy,
which in turn is converted into mechanical
energy to make the car move. Windmills
transform wind energy into mechanical
energy, which can be used to turn a turbine
to produce electricity. The electrical energy
can be changed into light energy in a bulb.
It can also be converted into mechanical
energy, to turn a fan or changed into heat
energy to cook food. The cooking of food
itself is a chemical reaction which can be
turned into energy inside the human body.
Going backwards on the chain of energy
transformation, the wind energy comes
from the heat energy flowing from the sun
and the sun’s energy itself comes from
nuclear reactions within the sun.
In fact, if you take any form of energy,
you will find that it is obtained from another
form of energy; and that form of energy has
been obtained from another; to form an
endless chain of transformation of energies
without a beginning or an end. That is an
awesome fact and you should pause to
think over the enormity of it!! Therefore
when we say, we are using energy what
we really mean is that we are converting
one form of energy into another form.
95
WORK, POWER AND ENERGY
6.4.2. THE ALTERNATIVE STATEMENT
OF THE LAW OF CONSERVATION
OF ENERGY
The Law of Conservation of Energy can
also be stated as follows: ‘The total amount
of energy in an isolated system remains
constant but can be transferred from one
object to another within the system.’
Michael Faraday (1791-1867)
Michael Faraday was perhaps the first
person to point out the interconnections
between various phenomena. He
pointed out that from chemical reactions
come electricity: from electricity comes
magnetism: from magnetism, we can
obtain electricity, from electricity we
SCIENCE
can go back to chemical reactions. He
knew fully well that none of these can
be produced endlessly from another.
“Nowhere,” he says, “is there a pure
creation or production of power without a
corresponding exhaustion of something
to supply it.”
He was very close to it but narrowly
missed articulating the all-important Law
of Conservation of Energy in its exact
form. Faraday was still alive, when many
scientists working for nearly fifty years
came to the conclusion that energy
could neither be created nor destroyed
and articulated it in the modern form as
the Law of Conservation of Energy.
PHYSICS
What is a system?
When we study an object, we usually
fix our attention on the object and analyse
the various aspects of it. The object of our
study is usually referred to as a system.
Sometimes the system may consist of more
than one object. It is useful to think of our
system as separate from everything else.
To do this, we draw a boundary around the
object. Sometimes the boundary is real. At
other times, a simple imaginary boundary
will do. Everything else outside the
boundary is referred to as its surroundings.
The surroundings interact with the
object and influence it. We can visualize
these interactions as crossing the boundary
to interact with the object. When there are
no influencing factors on the system from
the surroundings, then we call it an isolated
system or a closed system.
Explanation for the Alternative Statement
of the Law of Conservation of Energy
The alternative form of the Law of
Energy states that the total energy within
the closed system remains a constant in
the absence of any interaction with the
surroundings. You can now understand
that both the statements of the conservation
law mean almost the same.
System
System
boundary
96
CHAPTER - 6
6.4.3. GETTING ENERGY FROM WORK
When an object generates the force
that does work, then there is a decrease
in energy in that object. On the other hand,
when the force generated by some other
agency acts on an object and does a work,
then the object’s energy increases. In this
case, we say that the work is done on the
object.
Energy gained by an object is measured
in terms of the work done on the object.
For example, if an object is lifted up to a
certain height, work is done on the object.
This results in an increase in energy of
the object. The energy in the same object
can decrease by the same amount, when
the object falls back to its original position,
doing ‘work’ in the process.
This is a specific case of the law of
conservation of energy since the work is
done only by drawing energy from some
other source. In the example given above,
the work is done by the muscles, which
obtain their energy from the chemical
reactions, transforming the food we eat
into energy.
Another example is that when a spring
is compressed, work is done on the spring
which is stored in the spring as energy.
When the spring is released, the same
quantity of energy can be recovered as
‘work’ when it springs back to its original
state.

6.5. MECHANICAL ENERGY
When a work is done on an object,
then the object gains energy. The energy
acquired by objects upon which work is
done is known as mechanical energy.
When work is done on an object, then it
can result in one of the following:
(i) Increase in speed. (Kinetic Energy)
(ii) Increase in height or state of strain.
(Potential Energy)
For example, a book is lying on a table.
If we apply a force on it and the book starts
sliding on the table, then its speed has
increased.
When a force is applied to lift an object,
it results in an increase in height. When
a force is applied to compress a spring it
results in the decrease of spring’s length.
We call this as a state of strain and it is not
the natural state.
6.5.1. KINETIC ENERGY
Moving objects can do work, hence they
posses energy. For example, a moving
block of wood colliding with a stationary
block of wood can cause a displacement
97
WORK, POWER AND ENERGY
(and therefore ‘work’). Hence, we can
conclude that a moving object must hold
energy.
Energy possessed by an object due
to its motion (or velocity) is called kinetic
energy.
Here is another example of kinetic
energy. The moving water which can rotate
a wheel can be used to grind grain or to
generate electricity.
A moving hammer can drive a nail into
a wall or a piece of wood.
Kinetic energy can be calculated using
the formula KE = ½ mv2 where ‘m’ is the
mass of the moving body and ‘v’ is its
velocity.
This formula can be derived using the
equation of motion that you learnt earlier
in this class.
Let us suppose that an object of mass
‘m’ is moving with a velocity ‘v’. To bring it
to rest, a force is required to act opposite
to the direction of motion. The object will
slow down and come to a halt. Let us
suppose that the distance covered during
the retardation is ‘s’.
SCIENCE
PHYSICS CHAPTER - 6
to a halt. Therefore, the original value of
the kinetic energy (KE) in the body, when it
was moving must have been
= (+) ½ mv2

which reduced to zero when it came to a

halt. Hence KE of a moving body is given
2
by the formula KE = ½ mv

6.5.2. POTENTIAL ENERGY

The energy possessed by a body by
virtue of its position or due to a state of
The work done on the object is given strain, is called potential energy.
by the formula: Potential energy of an object raised
W = F X S. ….(1) through a height ‘h’ (gravitational potential
energy) is calculated using the formula
Using the formula F = ma we can PE = mgh, where ‘m’ is the mass of the
substitute ‘F’ in equation (1). body, ‘g’ is the acceleration due to gravity
We get, and ‘h’ is the height through which the
W = m X a X S ….(2) object has been raised.

Using the equation of motion ACTIVITY 6.1 I DO

v2= u2 + 2as, we can substitute ‘a’ in
equation (2). Bow

Since the initial velocity was v and the

final velocity was zero we can substitute
these values in equation (3).
We get, Arrow
(v2 - u2)
W = mX X s …(3)
2s

(02 - v2)
W= m X X s
2s
Bow and Arrow
~ We get 1
I take a bamboo stick and make a
W = (-) X m X v2
2 bow. I place an arrow made of a light stick
with one end supported by the string. I
Since this work, W, is done on the stretch the string and note the change in
object, it must be stored in the object as the shape of the bow.
energy. Notice that the work done by the I release the arrow, which flies off. The
external force is a negative quantity. The potential energy stored in the bow due to
negative sign indicates that the object’s the change of shape has transferred to
energy has decreased, while slowing down the moving arrow as kinetic energy.

98
 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY
Example: Water stored in a reservoir of energy remain constant through the
has a large amount of potential energy process(such as chemical energy, heat
due to which it can drive a water turbine energy, sound energy, electrical energy,
when allowed to fall down. This is the etc.) then mechanical energy should be
principle of production of hydro-electric conserved during every moment of the
energy. journey downwards. This means that
generator the sum total of the potential and kinetic
transformer energy at any point of the journey must
high tension
line
be a constant. At the top, the potential
dam energy is considerable. As the object falls
reservoir

freely, its potential energy keeps reducing

(as the height reduces) and its kinetic
energy keeps increasing(as the speed
increases). Let us verify mathematically
turbine
whether the total mechanical energy
Hydropower Station is constant, using the two formulae
that we have learnt : PE = mgh and
KE = ½ mv2.
m Higher level
A

F x

m Ground level

Fig. 6.2.

SCIENCE
Consider an object of mass ‘m’ raised
through a height ‘h’. The force of gravity h
B
acting on the object is ‘mg’. The work done
in raising the object through a vertical
displacement ‘h’ is:
W = F X S = mg X h
h-x
6.5.3.  CONSERVATION OF
MECHANICAL ENERGY
The law of conservation of energy
is applicable to mechanical energy as C
well. Consider an object falling from a
height ‘h’. Assuming that all other forms
Ground level

99
PHYSICS CHAPTER - 6
Consider a body of mass ‘m’ falling from a point ‘A’ which is at a height ‘h’ from the
ground as shown in the figure.
At ‘A’, at the instant of release its velocity is zero. At ‘C’, at the instant just before
striking the ground its height is zero and its velocity maximum. At an intermediary point
B, it has fallen through a height ‘x’ and has acquired a certain velocity.
At A
PE = mgh
KE = 0
Total mechanical energy, PE + KE = mgh
At C
PE = 0
KE = ½ mv2 = ½ m(2gh) = mgh [Using v2 = u2 +2as where u = 0, a = g and s = h]
Total mechanical energy, PE + KE = mgh
At B
PE = mg(h-x)
KE = ½ mv2
= ½ m(2gx)
= mgx [Using v2 = u2 +2as where u = 0, a = g and s = x]
Total mechanical energy
= PE + KE
= mg(h-x) + mgx = mgh
Thus, we see that at each point of the journey, the total mechanical energy is
constant. In other words, the total mechanical energy is conserved.
MODEL EVALUATION
Section A
1. Work done by the force is said to be negative, if the displacement of a body is
_________. (along the force, against the force)
2. Pick the odd one out from the following based on the nature of energy possessed by
them. (moving car, water stored in a tank, a book on a table, ceiling fan in ‘OFF’ position)
3. 
Commercial unit of electrical energy is _______. (joule, joule/second, watt,
kilowatt-hour).
4. The SI unit of work is__________ (watt, joule).
5. Capacity of doing work is called_____________ (power, energy).
6. Work done= power X_____________ (time taken, displacement).
7. One Kwh is equal to _____________ ( 3.6X106 J, 360000 J).
8. Potential energy of an object raised through a height h is ___________ ( ½ mv2, mgh).

100
 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY
9. For the following situations, determine whether work was done. Write ‘work done’ (or)
‘no work done’ for each situation:
a) An ice skater glides for two metres across the ice.
b) The ice skater’s partner lifts her up to a distance of 1 metre.
c) The ice skater’s partner carries her across the ice for a distance of 3 m.
d) After setting her down, the ice skater’s partner pulls her across the ice for a distance
of 10 m.
e) After skating practice, the ice skater lifts her 20 N gym bag upto 0.5 m.
10. An ant sits on the back a mouse. The mouse carries the ant across the floor for a
distance of 10 m. Was there work done by the mouse? Explain.
Section B
1. What is the work done by the force of gravity on a satellite moving around the earth?
Justify your answer.
2. “Energy can neither be ______________ nor _____________; it can only be changed
from one form to another”.
3. How is work measured?
4.

(i)

 bserve the figures above. State and explain in each case, whether work is done
O

SCIENCE
or not?
5. Define ‘power’.
6. Give some important forms of energy.
7. Define kinetic energy.
8. Look at the following pictures. Mention the nature of energy transformation, that takes
place in each.

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

101
PHYSICS CHAPTER - 6
9. Raja weighing 40 kg claimbs up a staircase of 20 steps, each of 16 cm height, in
20 seconds. Find the power generated by Raja.
10. Look at the two diagrams given below. Calculate the work done in compressing each
spring completely, assuming that the force applied remains constant.

F = 10 N 10 cm 6 cm

(ii)
(i)
11. a) How are work, force and distance related.
b) Find the work done by a pulley when it lifts a block which is 5 m off the ground with
a 10 N force.
12. You did 150 joules of work lifting a 120- Newton backpack.
a) How high did you lift the backpack?
 b) How much did the backpack weigh in pounds? [Hint: 1 pound = 4.448 newtons]
13. You lift a 450 newton bag of rice 1.2 metres and carry it a distance of 10 metres to the
kitchen. How much work is done?
14. Determine the amount of potential energy of a 5 N book that is moved from the
ground to three different shelves on a book case. The height of each shelf is
1 m, 1.5 m and 2 m from the ground,
15. Malathy’s vacuum cleaner has a power rating of 200 watts. If the vacuum cleaner
does 360,000 joules of work, how long did Malathy spend vacuuming.
16. A 1000 watt microwave oven takes 90 seconds to heat a bowl of soup. How many
joules of energy does it use?
Section C
1. Consider the case of a freely falling body given in the following figures:
At A
Kinetic energy=0
Potential energy=mgh
At B
Kinetic energy=mgx
At C
Kinetic energy=mgh
Potential energy=0
a) Find the potential energy of the body at B.
b) Find the total energy at A,B and C.
c) Is there any variation in total energy? What do you infer from the result?

102
 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY
2. Define potential energy. Obtain the expression for potential energy.
3. Name the energy transformations that occur in the following.
a) Electric motor b) Photoelectric cell
c) Electric heater d) Photosynthesis in plants
e) Light bulb
4. Which person did the maximum work?
a) Venu walks 1,000 meters to the store. He buys 4.448 newtons of chocolates and
then carries it to his friend’s house which is 500 metres away.
b) Kala lifts her 22 newton cat to a distance of 0.5 metre.
c) Ramu carries groceries from a car to his house. Each bag of grocery weighs
40 N. He has 10 bags. He lifts each bag up 1 metre to carry it and then walks
10 m from his car to his house.
5. Two objects were lifted by a machine. One object had a mass of 2 kg and was lifted at
a speed of 2 m/s. The other had a mass of 4 kg and was lifted at a rate of 3 m/s.
a) Which object had more kinetic energy while it was being lifted?
b) 
Which object had more potential energy when it was lifted to a distance of
10 m? (gravity – 9.8 m/s2)
6. Mitra and Akshaya are helping a neighbour to arrange the books in a book shelf.
Mitra and Akshaya each carry 10 bundles of books weighing 300 N each to a shelf
which is 7 metres from the ground. Mitra is able to carry the books to the shelf in
10 minutes where as Akshaya needs 20 minutes. Who has more power?
7. A machine that uses 200 watts of power moves an object to a distance of 15 m in 25
seconds. Find the force needed and the work done by this machine.

SCIENCE

Further reference
Books : 1. Physics Foundation and Frontiers - G.Gamov and J.M.Clereland – Tata
McGraw Hill
2. Complete Physics for IGCSE - OXFORD PUBLICATIONS

Webliography : http://www.edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/n_renew/energy.htm
http://www.arvindguptatoys.com
http://www.physics.about.com
http://www.khanacademy.org

103
 Chapter 15
LAWS OF MOTION AND
GRAVITATION
In our day-to-day life, we observe that
some effort is required to put a stationary
object into motion or to bring a moving object
to a stop. Normally, we have to push or pull
or hit an object to change its state.
The concept of force is based on this
push, pull or hit. No one has seen, tasted,
or felt force. However, we always see or feel
the effect of a force. It can only be explained
by describing what happens, when a force
is applied to an object. Push, pull or hit may
bring objects into motion, because we apply
force to act on them. Therefore, force is
one which changes or tends to change
the state of rest or of uniform motion of
a body. Force is a vector quantity. Its SI unit
is newton.
15.1. BALANCED AND ­UNBALANCED
FORCES
Fig.15.1 shows a wooden block on a
horizontal table. Two strings X and Y are
tied to the two opposite faces of the block
as shown.
If we apply a force by pulling the string
‘X’, the block begins to move to the right.
233
Y X
Fig. 15.1
Similarly, if we pull the string Y, the block
moves to the left. If the block is pulled from
both the sides with equal force, the block
does not move and remains stationary.
Forces acting on an object which do not
change the state of rest or of uniform motion
of it are called balanced forces.
Now let us consider a situation in which
two opposite forces of different magnitudes
act on the block. The block moves in the
direction of the greater force. The resultant
of two opposite forces acts on an object and
brings it to motion. These opposite forces
are called unbalanced forces.
The following illustration clearly ­explains
the concept of balanced and ­ unbalanced
forces. Some children try to push a box on
a rough floor.

(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 15.2
If one child pushes the box with a smaller
force, the box does not move because of
friction acting in a direction opposite to the
push [Fig. 15.2(a)]. This frictional force
arises between two surfaces in contact. In
this case, the frictional force between the
bottom of the box and the floor balances the
pushing force and therefore, the box does
not move. In Figure15.2(b) two children
push the box harder but the box still does
PHYSICS
not move. This is because the frictional
force still balances the pushing force. If
the children push the box still harder, the
pushing force becomes greater than the
234
frictional force [Fig.15.2. (c)]. When an
unbalanced force is applied, the box starts
moving in the direction of the resultant force.
15.2.  FIRST LAW OF MOTION
Galileo observed the motion of objects
on an inclined plane. He deduced that
objects move with a constant speed when
no force acts on them.
Name : Galileo
Born : 15th February 1564
Birth place : Grand Duchy of Tuscany, Italy
Died : 8th January 1642
Best known for : Astronomy, Physics
and Mathematics
Newton studied Galileo’s ideas on
force and motion and presented three
fundamental laws that govern the motion
of objects. These three laws are known as
Newton’s Laws of Motion.
The first law of motion is stated as:
An object remains in the state of rest or
of uniform motion in a straight line unless
compelled to change that state by an
applied unbalanced force. In other words,
all objects resist a change in their state of
motion. The tendency of objects to stay
at rest or to keep moving with the same
velocity, unless it is acted by an external
force is called inertia. Hence the first law of
motion is also known as the law of inertia.
Certain experiences that we come
across while travelling in a motor car can
be explained on the basis of the law of
inertia. We tend to remain at rest with
respect to the seat, until the driver applies
brake to stop the motor car. With the
application of brake, the car slows down
but our body tends to continue in the
same state of motion because of inertia.
A sudden application of brake may cause
injury to us by collision with the panels in
front.
 LAWS OF MOTION AND GRAVITATION

An opposite experience is encountered offered by an object to change its state of

when we travel standing in a bus which motion. If it is at rest, it tends to remain at
begins to move suddenly. Now we tend to rest. If it is moving, it tends to keep moving.
fall backwards. This is because a sudden This property of an object is called inertia.
start of the bus brings motion to the bus as Therefore, the inability of a body to change
well as to our feet in contact with the floor its state of rest or of uniform motion by itself
of the bus. But the rest of our body opposes is called inertia.
this motion because of its inertia. Inertia of a body depends mainly upon
When a motor car makes a sharp turn its mass. If we kick a football, it flies away.
at a high speed, we tend to get thrown to But if we kick a stone of the same size
one side. This can again be explained on with equal force, it hardly moves. Instead
the basis of the law of inertia. We tend to we may injury our foot. A force, that is just
continue in our straight line motion. When enough to cause a small carriage to pick up
an unbalanced force is applied by the a large velocity, will produce a negligible
engine to change the direction of motion of change in the motion of a train. We say that
the motor car, we move to one side of the the train has more inertia than the carriage.
seat due to the inertia of our body. Clearly, more massive objects offer larger
Inertia of a body can be illustrated inertia. The inertia of an object is measured
through the following activity. by its mass.
15.4. MOMENTUM
ACTIVITY 15.1 Let us recall some observations from
our day-to-day life. During the game of
table tennis, if a ball hits a player, it does
not hurt him. On the other hand, when a
Fig. 15.3. fast moving cricket ball hits a spectator,
it may hurt him. A truck at rest does not
require any attention when parked along
Make a pile of similar carrom coins on a roadside. But a moving truck, even at a
a table as shown in Fig.15.3. Attempt a very low speed, may kill a person standing
sharp horizontal hit at the bottom of the in its path. A small mass such as a bullet
pile using another carrom coin or the may kill a person when fired from a gun.
striker. If the hit is strong enough, the These observations suggest that the impact
bottom coin moves out quickly. Once the produced by an object depends on its mass
lowest coin is removed, the inertia of the and velocity. In other words, there appears
other coins makes them fall vertically on to exist some quantity that combines the
the table without disturbing the pile. objects’ mass and velocity to produce an
CHAPTER 15

impact. Such a quantity of motion was

15.3.  INERTIA AND MASS called momentum by Isaac Newton. The
momentum ‘p’ of an object is defined as the
All the examples and activities given product of its mass ‘m’ and velocity ‘v’.
so far, illustrate that there is a resistance
p = mv

235
 Momentum has both direction and
magnitude. It is a vector quantity. Its
direction is same as that of the velocity. The
SI unit of momentum is kg ms-1.
15.5.  SECOND LAW OF MOTION
Let us consider a situation in which
a car with a dead battery is to be pushed
along a straight road to give it a speed of
1 m s-1 which is sufficient to start its engine.
If one or two persons give a sudden push
(unbalanced force) to it, it hardly starts. But
a continuous push over a distance results
in a gradual acceleration of the car to the
required speed. It means that the change of
momentum of the car is not only determined
by the magnitude of the force, but also by
the time during which the force is exerted.
It may also be concluded that the force
necessary to change the momentum of the
object depends on the rate at which the
momentum is changed.
The second law of motion states
that the rate of change of momentum of
an object is directly proportional to the
applied unbalanced force in the direction
of force. Suppose an object of mass ‘m’ is
moving along a straight line with an initial
velocity ‘u’, it is uniformly accelerated
to velocity ‘v’ in time ‘t’ by the application
of constant force ‘F’, throughout the
time ‘t’.
Initial momentum of the object = mu
Final momentum of the object = mv
The change in momentum = mv - mu
= m(v - u)..... (1)
Rate of change of
PHYSICS
Change of momentum Solution:
of momentum = ——————————
time
m (v-u)
= ——— ...........(2)
t Final velocity v = 8 m s-1
236
According to Newton’s second law of
motion, this is nothing but applied force.
m(v-u)
Therefore the applied force, F ∝ ———
t
v-u
But the acceleration, a = ——
t
(which is the rate of change of velocity).
The applied force, F α ma
F = k ma ...........(3)
‘k’ is known as the constant of proportionality.
The SI unit of mass and acceleration are kg
and ms-2 respectively. The unit of force is so
chosen that the value of the constant ‘k’ is
equal to 1.
F = ma ........... (4)
1 unit of force = (1 kg) x (1 ms-2) = 1 newton
The unit of force is kg ms-2 or newton which
has the symbol ‘N’.
One unit of force(1N) is defined as
the amount of force that produces an
acceleration of 1 ms-2 in an object of
1 kg mass.
The second law of motion gives us a
method to measure the force acting on
an object as a product of its mass and
­acceleration.
Example:15.1
A constant force acts on an object of
mass 10 kg for a duration of 4 s. It increases
the object’s velocity from 2 m s-1 to 8 m s-1.
Find the magnitude of the applied force.
Given, mass of the object m = 10 kg
Initial velocity u = 2 m s-1
 LAWS OF MOTION AND GRAVITATION
m(v - u)
We know, force F = 
t that for every action there is an equal and
10 (8-2) 10 × 6
F =  =  = 15 N
4 4
Example:15.2
Which would require a greater force for
accelerating a 2 kg of mass at 4 m s-2 or
a 3 kg mass at 2 m s-2?
Solution
We know, force F = ma
Given m1 = 2 kg a1 = 4 m s-2
m2 = 3 kg a2 = 2 m s-2
F1 = m1 a1 = 2 × 4 = 8 N
and F2 = m2 a2 = 3 × 2 = 6 N
~ F1 > F2
Therefore, accelerating a 2 kg mass at 4
m s-2 would require a greater force.
15.6.  THIRD LAW OF MOTION
Let us consider two spring balances
connected together as shown in Fig. 15.4
B Fig. 15.4 A Consider two objects (two balls) A and
The fixed end B of the balance is attached
to a rigid support like a wall. When a force
is applied through the free end of the spring
balance A, it is observed that both the spring
balances show the same readings on their
scales. It means that the force exerted by
spring balance A on balance B is equal but
opposite in direction to the force exerted
by the balance B on balance A. The force
which balance A exerts on balance B is
called action and the force of balance B on
balance A is called the reaction.
237
Newton’s third law of motion states
opposite reaction. It must be remembered
that the action and reaction always act on
two different objects.
When a gun is fired, it exerts a forward
force on the bullet. The bullet exerts an equal
and opposite reaction force on the gun. This
results in the recoil of the gun (Fig. 15.5)
Recoil force
on the gun
Accelerating force
on the bullet Fig. 15.5
Since the gun has a much greater mass
than the bullet, the acceleration of the gun is
much lesser than the acceleration of the bullet.
15.7. CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
The law of conservation of momentum
states that, in the absence of external
unbalanced force, the total momentum of a
system of objects remains unchanged.
Proof:
B of masses ‘m1’ and ‘m2’ travelling in the
same direction along a straight line at
different velocities ‘u1’ and ‘u2’ respectively.
Fig.15.6(a). There are no other­­ external
unbalanced forces acting on them . Let
u1 > u2 and the two balls collide with each
other as shown in Fig. 15.6(b). During
collision which last for time ‘t’ , the ball
CHAPTER 15
A exerts a force F1 on ball B , and the ball
B exerts a force F2 on ball A. Let v1 and v2
be the velocities of two balls A and B after
collision respectively in the same direction
as before collision. [Fig 15.6(c).]
 m2 (v2 – u2) = –m1 (v1-u1)
m2v2 – m2u2 = –m1v1 + m1u1
m1v1 + m2v2 = m1u1 + m2u2
Therefore,
Before collision m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
The total momentum before collision is
equal to the total momentum ­after collision.
The total momentum of two objects remain
unchanged due to collision in the absence
of external force. This law holds good for
any number of ­objects.
During collision
ACTIVITY 15.2
•• T
 ake a big rubber balloon and inflate it
fully.Tie its neck using a thread. Also,
fix a straw on the surface of this balloon
(C)
using adhesive tape.
After collision
Fig. 15.6 •• P
 ass a thread through the straw and
hold one end of the thread in your hand
According to Newton’s second law of motion,
or fix it on the wall.
The force acting
•• A
 sk your friend to hold the other end
on B (action) F1 = m
 ass of B X acceleration
of the thread or fix it on a wall at some
on B
distance.
m2 (v2-u2)
F1 = ————— ..... (1) •• This arrangement is shown in Fig.15.7
t
The force acting •• N
 ow, remove the thread tied on the
neck of the balloon. Let the air escape
on A (reaction) F2 = m
 ass of A X
through the mouth of the balloon.
acceleration on A
m1 (v1-u1) •• Observe the direction in which the
F2 = ————— ..... (2) straw moves.
t STRAW
According to Newton’s third law of motion,
PHYSICS

F1 = – F2
From equation (1) and (2)
Air BALLOON
m2 (v2-u2) – m1 (v1-u1)
————— = ———— Fig. 15.7
t t

238
 LAWS OF MOTION AND GRAVITATION
Example:15.3
A bullet of mass 15 g is horizontally fired
with a velocity 100 m s-1 from a pistol of mass
2 kg. What is the recoil velocity of the pistol?
Solution:
Mass of the bullet, m1 = 15 g = 0.015 kg
Mass of the pistol, m2 = 2 kg
Initial velocity of the bullet, u1 = 0
Initial velocity of the pistol, u2 = 0
Final velocity of the bullet, v1 = + 100 m s-1
(The direction of the bullet is taken from left
to right-positive, by convention)
Recoil velocity of the pistol, = v2
Total momentum of the pistol and the bullet
before firing = m1 u1 + m2 u2
= (0.015 × 0) + (2 × 0) = 0
Total momentum of the pistol and the bullet
after firing = m1 v1 + m2 v2
= (0.015 × 100) + (2 × v2)
= 1.5 + 2v2
According to the law of conservation of
momentum,
Total momentum after firing = Total
momentum before firing
1.5 + 2v2 = 0
2v2 = - 1.5
v2 = - 0.75 m s-1
Negative sign indicates that the direction
in which the pistol would recoil is opposite
to that of the bullet, that is, right to left.
15.8. MOMENT OF FORCE AND
COUPLE
Moment of a Force
A force applied by a wrench can rotate
a nut or can open a door, while the door
239
rotates on its hinges. In addition to the
tendency to move a body in the direction
of the application of a force, a force also
tends to rotate the body about any axis
which does not intersect the line of action
of the force and also not parallel to it. This
tendency of rotation is called the turning
effect of a force or moment of the force
about the given axis. The magnitude of the
moment of force about a point is defined as
the product of the magnitude of force and
the perpendicular distance of the point from
the line of action of the force.
Let us consider a force F acting at the
point P on the body as shown in Fig. 15.8.
T = Fd
P Force
F
O Distance d
Fig. 15.8
Then, the moment of force = force x
perpendicular distance
Moment of force = F x d.
If the force acting on a body rotates
the body in anticlockwise direction with
respect to ‘O’, then the moment is called
anticlockwise moment. On the other hand,
CHAPTER 15
if the force rotates the body in clockwise
direction then the moment is said to be
clockwise moment. The unit of moment of
force is N m.
 contemplate about falling bodies. It is seen
F1
that a falling apple is always attracted
O
towards the ground. Does the apple attract
the earth? If so we do not see earth moving
towards an apple. Why?
O According to Newton’s Third Law of
F2
Motion, the apple does attract the earth.
Fig. 15.9. But according to the Second Law of Motion,
As a matter of convention, an for a given force, acceleration is inversely
anticlockwise moment is taken as positive proportional to the mass of the object. The
and a clockwise moment as negative. mass of an apple is negligibly small when
compared to that of the earth. So we do not
Couple
see the earth moving towards the apple.
There are many examples in practice We know that all planets go around the
where two forces, acting together, exert a sun. Extending the above argument for all
moment or turning effect on some object. the planets in our solar system, there exists
As a very simple case, two strings are tied a force between the sun and the planets.
to a wheel at the points X and Y, and two Newton concluded that all objects in the
equal and opposite forces, ‘F’ are exerted universe attract each other. This force of
tangentially to the wheels (Fig. 15.10). If the attraction between objects is called the
wheel is pivoted at its centre O it begins to gravitational force.
rotate about O in an anti-clockwise direction.
Name : Isaac Newton
F Born : 4th January 1643
Birth place : Woolsthrope, England
Died : 20th March 1727
Best known as : The genius who explained
O
90
Y
gravity.
X
90

Y
15.9.1. Newton’s law of Gravitation
Every object in the universe attracts
F every other object with a force which is
Fig. 15.10
directly proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional to the
Two equal and opposite forces whose
square of the distance between them. The
lines of action do not coincide are said to
force acts along the line joining the centres
constitute a couple.
of two objects.
15.9. GRAVITATION
PHYSICS

We always observe that an object

dropped from a height falls towards the
ground. It is said that Newton was sitting
Fig. 15.11
under an apple tree and an apple fell on
him. The fall of the apple made Newton

240
 LAWS OF MOTION AND GRAVITATION

Let two objects A and B of masses m1, Solution:

m2 respectively lie at a distance ‘d’ from Mass, m = 5 kg
each other as shown in Fig.15.11. Let the Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8 m s-2
force of attraction between two objects is
‘F’. According to the above law, Weight, W = m × g
F ∝ m1m2 ........(1) W = 5 × 9.8 = 49 N
1 Therefore the weight of the object is 49 N
F∝ — ........(2)
d2 Difference between mass and weight
Combining (1) and (2)
m1m2 Mass Weight
F∝ ——— ........(3) (or)
d2 1. Fundamental Derived quantity.
G m1m2 quantity.
F = ——— ........(4) 2. It is the amount It is the
d2
of matter gravitational pull
where G is the constant of proportionality contained in a acting on the
and is called the universal gravitational body. body.
constant. From equation (4)
3. Its unit is Its unit is
F.d2
G = ——— kilogram. newton.
m1 m2
4. Remains the Varies from
Substituting the S.I units in this equation,
same. place to place.
the unit of G is found to be N m2 kg-2
The value of G is 6.673×10-11 N m2 kg-2 5. It is measured It is measured
using physical using spring
15.9.2. Mass
balance. balance.
Mass is the quantity of matter contained
in a body. 15.9.4. Acceleration due to gravity
15.9.3. Weight Galileo was the first to make a systematic
study of the motion of a body under the
Weight is the gravitational force acting
gravity of the Earth. He dropped various
on a body. It is a measure of how strongly
objects from the leaning tower of Pisa
gravity pulls on that body.
and made analysis of their motion under
If you were to travel to the moon, your gravity. He came to the conclusion that “in
weight would change because the pull of the absence of air, all bodies will fall at the
gravity is weaker there than that on the same rate”.
earth, but your mass would stay the same
It is the air resistance that slows down
CHAPTER 15

because you are still made up of the same

a piece of paper or a parachute falling
amount of matter.
under gravity. If a heavy stone and a
Example: 15.4 parachute are dropped, where there
The mass of an object is 5 kg. What is its is no air, both will fall together at the
weight on the earth? same rate.

241
 Experiments showed that the velocity of Force, F = mg
a freely falling body under gravity increases Equating the above two forces,
at a constant rate.(i.e.) with a constant
GMm
acceleration. The acceleration produced in ——— = mg
a body on account of the force of gravity R2
is called acceleration due to gravity. It is Therefore, GM
denoted by g. At a given place, the value of g = ———
R2
g is the same for all bodies irrespective of
their masses. It differs from place to place This equation shows that ‘g’ is
on the surface of the Earth. It also varies independent of the mass of the body ‘m’ but,
with altitude and depth. it varies with the distance from the centre of
the Earth. If the Earth is assumed to be a
The value of g at sea-level and at a
sphere of radius R, the value of ‘g’ on the
latitude of 45° is taken as the standard free
surface of the Earth is a constant.
-fall acceleration (i.e.) g = 9.8 m s-2
Acceleration due to gravity at the surface 15.9.5. Mass of Earth
of the earth
From the expression g = GM/R2, the mass
Consider a body of mass ‘m’ on the surface of the Earth can be calculated as follows:
of the earth as shown in Fig. 15.12.
gR2
M = ———
m G
9.8 × (6.38 × 106)2
————————
M = 6.67 × 10-11
mg

R M = 5.98 × 1024 kg.

Earth
Science Today
Chandrayaan
Chandrayaan-1 is a moon-traveller or
moon vehicle. It was India’s first unmanned
Fig.15.12 lunar probe. It was launched by the Indian
Space Research Organization(ISRO)
Its distance from the centre of the Earth in October 2008 from Srihari Kota in
is R (radius of the Earth). Andrapradesh and operated until August
The gravitational force experienced by the 2009. The mission included a lunar orbiter
GMm and an impactor. It carried five ISRO
body is F = ———
payloads and six payloads from other space
R2
PHYSICS

agencies including National Aeronautics

where M is the mass of the earth. and Space Administration (NASA),
From Newton’s second law of motion, European Space Agencies(ESA), and the
Bulgarian Aerospace Agency(BAA), which
were carried free of cost.

242
 LAWS OF MOTION AND GRAVITATION
Chandrayaan operated for 312 days and
achieved 95% of its planned objectives.
The following are its achievements:
•• T
 he discovery of wide-spread presence
of water molecules in lunar soil.
•• C
 handrayaan’s Moon Mineralogy
Mapper has confirmed that moon was
once completely molten.
•• E
 uropean Space Agency payload-
Chandrayaan-1 imaging X-ray
spectrometer (CIXS) detected more than
two dozen weak solar flares during the
mission.
•• The
 terrain mapping camera on board
Chandrayaan-1 has recorded images
of the landing site of the US space-craft
Apollo-15, Apollo-11.
•• It has provided high-resolution spectral
data on the mineralogy of the moon.
•• L
 unar Laser Ranging Instrument (LLRI)
covered both the Lunar Poles and
additional lunar region of interest.
•• T
he X-ray signatures of aluminium,
magnesium and silicon were picked up
by the CIXS X-ray camera.
•• T
 he Bulgarian payload called Radiation
Dose Monitor (RADOM) was activated
243
Mylsamy Annadurai was born on 2nd
July 1958 at Kodhavadi, a hamlet near
Pollachi in Coimbatore District. Mylsamy
and Balasaraswathy are his parents.
His father served as a teacher in an
Elementary School. Panchayat Union
Elementary School in Kothavadi was
Mylsamy Annadurai’s first School, where
he studied from class I to V. He then moved
to Government and Aided schools in and
around his native place for continuing and
completing his school education upto class
XI. His educational journey continued. He
pursued his PUC in NGM College, Pollachi
and B.E degree at Government College
of Technology, Coimbatore. In 1982,
he pursued his Higher Education and
acquired an M.E degree in PSG College
of Technology, Coimbatore and the same
year he joined the ISRO as a scientist.
And later, he got a Doctorate from Anna
University of Technology, Coimbatore.
Annadurai is a leading technologist in
the field of satellite system. Annadurai
served as the Project Director of
Chandrayaan-1, Chandrayaan-2 and
Mangalyaan. He has made significant
contribution to the cost effective design
CHAPTER 15
of Chandrayaan. Currently, he serves
as the Director of ISRO Satellite
Centre(ISAC) Bengaluru. Through his
inspiring speeches, he has become a
motivating force among Indian students.
 on the very same day of its launch and
worked till the mission ended.
•• M
 ore than 40,000 images have been
transmitted by Chandrayaan camera in
75 days.
•• T
 he Terrain Mapping Camera acquired
images of peaks and craters. The moon
consists mostly of craters.
•• C
 handrayaan beamed back its first
images of the Earth in its entirety.
•• C
handrayaan-1 has discovered large
caves on the lunar surface that can act
as human shelter on the moon.
Cryogenic Techniques
The term Cryogenics is from Greek and
means “the production of freezing cold”.
In physics, Cryogenics is the study of
the production of very low temperature
(below 123K); and the behaviour of
materials at those temperatures. A
person who studies elements under
extremely cold temperature is called a
Cryogenicist. Cryogenics uses the Kelvin
scale of temperature. Liquefied gases
such as liquid nitrogen and liquid helium
are used in many cryogenic applications.
Liquid nitrogen is the most commonly
used element in cryogenics and can be
legally purchased around the world. Liquid
helium is also commonly used and allows
for the lowest attainable temperature to be
reached. These liquids are held in special
containers called Dewar flasks, which are
generally about six feet in height and three
PHYSICS
feet in diameter.
The field of cryogenics advances during
Second World War. Scientists found that
metals frozen to low temperature showed
244
more resistance to wear and tear. This
is known as cryogenic hardening. The
commercial cryogenic processing industry
was founded in 1966 by Ed Busch; and was
merged with several small companies later,
and became the oldest commercial
cryogenic company in the world. They
originally experimented with the possibility
of increasing the life of metal tools.
Cryogens like liquid nitrogen are further
used especially for chilling and freezing
applications.
(i) Rocket
The important use of cryogenics is
cryogenic fuels. Cryogenic fuel (mainly
liquid hydrogen) is used as rocket fuel.
(ii) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
MRI is used to scan the inner organs of
human body by penetrating very intense
magnetic field. The magnetic field is
generated by super conducting coils with
the help of liquid helium. It can reduce the
temperature of the coil to around 4K. At
this low temperature, very high resolution
images can be obtained.
(iii) Power Transmission in big cities:
It is difficult to transmit power by over-
head cables in cities. So underground
cables are used. But underground cables
get heated up and the resistance of the
wire increases leading to wastage of power.
This can be solved by cryogenics. Liquefied
gases are sprayed on the cables to keep
them cool and reduce their resistance.
(iv) Food Freezing:
Cryogenic gases are used in
transportation of large masses of frozen
 LAWS OF MOTION AND GRAVITATION
food, when a huge quantity of food is
transported to war zones, earthquake, flood
hit regions etc.,where they must be stored.
(v) Vaccines:
The freezing of biotechnology products
like vaccines require nitrogen freezing
system.
Space Station:
A space station is an artificial structure
designed for humans to live and work in the
outer space for a certain period of time.
Modern and recent-history space stations
are designed to enable stay in the orbit,
for a span of few weeks, months or even
years. The only space stations launched for
this specific purpose are Almaz and Salyut
Series, Sky lab and Mir.
Space stations are used to study the
effects of long duration space flight on
the human body. It provides a platform
for greater number and length of scientific
studies than it is available on other space
vehicles. Space stations are used both
for military and civilian purposes. The last
military-used space station was Salyut 5,
which was used by the Almaz program of
the Soviet Union in 1976 and 1977.
The space stations so far launched are
broadly classified into two types. Salyut
and Skylab were “monolithic.” They were
constructed and launched as a single piece,
245
and was manned by a crew later. As such,
they generally carried all their supplies and
experimental equipment during launch,
and were considered “expended”, and then
abandoned, when these were used up.
With Salyut 6 and Salyut 7, a change
was introduced. These were built with two
docking ports. They allowed a second crew
to visit, carrying a new space-craft with
them.
These space stations allowed the crew
to man the station continually. Sky lab
was also equipped with two docking ports,
but the extra port was never utilized. The
presence of the second port on the new
space station allowed the progress supply
vehicle to be docked on the station. Fresh
supplies could thus be transported to aid,
long-duration missions.
The second group, the Mir and the
International Space Station (ISS), have
been modular; a core unit was launched,
and additional modules, generally with
a specific role, were later added to that.
(on the Mir they were mostly launched
independently, whereas on the ISS, most of
them were carried by the Space Shuttle).
This method allows for greater flexibility in
operation. It put an end to the need of a
single immensely powerful launch vehicle.
These stations were designed at the outset,
to have their supplies provided by logistic
support, and to sustain a longer lifetime at
the cost of regular support launches.
These stations have various drawbacks
CHAPTER 15
that limit the long-term habitability of the
astronauts. They are very low recycling
rates, relatively high radiation levels and
lack of gravity. These problems cause
discomfort and long-term health problems.
 In future the space, as human habitat, is expected to address these issues, and made
suitable for long-term occupation. Some designs might even accommodate a large number
of people, essentially “cities in space” where people would make their homes. No such
design has yet been constructed, even for a small station. The cost of the latest(2010)
launch is not economically or politically viable.
The People’s Republic of China launched its space station named
Tiangong 1, in the first half of 2011. This declared China the third country to launch a
space station.

MODEL EVALUATION
PART – A
1. The acceleration in a body is due to ___________.
i) balanced force ii) unbalanced force iii) electro static force
2. The physical quantity which is equal to the rate of change of momentum is
i) displacement ii) acceleration iii) force iv) impulse
3. The momentum of a massive object at rest is _______.
i) very large ii) very small iii) zero iv) infinity
4. The mass of a person is 50 kg. The weight of that person on the surface of the earth will
be ________.i) 50 N ii) 35 N iii) 380 N iv) 490 N
5. T
 he freezing of biotechnology products like vaccines require ________ freezing system.
i) Helium ii) Nitrogen iii) Ammonia iv) Chlorine
6. Two objects of same mass, namely A and B hit a man with a speed of 20 km/hr and
50 km/hr respectively and comes to rest instantaneously. Which object will exert more
force on that man? Justify your answer.
7. An object is moving with a velocity of 20 m/s. A force of 10 N is acting in a direction
perpendicular to its velocity. What will be the speed of the object after 10 seconds?
8. Assertion(A) : Liquefied cryogenic gases are sprayed on electric cables in big cities.
Reason(R): Liquefied cryogenic gases prevent wastage of power.
i) A is incorrect and R is correct. ii) A is correct and R is incorrect
iii) Both A and R are incorrect. iv) A is correct and R supports A.
9. The acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the earth will be maximum at ________
and minimum at _________
10. If the radius of the earth is reduced to half of its present value, with no change in the
PHYSICS

mass, how will the acceleration due to gravity, be affected?

11. Selvi placed her purse on the passenger’s seat of her car when she drove to work.
By the time she reached her office, her purse had fallen on the floor in front of the
passenger’s seat. Why did this happen? Explain.

246
 LAWS OF MOTION AND GRAVITATION

12. Why does a fielder in the game of cricket pull his hands back when he catches a ball?
13. From the following statements, choose that which is not applicable to the mass of an
object
i) It is a fundamental quantity. ii) It is measured using physical balance.
iii) It is measured using spring balance.
14. List out the names of the organisations which are not associated with Chandrayaan-I
mission from the following: i) ISRO ii) BARC iii) NASA iv) ESA v) WHO vi) ONGC

PART – B
1. Fill in the blanks.
i) If force = mass x acceleration, then momentum = __________.
ii) If liquid hydrogen is for rocket, then –––––––– is for MRI.
2. Correct the mistakes, if any, in the following statements.
i) One newton is the force that produces an acceleration of 1 ms-2 in an object of 1 gram
mass.
ii) Action and reaction always act on the same body.
3. The important use of cryogenics is cryogenic fuels. What do you mean by cryogenic
fuels?
4. As a matter of convention, an anticlockwise moment is taken as ________ and a clockwise
moment is taken as ________.
5. A bullet of mass 20 g moving with a speed of 75 ms-1 hits a fixed wooden plank and
comes to rest after penetrating a distance of 5 cm. What is the average resistive force
exerted by the wooden plank on the bullet?
6. A shopping cart has a mass of 65 kg. In order to accelerate the cart by 0.3ms-2 what
force would you exert on it?
7. Why does a spanner have a long handle?
8. Why does a boxer always move along the direction of the punch of the opponent?
9. The mats used in gyms and the padding used in sports uniforms are made up of soft
substances. Why are rigid materials not used?
10. Write two principles that are used in rocket propulsion.
11. A 10 Kg mass is suspended from a beam 1.2 m long. The beam is fixed to a wall. Find
the magnitude and direction (clockwise or anti-clockwise) of the resulting moment at
point B.
CHAPTER 15

1.2m

10Kg

247
 12. If the force experienced by a body of unit mass is gravitational field strength, find the
gravitational field strength on the surface of the earth.
13. If the density of the earth is doubled to that of its original value, the radius remaining
the same, what will be the change in acceleration due to gravity?
14. Renu is standing in a dining line 6.38 x 103 km from the centre of the earth. The mass
of the earth is 6 x 1024 kg.
i) Find the acceleration due to gravity.
ii) Will the value change after she finishes her lunch?
15. If an angel visits an asteroid called B 612 which has a radius of 20 m and mass of
104 kg, what will be the acceleration due to gravity in B 612 ?.
16. A man of mass ‘m’ standing on a plank of mass ‘M’ which is placed on a smooth
horizontal surface, is initially at rest. The man suddenly starts running on the plank
with a speed of ‘v’ m/s with respect to the ground. Find the speed of the plank with
respect to the ground.
17. Two balls of masses in ratio 2:1 are dropped from the same height. Neglecting air
resistance, find the ratio of
i) the time taken for them to reach the ground.
ii) the forces acting on them during motion.
iii) their velocities when they strike the ground.
iv) their acceleration when they strike the ground.
18. An object of mass 1 kg is dropped from a height of 20 m. It hits the ground and
rebounds with the same speed. Find the change in momentum.(Take g=10 m/s2)
19. What will be the acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the moon, if its radius is
1/4th the radius of the earth and its mass is 1/80 times the mass of the earth.
20. A boy weighing 20 kg is sitting at one end of a see-saw at a distance of 1.2 m from
the centre. Where should a man weighing 60 kg sit on the see-saw, so that it stands
balanced?

? 1.2m

21. A cart driver prods his horse to move forward. The horse refuses to budge and explains:
PHYSICS

“ According to Newton’s III Law, I am pulling the cart, with a certain force and
the cart, in turn pulls me back with an equal amount of force. As they are equal in
magnitude and act in opposite directions, they cancel each other.”
Do you agree with the explanation given by the horse? Support your answer with
proper reasons.

248
 LAWS OF MOTION AND GRAVITATION

PART -C
1. i) Space Stations are used to study the effects of long-space flight on the human body.
justify.
ii) F=G m1 m2 / d2 is the mathematical form of Newton’s law of gravitation,
G - gravitational constant, m1 m2, are the masses of two bodies separated by a
distance d, then give the statement of Newton’s law of gravitation.
2. i) Newton’s first law of motion gives a qualitative definition of force. Justify.
ii) 
The figure represents two bodies of masses 10 kg and 15 kg, moving with an initial
velocity of 10 ms-1 and 5 ms-1 respectively. They collide with each other. After collision,
they move with velocities 4 ms-1 and 9 ms-1 respectively. The time of collision is 2 s.
Now calculate F1 and F2.
10 m/s 10 m/s10 m/s F51 m/sF52 Fm/s
5 m/s 1 FF21 F2
12m/s 12m/s412m/s
m/s
9 m/s
4m/s 4m/s 4m/s
10 Kg 15
20 kg
10 Kg 10 Kg20 Kg10 Kg
Kg 20 Kg20
10Kg
Kg 15
10
20
10kg
KgKg 20 Kg
Kg 10 Kg 10 Kg 20 Kg 15
20 Kg kg
20 Kg

3. A 5 N force acts on a 2.5 kg mass at rest, making it accelerate in a straight line.

i) What is the acceleration of the mass?
ii) How long will it take to move the mass through 20m?
iii) Find its velocity after 3 seconds.
4. State the law of conservation of momentum. Two billion people jump above the earth’s
surface with a speed of 4m/s from the same spot. The mass of the earth is 6x1024 kg.
The average mass of one person is 60 kg.
i) What is the total momentum of all the people?
ii) What will be the effect of this action on the earth?
5. State Newton’s law of gravitation. Write an expression for acceleration due to gravity
on the surface of the earth. If the ratio of acceleration due to gravity of two heavenly
bodies is 1:4 and the ratio of their radii is 1:3, what will be the ratio of their masses?
6. A bomb of mass 3 kg, initially at rest, explodes into two parts of 2 kg and 1 kg. The
2 kg mass travels with a velocity of 3 m/s. At what velocity will the 1 kg mass travel?
7. Two ice skaters of weight 60 kg and 50 kg are holding the two ends of a rope. The rope
is taut. The 60 kg man pulls the rope with 20 N force. What will be the force exerted by
the rope on the other person? What will be their respective acceleration?

FURTHER REFERENCE
Books : 1. Advanced Physics by : M. Nelkon and P. Parker, C.B.S publications, Chennai
CHAPTER 15

2. College Physics by : R.L.Weber, K.V. Manning, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi.
3. P
 rinciples of Physics(Extended) - Halliday, Resnick & Walker,
Wiley publication, New Delhi.
Webliography: www.khanacademy.org science.howstuffworks.com

249
 For maximum range Rmax sin 2θ = 1

(i.e) θ = 45°

Therefore the range is maximum when the angle of projection

is 45°.

u2 × 1 u2
Rmax = ⇒ Rmax = ...(9)
g g

2.4 Newton’s laws of motion

Various philosophers studied the basic ideas of cause of motion.
According to Aristotle, a constant external force must be applied
continuously to an object in order to keep it moving with uniform
velocity. Later this idea was discarded and Galileo gave another idea on
the basis of the experiments on an inclined plane. According to him, no
force is required to keep an object moving with constant velocity. It is
the presence of frictional force that tends to stop moving object, the
smaller the frictional force between the object and the surface on which
it is moving, the larger the distance it will travel before coming to rest.
After Galileo, it was Newton who made a systematic study of motion
and extended the ideas of Galileo.
Newton formulated the laws concerning the motion of the object.
There are three laws of motion. A deep analysis of these laws lead us
to the conclusion that these laws completely define the force. The first
law gives the fundamental definition of force; the second law gives the
quantitative and dimensional definition of force while the third law
explains the nature of the force.

2.4.1 Newton’s first law of motion

It states that every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform
motion along a straight line unless it is compelled by an external force to
change that state.
This law is based on Galileo’s law of inertia. Newton’s first law of
motion deals with the basic property of matter called inertia and the
definition of force.
Inertia is that property of a body by virtue of which the body is
unable to change its state by itself in the absence of external force.

61
 The inertia is of three types
(i) Inertia of rest
(ii) Inertia of motion
(iii) Inertia of direction.
(i) Inertia of rest
It is the inability of the body to change its state of rest by itself.
Examples
(i) A person standing in a bus falls backward when the bus
suddenly starts moving. This is because, the person who is initially at
rest continues to be at rest even after the bus has started moving.
(ii) A book lying on the table will remain at rest, until it is moved
by some external agencies.
(iii) When a carpet is beaten by a stick, the dust particles fall off
vertically downwards once they are released and do not move along the
carpet and fall off.
(ii) Inertia of motion
Inertia of motion is the inability of the body to change its state of
motion by itself.
Examples
(a) When a passenger gets down from a moving bus, he falls down
in the direction of the motion of the bus.
(b) A passenger sitting in a moving car falls forward, when the car
stops suddenly.
(c) An athlete running in a race will continue to run even after
reaching the finishing point.

(iii) Inertia of direction

It is the inability of the body to change its direction of motion by
itself.

Examples
When a bus moving along a straight line takes a turn to the right,
the passengers are thrown towards left. This is due to inertia which
makes the passengers travel along the same straight line, even though
the bus has turned towards the right.

62
 This inability of a body to change by itself its state of rest or of
uniform motion along a straight line or direction, is known as inertia. The
inertia of a body is directly proportional to the mass of the body.
From the first law, we infer that to change the state of rest or
uniform motion, an external agency called, the force is required.
Force is defined as that which when acting on a body changes or
tends to change the state of rest or of uniform motion of the body along
a straight line.
A force is a push or pull upon an object, resulting the change of
state of a body. Whenever there is an interaction between two objects,
there is a force acting on each other. When the interaction ceases, the
two objects no longer experience a force. Forces exist only as a result
of an interaction.
There are two broad categories of forces between the objects,
contact forces and non–contact forces resulting from action at a distance.
Contact forces are forces in which the two interacting objects are
physically in contact with each other.
Tensional force, normal force, force due to air resistance, applied
forces and frictional forces are examples of contact forces.
Action-at-a-distance forces (non- contact forces) are forces in which
the two interacting objects are not in physical contact which each other,
but are able to exert a push or pull despite the physical separation.
Gravitational force, electrical force and magnetic force are examples of
non- contact forces.
Momentum of a body
It is observed experimentally that the force required to stop a
moving object depends on two factors: (i) mass of the body and
(ii) its velocity
A body in motion has momentum. The momentum of a body is
defined as the product of its mass and velocity. If m is the mass of the
→
body and v, its velocity, the linear momentum of the body is given by
→ →
p = m v.
Momentum has both magnitude and direction and it is, therefore,
a vector quantity. The momentum is measured in terms of kg m s − 1
and its dimensional formula is MLT−1.

63
 When a force acts on a body, its velocity changes, consequently,
its momentum also changes. The slowly moving bodies have smaller
momentum than fast moving bodies of same mass.
If two bodies of unequal masses and velocities have same
momentum, then,
→ →
p1 = p2
→ → m1 v2
(i.e) m1 v1 = m2 v2 ⇒ =
m2 v1
Hence for bodies of same momenta, their velocities are inversely
proportional to their masses.

2.4.2 Newton’s second law of motion

Newton’s first law of motion deals with the behaviour of objects
on which all existing forces are balanced. Also, it is clear from the first
law of motion that a body in motion needs a force to change the
direction of motion or the magnitude of velocity or both. This implies
that force is such a physical quantity that causes or tends to cause an
acceleration.
Newton’s second law of motion deals with the behaviour of objects
on which all existing forces are not balanced.
According to this law, the rate of change of momentum of a body
is directly proportional to the external force applied on it and the change
in momentum takes place in the direction of the force.
→
If p is the momentum of a body and F the external force acting
on it, then according to Newton’s second law of motion,
dp dp
F α (or) F =k where k is a proportionality constant.
dt dt
→
If a body of mass m is moving with a velocity v then, its momentum
→ →
is given by p = m v.

d dv
∴ F =k (m v ) = k m
dt dt
Unit of force is chosen in such a manner that the constant k is
equal to unity. (i.e) k =1.

64
 ∴F = m
dv
= ma
→ dv
where a = is the acceleration produced
dt dt

in the motion of the body.

The force acting on a body is measured by the product of mass of

the body and acceleration produced by the force acting on the body. The
second law of motion gives us a measure of the force.
The acceleration produced in the body depends upon the inertia
of the body (i.e) greater the inertia, lesser the acceleration. One newton
is defined as that force which, when acting on unit mass produces unit
acceleration. Force is a vector quantity. The unit of force is kg m s−2 or
−2
newton. Its dimensional formula is MLT .

Impulsive force and Impulse of a force

(i) Impulsive Force
An impulsive force is a very great force acting for a very short time
on a body, so that the change in the position of the body during the time
the force acts on it may be neglected.
(e.g.) The blow of a hammer, the collision of two billiard balls etc.
(ii) Impulse of a force
The impulse J of a constant force F F
acting for a time t is defined as the product
of the force and time.
(i.e) Impulse = Force × time
J = F × t
The impulse of force F acting over a
time interval t is defined by the integral,
t
J = ∫ F dt
O t1 t2 t
...(1) dt
0
Fig .2.25 Impulse of a force
The impulse of a force, therefore can
be visualised as the area under the force
versus time graph as shown in Fig. 2.25. When a variable force acting
for a short interval of time, then the impulse can be measured as,
J = Faverage × dt ...(2)

65
 Impulse of a force is a vector quantity and its unit is N s.

Principle of impulse and momentum

By Newton’s second law of motion, the force acting on a
body = m a where m = mass of the body and a = acceleration produced
The impulse of the force = F × t = (m a) t
If u and v be the initial and final velocities of the body then,
(v − u )
a= .
t
(v − u )
Therefore, impulse of the force = m × × t = m(v − u ) = mv − mu
t
Impulse = final momentum of the body
– initial momentum of the body.
(i.e) Impulse of the force = Change in momentum
The above equation shows that the total change in the momentum
of a body during a time interval is equal to the impulse of the force acting
during the same interval of time. This is called principle of impulse and
momentum.
Examples
(i) A cricket player while catching a ball lowers his hands in the
direction of the ball.
If the total change in momentum is brought about in a very
short interval of time, the average force is very large according to the
mv − mu
equation, F =
t
By increasing the time interval, the average force is decreased. It
is for this reason that a cricket player while catching a ball, to increase
the time of contact, the player should lower his hand in the direction
of the ball , so that he is not hurt.
(ii) A person falling on a cemented floor gets injured more where
as a person falling on a sand floor does not get hurt. For the same
reason, in wrestling, high jump etc., soft ground is provided.
(iii) The vehicles are fitted with springs and shock absorbers to
reduce jerks while moving on uneven or wavy roads.

66
2.4.3 Newton’s third Law of motion
It is a common observation that when we sit on a chair, our body
exerts a downward force on the chair and the chair exerts an upward
force on our body. There are two forces resulting from this interaction:
a force on the chair and a force on our body. These two forces are
called action and reaction forces. Newton’s third law explains the relation
between these action forces. It states that for every action, there is an
equal and opposite reaction.
(i.e.) whenever one body exerts a certain force on a second body,
the second body exerts an equal and opposite force on the first. Newton’s
third law is sometimes called as the law of action and reaction.

Let there be two bodies 1 and 2 exerting forces on each other. Let
→
the force exerted on the body 1 by the body 2 be F12 and the force
→
exerted on the body 2 by the body 1 be F21. Then according to third
→ →
law, F12 = – F21.
→
One of these forces, say F12 may be called as the action whereas
→
the other force F21 may be called as the reaction or vice versa. This
implies that we cannot say which is the cause (action) or which is the
effect (reaction). It is to be noted that always the action and reaction
do not act on the same body; they always act on different bodies. The
action and reaction never cancel each other and the forces always exist
in pair.
The effect of third law of motion can be observed in many activities
in our everyday life. The examples are
(i) When a bullet is fired from a gun with a certain force (action),
there is an equal and opposite force exerted on the gun in the backward
direction (reaction).
(ii) When a man jumps from a boat to the shore, the boat moves
away from him. The force he exerts on the boat (action) is responsible
for its motion and his motion to the shore is due to the force of reaction
exerted by the boat on him.
(iii) The swimmer pushes the water in the backward direction
with a certain force (action) and the water pushes the swimmer in the
forward direction with an equal and opposite force (reaction).

67
 Y
(iv) We will not be able to walk if there
were no reaction force. In order to walk, we
push our foot against the ground. The Earth Reaction
RY
in turn exerts an equal and opposite force.
This force is inclined to the surface of the
Earth. The vertical component of this force
O
balances our weight and the horizontal Rx
X

component enables us to walk forward. Action

(v) A bird flies by with the help of its Fig. 2.25a Action and
reaction
wings. The wings of a bird push air downwards
(action). In turn, the air reacts by pushing the bird upwards (reaction).
(vi) When a force exerted directly on the wall by pushing the palm
of our hand against it (action), the palm is distorted a little because,
the wall exerts an equal force on the hand (reaction).
Law of conservation of momentum
From the principle of impulse and momentum,
impulse of a force, J = mv − mu
If J = 0 then mv − mu = 0 (or) mv = mu
(i.e) final momentum = initial momentum
In general, the total momentum of the system is always a constant
(i.e) when the impulse due to external forces is zero, the momentum of the
system remains constant. This is known as law of conservation of
momentum.
We can prove this law, in the case of a head on collision between
two bodies.
Proof
Consider a body A of mass m1 moving with a velocity u1 collides
head on with another body B of mass m2 moving in the same direction
as A with velocity u2 as shown in Fig 2.26.

F1 F2
u1 u2 v1 v2
m1 m2 A A B
B
A B

Before Collision During Collision After Collision

Fig.2.26 Law of conservation of momentum

68
 After collision, let the velocities of the bodies be changed to v1
and v2 respectively, and both moves in the same direction. During
collision, each body experiences a force.
The force acting on one body is equal in magnitude and opposite
in direction to the force acting on the other body. Both forces act for
the same interval of time.
Let F1 be force exerted by A on B (action), F2 be force exerted by
B on A (reaction) and t be the time of contact of the two bodies during
collision.
Now, F1 acting on the body B for a time t, changes its velocity
from u2 to v2.
∴ F1 = mass of the body B × acceleration of the body B
(v 2 − u 2 )
= m2 × ...(1)
t
Similarly, F2 acting on the body A for the same time t changes its
velocity from u1 to v1
∴ F2 = mass of the body A × acceleration of the body A
(v 1 − u 1 )
= m1 × ...(2)
t
Then by Newton’s third law of motion F1 = −F2
(v 2 − u 2 ) (v 1 − u 1 )
(i.e) m2 × = − m1 ×
t t
m2 (v2 − u2) = − m1 (v1 – u1)
m2 v2 − m2 u2 = − m1 v1 + m1 u1
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1+ m2 v2 ...(3)
(i.e) total momentum before impact = total momentum after impact.
(i.e) total momentum of the system is a constant.
This proves the law of conservation of linear momentum.

Applications of law of conservation of momentum

The following examples illustrate the law of conservation of
momentum.
(i) Recoil of a gun
Consider a gun and bullet of mass mg and mb respectively. The
gun and the bullet form a single system. Before the gun is fired, both

69
the gun and the bullet are at rest. Therefore the velocities of the gun
and bullet are zero. Hence total momentum of the system before firing
is mg(0) + mb(0) = 0
When the gun is fired, the bullet moves forward and the gun
recoils backward. Let vb and vg are their respective velocities, the total
momentum of the bullet – gun system, after firing is mbvb + mgvg
According to the law of conservation of momentum, total
momentum before firing is equal to total momentum after firing.
mb
(i.e) 0 = mb vb + mg vg (or) vg = – vb
mg
It is clear from this equation, that vg is directed opposite to vb.
Knowing the values of mb, mg and vb, the recoil velocity of the gun vg
can be calculated.

(ii) Explosion of a bomb

Suppose a bomb is at rest before it explodes. Its momentum is
zero. When it explodes, it breaks up into many parts, each part having
a particular momentum. A part flying in one direction with a certain
momentum, there is another part moving in the opposite direction with
the same momentum. If the bomb explodes into two equal parts, they
will fly off in exactly opposite directions with the same speed, since
each part has the same mass.

Applications of Newton’s third law of motion

(i) Apparent loss of weight in a lift
Let us consider a man of mass M standing on a weighing machine
placed inside a lift. The actual weight of the man = Mg. This weight
(action) is measured by the weighing machine and in turn, the machine
offers a reaction R. This reaction offered by the surface of contact on
the man is the apparent weight of the man.

Case (i)
When the lift is at rest:
The acceleration of the man = 0
Therefore, net force acting on the man = 0
From Fig. 2.27(i), R – Mg = 0 (or) R = Mg

70
 R
R R
a a
a=0

Mg Mg Mg
(i) (ii) (iii)
Fig 2.27 Apparent loss of weight in a lift

That is, the apparent weight of the man is equal to the actual
weight.
Case (ii)
When the lift is moving uniformly in the upward or downward
direction:
For uniform motion, the acceleration of the man is zero. Hence,
in this case also the apparent weight of the man is equal to the actual
weight.
Case (iii)
When the lift is accelerating upwards:
If a be the upward acceleration of the man in the lift, then the
net upward force on the man is F = Ma
From Fig 2.27(ii), the net force
F = R – Mg = Ma (or) R = M ( g + a )
Therefore, apparent weight of the man is greater than actual
weight.
Case (iv)
When the lift is accelerating downwards:
Let a be the downward acceleration of the man in the lift, then
the net downward force on the man is F = Ma
From Fig. 2.27 (iii), the net force
F = Mg – R = Ma (or) R = M (g – a)

71
 Therefore, apparent weight of the man is less than the actual
weight.
When the downward acceleration of the man is equal to the
acceleration due to the gravity of earth, (i.e) a = g
∴ R = M (g – g) = 0
Hence, the apparent weight of the man becomes zero. This is
known as the weightlessness of the body.

(ii) Working of a rocket and jet plane

The propulsion of a rocket is one of the most interesting examples
of Newton’s third law of motion and the law of conservation of momentum.
The rocket is a system whose mass varies with time. In a rocket,
the gases at high temperature and pressure, produced by the
combustion of the fuel, are ejected from a nozzle. The reaction of the
escaping gases provides the necessary thrust for the launching and
flight of the rocket.
From the law of conservation of linear momentum, the momentum
of the escaping gases must be equal to the momentum gained by the
rocket. Consequently, the rocket is propelled in the forward direction
opposite to the direction of the jet of escaping gases. Due to the thrust
imparted to the rocket, its velocity and acceleration will keep on
increasing. The mass of the rocket and the fuel system keeps on
decreasing due to the escaping mass of gases.

2.5 Concurrent forces and Coplanar forces

F3 F
The basic knowledge of various kinds 2

of forces and motion is highly desirable for

engineering and practical applications. The F1
F4
Newton’s laws of motion defines and gives
O
the expression for the force. Force is a vector
quantity and can be combined according to
the rules of vector algebra. A force can be
F5
graphically represented by a straight line with
Fig 2.28 Concurrent forces
an arrow, in which the length of the line is
proportional to the magnitude of the force and the arrowhead indicates
its direction.

72
 ∴ Work done (W) = F s cos 180°= −F s
(eg.) The frictional force that slows the sliding of an object over
a surface does a negative work.
A positive work can be defined as the work done by a force and
a negative work as the work done against a force.

2.8 Energy
Energy can be defined as the capacity to do work. Energy can
manifest itself in many forms like mechanical energy, thermal energy,
electric energy, chemical energy, light energy, nuclear energy, etc.
The energy possessed by a body due to its position or due to its
motion is called mechanical energy.
The mechanical energy of a body consists of potential energy and
kinetic energy.
2.8.1 Potential energy
The potential energy of a body is the energy stored in the body by
virtue of its position or the state of strain. Hence water stored in a
reservoir, a wound spring, compressed air, stretched rubber chord, etc,
possess potential energy.
Potential energy is given by the amount of work done by the force
acting on the body, when the body moves from its given position to
some other position.
Expression for the potential energy
Let us consider a body of mass m, which is at
rest at a height h above the ground as shown in mg h
Fig 2.49. The work done in raising the body from the
ground to the height h is stored in the body as its
potential energy and when the body falls to the ground,
the same amount of work can be got back from it. Fig. 2.49
Now, in order to lift the body vertically up, a force mg Potential energy
equal to the weight of the body should be applied.
When the body is taken vertically up through a height h, then
work done, W = Force × displacement
∴ W = mg × h
This work done is stored as potential energy in the body
∴ EP = mgh
93
2.8.2 Kinetic energy
The kinetic energy of a body is the energy possessed by the body
by virtue of its motion. It is measured by the amount of work that the
body can perform against the impressed forces before it comes to rest.
A falling body, a bullet fired from a rifle, a swinging pendulum, etc.
possess kinetic energy.
A body is capable of doing work if it moves, but in the process
of doing work its velocity gradually decreases. The amount of work that
can be done depends both on the magnitude of the velocity and the
mass of the body. A heavy bullet will penetrate a wooden plank deeper
than a light bullet of equal size moving with equal velocity.

Expression for Kinetic energy

Let us consider a body of mass m moving with a velocity v in a
straightline as shown in Fig. 2.50. Suppose that it is acted upon by a
constant force F resisting its motion, which produces retardation a
(decrease in acceleration is known as retardation). Then
F = mass × retardation = – ma ...(1)

Let dx be the displacement of the

s body before it comes to rest.
But the retardation is
v
F dv dv dx dv
a = = × = × v ...(2)
dt dx dt dx
dx
Fig. 2.50 Kinetic energy
where = v is the velocity of the body
dt

dv
Substituting equation (2) in (1), F = – mv ...(3)
dx
Hence the work done in bringing the body to rest is given by,
0 dv 0
W = ∫ F .d x = − ∫ mv . .dx = −m ∫ vdv ...(4)
v dx v
0
⎡v 2 ⎤ 1
W = –m ⎢ 2 ⎥ = mv 2
⎣ ⎦v 2

This work done is equal to kinetic energy of the body.

94
 1
∴ Kinetic energy Ek = mv2
2
2.8.3 Principle of work and energy (work – energy theorem)
Statement
The work done by a force acting on the body during its displacement
is equal to the change in the kinetic energy of the body during that
displacement.
Proof
Let us consider a body of mass m acted upon by a force F and
moving with a velocity v along a path as shown in Fig. 2.51. At any
instant, let P be the position of the body
from the origin O. Let θ be the angle made Y Ft
s 2

by the direction of the force with the 2

tangential line drawn at P. P

The force F can be resolved into two F
s1
rectangular components : 1 Fn

(i) Ft = F cos θ , tangentially and

(ii) Fn = F sin θ , normally at P.
O X
But Ft = mat
Fig. 2.51
...(1) Work–energy theorem
where at is the acceleration of the body in
the tangential direction
∴ F cos θ = mat ...(2)
dv
But at = ...(3)
dt
∴ substituting equation (3) in (2),
dv dv ds
F cos θ = m = m . ...(4)
dt ds dt
F cosθ ds = mv dv ...(5)
where ds is the small displacement.
Let v1 and v2 be the velocities of the body at the positions 1 and 2
and the corresponding distances be s1 and s2.
Integrating the equation (5),
s2 v2
∫ (F cos θ) ds = ∫ mv dv ...(6)
s1 v1
95
 s2
But ∫ (F cos θ) ds = W1→2 ...(7)
s1
where W1→2 is the work done by the force

From equation (6) and (7),

v2
W1→2 = ∫ mv dv
v1
v2
⎡v 2 ⎤ mv 22 mv12
⎢
= m 2 ⎥ = - ...(8)
⎣ ⎦v 2 2
1

Therefore work done

= final kinetic energy − initial kinetic energy
= change in kinetic energy
This is known as Work–energy theorem.

2.8.4 Conservative forces and non-conservative forces

Conservative forces
If the work done by a force in moving a body between two positions
is independent of the path followed by the body, then such a force is
called as a conservative force.
Examples : force due to gravity, spring force and elastic force.
The work done by the conservative forces depends only
upon the initial and final position of the body.

→ →
(i.e.) ∫ F . dr = 0

The work done by a conservative force around a closed path is

zero.

Non conservative forces

Non-conservative force is the force, which can perform some

resultant work along an arbitrary closed path of its point of application.

The work done by the non-conservative force depends upon the

path of the displacement of the body

96
 → →
(i.e.) ∫ F . dr ≠ 0
(e.g) Frictional force, viscous force, etc.

2.8.5 Law of conservation of energy

The law states that, if a body or system of bodies is in motion under a
conservative system of forces, the sum of its kinetic energy and potential
energy is constant.
Explanation
From the principle of work and energy,
Work done = change in the kinetic energy
( i.e) W1→2 = Ek2 – Ek1 ...(1)
If a body moves under the action of a conservative force, work
done is stored as potential energy.
W1→2 = – (EP2 – EP1) ...(2)
Work done is equal to negative change of potential energy.
Combining the equation (1) and (2),
Ek2 – Ek1 = –(EP2 – EP1) (or) EP1 + Ek1 = EP2 + Ek2 ...(3)
which means that the sum of the potential energy and kinetic energy of
a system of particles remains constant during the motion under the action
of the conservative forces.

2.8.6 Power
It is defined as the rate at which work is done.
work done
power =
time
Its unit is watt and dimensional formula is ML2 T–3.
Power is said to be one watt, when one joule of work is said to be
done in one second.
If dw is the work done during an interval of time dt then,
dw
power = ...(1)
dt
But dw = (F cos θ) ds ...(2)

97
where θ is the angle between the direction of the force and displacement.
F cos θ is component of the force in the direction of the small
displacement ds.

(F cos θ) ds
Substituting equation (2) in (1) power =
dt
ds ⎛ ds ⎞
= (F cos θ) = (F cos θ) v ⎜∵ = v⎟
dt ⎝ dt ⎠
∴ power = (F cos θ) v
If F and v are in the same direction, then
power = F v cos 0 = F v = Force × velocity
It is also represented by the dot product of F and v.
→ →
(i.e) P = F . v

2.9 Collisions
A collision between two particles is said to occur if they physically
strike against each other or if the path of the motion of one is influenced
by the other. In physics, the term collision does not necessarily mean
that a particle actually strikes. In fact, two particles may not even
touch each other and yet they are said to collide if one particle influences
the motion of the other.
When two bodies collide, each body exerts a force on the other.
The two forces are exerted simultaneously for an equal but short interval
of time. According to Newton’s third law of motion, each body exerts an
equal and opposite force on the other at each instant of collision.
During a collision, the two fundamental conservation laws namely, the
law of conservation of momentum and that of energy are obeyed and
these laws can be used to determine the velocities of the bodies after
collision.
Collisions are divided into two types : (i) elastic collision and
(ii) inelastic collision

2.9.1 Elastic collision

If the kinetic energy of the system is conserved during a collision,
it is called an elastic collision. (i.e) The total kinetic energy before collision
and after collision remains unchanged. The collision between subatomic

98
5.6.2 Bernoulli’s theorem P2a2

In 1738, Daniel Bernoulli B

proposed a theorem for the P a

1 1
streamline flow of a liquid based
h2
on the law of conservation of
h1
energy. According to Bernoulli’s
theorem, for the streamline flow of
Ground level
a non-viscous and incompressible
liquid, the sum of the pressure Fig. 5.33 Bernoulli’s theorem
energy, kinetic energy and
potential energy per unit mass is a constant.

P v2
(i.e) + + gh = constant
ρ 2
This equation is known as Bernoulli’s equation.
Consider streamline flow of a liquid of density ρ through a pipe AB
of varying cross section. Let P1 and P2 be the pressures and a1 and a2,
the cross sectional areas at A and B respectively. The liquid enters A
normally with a velocity v1 and leaves B normally with a velocity v2. The
liquid is accelerated against the force of gravity while flowing from A to
B, because the height of B is greater than that of A from the ground
level. Therefore P1 is greater than P2. This is maintained by an external
force.
The mass m of the liquid crossing per second through any section
of the tube in accordance with the equation of continuity is

a1v1ρ = a2v2ρ = m
m
or a1v1 = a2v2 = = V ..... (1)
ρ
As a1 > a2 , v1 < v2
The force acting on the liquid at A = P1a1
The force acting on the liquid at B = P2 a2
Work done per second on the liquid at A = P1a1 × v1 = P1V
Work done by the liquid at B = P2a2 × v2 = P2V
∴ Net work done per second on the liquid by the pressure energy
in moving the liquid from A to B is = P1V – P2V ...(2)

239
 If the mass of the liquid flowing in one second from A to B is m,
then increase in potential energy per second of liquid from A to B is
mgh2 – mgh1
Increase in kinetic energy per second of the liquid
1 1
= 2
mv22 – mv12
2
According to work-energy principle, work done per second by the
pressure energy = Increase in potential energy per second + Increase
in kinetic energy per second
⎛1 1 ⎞
(i.e) P1V – P2V = (mgh2- mgh1)+ ⎜ mv 22 − mv1 2 ⎟
2
⎝ 2 ⎠
1 1
P1V + mgh1 + mv12 = P2V + mgh2 + mv22
2 2
P1 V 1 2 P2V 1
+ gh1 + v1 = + gh2 + v22
m 2 m 2
P1 1 P2 1 ⎛ m⎞
+ gh1 + v 2 = + gh2 + v 2 ⎜∵ ρ = ⎟
ρ 2 1 ρ 2 2 ⎝ v ⎠
P 1
or ρ
+ gh + v 2 = constant ...(3)
2
This is Bernoulli’s equation. Thus the total energy of unit mass of
liquid remains constant.
P v2
Dividing equation (3) by g, + + h = constant
ρg 2g
Each term in this equation has the dimension of length and hence
P v2
is called head. ρg is called pressure head, 2g is velocity head and h is

the gravitational head.

Special case :
If the liquid flows through a horizontal tube, h1 = h2. Therefore
there is no increase in potential energy of the liquid i.e. the gravitational
head becomes zero.
∴ equation (3) becomes
P
+ 1 v2 = a constant
ρ 2

This is another form of Bernoulli’s equation.

240
5.6.3 Application of Bernoulli’s theorem
(i) Lift of an aircraft wing High velocity; Low pressure
air flow
A section of an aircraft wing
and the flow lines are shown in
Fig. 5.34. The orientation of the wing
relative to the flow direction causes
Low velocity; High pressure
the flow lines to crowd together above
Fig. 5.34 Lift of an aircraft wing
the wing. This corresponds to
increased velocity in this region and
hence the pressure is reduced. But below the wing, the pressure is
nearly equal to the atmospheric pressure. As a result of this, the upward
force on the underside of the wing is greater than the downward force
on the topside. Thus there is a net upward force or lift.
(ii) Blowing of roofs
During a storm, the roofs of huts or P1 Low Pressure
d
in
tinned roofs are blown off without any W

damage to other parts of the hut. The

blowing wind creates a low pressure P1 P2

on top of the roof. The pressure P2 under

the roof is however greater than P1. Due
to this pressure difference, the roof is lifted
Fig. 5.35 Blowing of roofs
and blown off with the wind.
(iii) Bunsen burner
In a Bunsen burner, the gas comes out of the
nozzle with high velocity. Due to this the pressure in
the stem of the burner decreases. So, air from the
Air Air
atmosphere rushes into the burner.
(iv) Motion of two parallel boats
Gas
When two boats separated by a small distance
row parallel to each other along the same direction,
the velocity of water between the boats becomes very
large compared to that on the outer sides. Because
Fig. 5.36 Bunsen
of this, the pressure in between the two boats gets
Burner
reduced. The high pressure on the outer side pushes
the boats inwards. As a result of this, the boats come closer and may
even collide.
241
liquid column W is given by
W = mass of liquid column × g = Ahρg
By definition, pressure is the force acting per unit area.
weight of liquid column
∴ Pressure = area of cross − sec tion

Ahρg
= = h ρg
A
∴ P = h ρg

5.3.2 Pascal’s law

One of the most important facts about
fluid pressure is that a change in pressure at
one part of the liquid will be transmitted A
without any change to other parts. This was
put forward by Blaise Pascal (1623 - 1662), a
French mathematician and physicist. This rule
is known as Pascal’s law. B
Pascal’s law states that if the effect of
gravity can be neglected then the pressure in a Fig. 5.11 Pascal’s law in
fluid in equilibrium is the same everywhere. the absence of gravity

Consider any two points A and B inside the fluid. Imagine a

cylinder such that points A and B lie at the centre of the circular
surfaces at the top and bottom of the cylinder (Fig. 5.11). Let the fluid
inside this cylinder be in equilibrium under the action of forces from
outside the fluid. These forces act everywhere perpendicular to the
surface of the cylinder. The forces acting on the circular, top and bottom
surfaces are perpendicular to the forces acting on the cylindrical surface.
Therefore the forces acting on the faces at A and B are equal and
opposite and hence add to zero. As the areas of these two faces are
equal, we can conclude that pressure at A is equal to pressure at B.
This is the proof of Pascal’s law when the effect of gravity is not taken
into account.

Pascal’s law and effect of gravity

When gravity is taken into account, Pascal’s law is to be modified.
Consider a cylindrical liquid column of height h and density ρ in a

218
vessel as shown in the Fig. 5.12.
P1
If the effect of gravity is neglected, then
pressure at M will be equal to pressure at N. M
But, if force due to gravity is taken into account,
then they are not equal. h
As the liquid column is in equilibrium, the
forces acting on it are balanced. The vertical
N
forces acting are
P2
(i) Force P1A acting vertically down on the Fig. 5.12 Pascal’s law
top surface. and effect of gravity
(ii) Weight mg of the liquid column acting vertically downwards.
(iii) Force P2A at the bottom surface acting vertically upwards.
where P1 and P2 are the pressures at the top and bottom faces, A is
the area of cross section of the circular face and m is the mass of the
cylindrical liquid column.
At equilibrium, P1A + mg - P2A = 0 or P1A + mg = P2A
mg
P2 = P1 +
A
But m = Ahρ
Ahρg
∴ P2 = P1 +
A
(i.e) P2 = P1 + hρg
This equation proves that the pressure is the same at all points
at the same depth. This results in another statement of Pascal’s law
which can be stated as change in pressure at any point in an enclosed
fluid at rest is transmitted undiminished to all points in the fluid and act
in all directions.

5.3.3 Applications of Pascal’s law

(i) Hydraulic lift
An important application of Pascal’s law is the hydraulic lift used
to lift heavy objects. A schematic diagram of a hydraulic lift is shown
in the Fig. 5.13. It consists of a liquid container which has pistons
fitted into the small and large opening cylinders. If a1 and a2 are the
areas of the pistons A and B respectively, F is the force applied on A
and W is the load on B, then

219
 F W
F W a2
= or W = F
a1 a2 a1
This is the load that can be lifted A B

by applying a force F on A. In the above

a2
equation is called mechanical
a1
advantage of the hydraulic lift. One can
see such a lift in many automobile
service stations.
Fig. 5.13 Hydraulic lift
(ii) Hydraulic brake
When brakes are applied suddenly in a moving vehicle, there is
every chance of the vehicle to skid because the wheels are not retarded
uniformly. In order to avoid this danger of skidding when the brakes are
applied, the brake mechanism must be such that each wheel is equally
and simultaneously retarded. A hydraulic brake serves this purpose. It
works on the principle of Pascal’s law.
Fig. 5.14 shows the schematic diagram of a hydraulic brake system.
The brake system has a main cylinder filled with brake oil. The main
cylinder is provided with a piston P which is connected to the brake
Brake Pedal

Main Cylinder

T-tube P

Pipe line to
other wheels
Lever system

Brake oil

P2 P1

S2 S1

Inner rim of the wheel

Fig. 5.14 Hydraulic brake

220
pedal through a lever assembly. A T shaped tube is provided at the
other end of the main cylinder. The wheel cylinder having two pistons
P1 and P2 is connected to the T tube. The pistons P1 and P2 are connected
to the brake shoes S1 and S2 respectively.
When the brake pedal is pressed, piston P is pushed due to the
lever assembly operation. The pressure in the main cylinder is
transmitted to P1 and P2. The pistons P1 and P2 push the brake shoes
away, which in turn press against the inner rim of the wheel. Thus the
motion of the wheel is arrested. The area of the pistons P1 and P2 is
greater than that of P. Therefore a small force applied to the brake
pedal produces a large thrust on the wheel rim.
The main cylinder is connected to all the wheels of the automobile
through pipe line for applying equal pressure to all the wheels .

5.4 Viscosity
Let us pour equal amounts of water and castor oil in two identical
funnels. It is observed that water flows out of the funnel very quickly
whereas the flow of castor oil is very slow. This is because of the
frictional force acting within the liquid. This force offered by the adjacent
liquid layers is known as viscous force and the phenomenon is called
viscosity.
Viscosity is the property of the fluid by virtue of which it opposes
relative motion between its different layers. Both liquids and gases exhibit
viscosity but liquids are much more viscous than gases.
Co-efficient of viscosity
Consider a liquid to flow
Q
steadily through a pipe as shown dx
P
in the Fig. 5.15. The layers of
v
the liquid which are in contact
with the walls of the pipe have
zero velocity. As we move towards
the axis, the velocity of the liquid
Fig. 5.15 Steady flow of a liquid
layer increases and the centre
layer has the maximum velocity v. Consider any two layers P and Q
separated by a distance dx. Let dv be the difference in velocity between
the two layers.

221
 The streamline flow is possible only as long as the velocity of the
fluid does not exceed a certain value. This limiting value of velocity is
called critical velocity.
5.4.2 Turbulent flow
When the velocity of a liquid exceeds the critical velocity, the
path and velocities of the liquid become disorderly. At this stage, the
flow loses all its orderliness and is called turbulent flow. Some examples
of turbulent flow are :
(i) After rising a short distance, the smooth column of smoke
from an incense stick breaks up into irregular and random patterns.
(ii) The flash - flood after a heavy rain.
Critical velocity of a liquid can be defined as that velocity of liquid
upto which the flow is streamlined and above which its flow becomes
turbulent.
5.4.3 Reynold’s number
Reynolds number is a pure number which determines the type of
flow of a liquid through a pipe. It is denoted by NR.
It is given by the formula
vc ρ D
NR =
η

where vc is the critical velocity, ρ is the density, η is the co-efficient

of viscosity of the liquid and D is the diameter of the pipe.
If NR lies between 0 and 2000, the flow of a liquid is said to be
streamline. If the value of NR is above 3000, the flow is turbulent. If
NR lies between 2000 and 3000, the flow is neither streamline nor
turbulent, it may switch over from one type to another.
Narrow tubes and highly viscous liquids tend to promote stream
line motion while wider tubes and liquids of low viscosity lead to
tubulence.

5.4.4 Stoke’s law (for highly viscous liquids)

When a body falls through a highly viscous liquid, it drags the
layer of the liquid immediately in contact with it. This results in a
relative motion between the different layers of the liquid. As a result
of this, the falling body experiences a viscous force F. Stoke performed

223
many experiments on the motion of small spherical bodies in different
fluids and concluded that the viscous force F acting on the spherical
body depends on
(i) Coefficient of viscosity η of the liquid
(ii) Radius a of the sphere and
(iii) Velocity v of the spherical body.
Dimensionally it can be proved that
F = k ηav
Experimentally Stoke found that
k = 6π
∴ F = 6π ηav
This is Stoke’s law.

5.4.5 Expression for terminal velocity

Consider a metallic sphere of radius ‘a’ and
density ρ to fall under gravity in a liquid of density F
σ . The viscous force F acting on the metallic sphere U
increases as its velocity increases. A stage is reached
when the weight W of the sphere becomes equal to
the sum of the upward viscous force F and the upward
thrust U due to buoyancy (Fig. 5.17). Now, there is
no net force acting on the sphere and it moves down
W
with a constant velocity v called terminal velocity.
∴W - F - U = O ...(1)
Terminal velocity of a body is defined as the
constant velocity acquired by a body while falling
Fig. 5.17 Sphere
through a viscous liquid. falling in a
From (1), W = F + U ...(2) viscous liquid

According to Stoke’s law, the viscous force F is

given by F = 6πηav.
The buoyant force U = Weight of liquid displaced by the sphere
4
= πa3σ g
3
The weight of the sphere
4
W = 3
πa3ρg

224
 Substituting in equation (2),
4 4
πa3 ρg = 6π ηav + πa3 σ g
3 3
4
or 6π ηav = πa3 (ρ–σ)g
3
B
2 a 2 ( ρ − σ )g
∴v =
9 η s

5.4.6 Experimental determination of viscosity of C

highly viscous liquids

The coefficient of highly viscous liquid like castor Fig. 5.18

oil can be determined by Stoke’s method. The Experimental
experimental liquid is taken in a tall, wide jar. Two determination
of viscosity of
marking B and C are marked as shown in Fig. 5.18. highly viscous
A steel ball is gently dropped in the jar. liquid

The marking B is made well below the free surface of the liquid
so that by the time ball reaches B, it would have acquired terminal
velocity v.
When the ball crosses B, a stopwatch is switched on and the time
taken t to reach C is noted. If the distance BC is s, then terminal
s
velocity v = .
t
The expression for terminal velocity is
2 a 2 (ρ-σ)g
v =
9 η
s 2 a 2 (ρ - σ)g 2 2 (ρ - σ)g t
∴ = or η = a
t 9 η 9 s
Knowing a, ρ and σ , the value of η of the liquid is determined.

Application of Stoke’s law

Falling of rain drops: When the water drops are small in size,
their terminal velocities are small. Therefore they remain suspended in
air in the form of clouds. But as the drops combine and grow in size,
their terminal velocities increases because v α a2. Hence they start
falling as rain.

225
 (ii) The knowledge of coefficient of viscosity and its variation with
temperature helps us to choose a suitable lubricant for specific
machines. In light machinery thin oils (example, lubricant oil used in
clocks) with low viscosity is used. In heavy machinery, highly viscous
oils (example, grease) are used.
5.5 Surface tension
Intermolecular forces
The force between two molecules of a substance is called
intermolecular force. This intermolecular force is basically electric in
nature. When the distance between two molecules is greater, the
distribution of charges is such that the mean distance between opposite
charges in the molecule is slightly less than the distance between their
like charges. So a force of attraction exists. When the intermolecular
distance is less, there is overlapping of the electron clouds of the
molecules resulting in a strong repulsive force.
The intermolecular forces are of two types. They are (i) cohesive
force and (ii) adhesive force.
Cohesive force
Cohesive force is the force of attraction between the molecules of
the same substance. This cohesive force is very strong in solids, weak
in liquids and extremely weak in gases.

Adhesive force
Adhesive force is the force of attraction between the moelcules of
two different substances. For example due to the adhesive force, ink
sticks to paper while writing. Fevicol, gum etc exhibit strong adhesive
property.
Water wets glass because the cohesive force between water
molecules is less than the adhesive force between water and glass
molecules. Whereas, mercury does not wet glass because the cohesive
force between mercury molecules is greater than the adhesive force
between mercury and glass molecules.
Molecular range and sphere of influence
Molecular range is the maximum distance upto which a molecule
can exert force of attraction on another molecule. It is of the order of
10–9 m for solids and liquids.

228
 Sphere of influence is a sphere drawn around a particular molecule
as centre and molecular range as radius. The central molecule exerts a
force of attraction on all the molecules lying within the sphere of
influence.

5.5.1 Surface tension of a liquid

Surface tension is the property of the free surface
A
of a liquid at rest to behave like a stretched membrane
in order to acquire minimum surface area.
Imagine a line AB in the free surface of a liquid
B
at rest (Fig. 5.20). The force of surface tension is
measured as the force acting per unit length on either
side of this imaginary line AB. The force is
perpendicular to the line and tangential to the liquid
surface. If F is the force acting on the length l of the
Fig. 5.20 Force on
line AB, then surface tension is given by a liquid surface
F
T = .
l
Surface tension is defined as the force per unit length acting
perpendicular on an imaginary line drawn on the liquid surface, tending
to pull the surface apart along the line. Its unit is N m–1 and dimensional
formula is MT–2.
Experiments to demonstrate surface tension
(i) When a painting brush is dipped into water, its hair gets
separated from each other. When the brush is taken out of water, it
is observed that its hair will cling together. This is because the free
surface of water films tries to contract due to surface tension.
Tv

T T

Needle floats on water surface

Hair clings together when brush is taken out

Fig. 5.21 Practical examples for surface tension

229
 (ii) When a sewing needle is gently placed on water surface, it
floats. The water surface below the needle gets depressed slightly. The
force of surface tension acts tangentially. The vertical component of
the force of surface tension balances the weight of the needle.

5.5.2 Molecular theory of surface tension

Consider two molecules P and Q as shown
Q
in Fig. 5.22. Taking them as centres and
molecular range as radius, a sphere of influence
is drawn around them.
The molecule P is attracted in all directions
equally by neighbouring molecules. Therefore
net force acting on P is zero. The molecule Q is P
on the free surface of the liquid. It experiences
a net downward force because the number of
molecules in the lower half of the sphere is
Fig. 5.22 Surface
more and the upper half is completely outside
tension based on
the surface of the liquid. Therefore all the molecular theory
molecules lying on the surface of a liquid
experience only a net downward force.
If a molecule from the interior is to be brought to the surface of
the liquid, work must be done against this downward force. This work
done on the molecule is stored as potential energy. For equilibrium, a
system must possess minimum potential energy. So, the free surface will
have minimum potential energy. The free surface of a liquid tends
to assume minimum surface area by contracting and remains in a
state of tension like a stretched elastic
l
membrane.
D C

5.5.3 Surface energy and surface tension

The potential energy per unit area of
the surface film is called surface energy.
A B Consider a metal frame ABCD in which AB
x
is movable. The frame is dipped in a soap
A/ B/
solution. A film is formed which pulls AB
inwards due to surface tension. If T is the
Fig. 5.23 Surface energy surface tension of the film and l is the length

230
of the wire AB, this inward force is given by 2 × T l . The number 2
indicates the two free surfaces of the film.
If AB is moved through a small distance x as shown in Fig. 5.23
to the position A′B ′ , then work done is
W = 2Tlx
W
Work down per unit area =
2lx
T 2lx
∴ Surface energy =
2lx
Surface energy = T
Surface energy is numerically equal to surface tension.

5.5.4 Angle of contact

When the free surface of a liquid
comes in contact with a solid, it R
Q
becomes curved at the point of Q

contact. The angle between the

tangent to the liquid surface at the P R P
point of contact of the liquid with the
solid and the solid surface inside the For water For mercury
liquid is called angle of contact. Fig. 5.24 Angle of contact

In Fig. 5.24, QR is the tangent drawn at the point of contact Q.

The angle PQR is called the angle of contact. When a liquid has concave
meniscus, the angle of contact is acute. When it has a convex meniscus,
the angle of contact is obtuse.
The angle of contact depends on the nature of liquid and solid in
contact. For water and glass, θ lies between 8o and 18o. For pure water
and clean glass, it is very small and hence it is taken as zero. The angle
of contact of mercury with glass is 138o.

5.5.5 Pressure difference across a liquid surface

If the free surface of a liquid is plane, then the surface tension
acts horizontally (Fig. 5.25a). It has no component perpendicular to
the horizontal surface. As a result, there is no pressure difference between
the liquid side and the vapour side.
If the surface of the liquid is concave (Fig. 5.25b), then the resultant

231
 excess pressure

T T T T
R
T T R

excess pressure

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 5.25 Excess of pressure across a liquid surface

force R due to surface tension on a molecule on the surface act vertically

upwards. To balance this, an excess of pressure acting downward on
the concave side is necessary. On the other hand if the surface is
convex (Fig. 5.25c), the resultant R acts downward and there must be
an excess of pressure on the concave side acting in the upward direction.
Thus, there is always an excess of pressure on the concave side of
a curved liquid surface over the pressure on its convex side due to surface
tension.

5.5.6 Excess pressure inside a liquid drop

Consider a liquid drop of radius r. The molecules on the surface
of the drop experience a resultant force acting inwards due to surface
tension. Therefore, the pressure inside the drop must be greater than
the pressure outside it. The excess of pressure P inside the drop provides
a force acting outwards perpendicular to the surface, to balance the
resultant force due to surface tension. Imagine the drop to be divided
into two equal halves. Considering the equilibrium of the upper
hemisphere of the drop, the upward force
P on the plane face ABCD due to excess
pressure P is P π r 2 (Fig. 5.26).
If T is the surface tension of the
D
liquid, the force due to surface tension
A C
acting downward along the circumference
of the circle ABCD is T 2πr.
B
At equilibrium, P πr 2 = T 2πr
T
Fig. 5.26 Excess pressure 2T
∴ P =
inside a liquid drop r

232
Excess pressure inside a soap bubble
A soap bubble has two liquid surfaces in contact with air, one
inside the bubble and the other outside the bubble. Therefore the force
due to surface tension = 2 × 2πrT
∴ At equilibrium, P πr 2 = 2 × 2πrT
4T
(i.e) P =
r
Thus the excess of pressure inside a drop is inversely proportional
1 1
to its radius i.e. P α . As P α , the pressure needed to form a very
r r
small bubble is high. This explains why one needs to blow hard to start
a balloon growing. Once the balloon has grown, less air pressure is
needed to make it expand more.

5.5.7 Capillarity
The property of surface tension gives rise to an interesting
phenomenon called capillarity. When a capillary tube is dipped in water,
the water rises up in the tube. The level of water in the tube is above
the free surface of water in the beaker (capillary rise). When a capillary
tube is dipped in mercury, mercury also rises in the tube. But the level
of mercury is depressed below the free
surface of mercury in the beaker
h
(capillary fall).
h
h
h The rise of a liquid in a capillary
tube is known as capillarity. The height
h in Fig. 5.27 indicates the capillary
rise (for water) or capillary fall (for
For water For mercury
mercury).
Fig. 5.27 Capillary rise

Illustrations of capillarity
(i) A blotting paper absorbs ink by capillary action. The pores in
the blotting paper act as capillaries.
(ii) The oil in a lamp rises up the wick through the narrow spaces
between the threads of the wick.
(iii) A sponge retains water due to capillary action.
(iv) Walls get damped in rainy season due to absorption of water
by bricks.

233
5.5.8 Surface tension by capillary rise method
Let us consider a capillary tube of
uniform bore dipped vertically in a beaker

R cos
R cos
containing water. Due to surface tension,
water rises to a height h in the capillary tube R R

as shown in Fig. 5.28. The surface tension T r

of the water acts inwards and the reaction of R sin R sin

the tube R outwards. R is equal to T in C D

magnitude but opposite in direction. This T T

h

reaction R can be resolved into two

rectangular components.
(i) Horizontal component R sin θ acting
radially outwards
(ii) Vertical component R cos θ acting
upwards.
Fig. 5.28 Surface tension
The horizontal component acting all by capillary rise method
along the circumference of the tube cancel
each other whereas the vertical component balances the weight of water
column in the tube.
Total upward force = R cos θ × circumference of the tube
(i.e) F = 2πr R cos θ or F = 2πr T cos θ ...(1)
[∵ R = T ]
This upward force is responsible for the
capillary rise. As the water column is in
r equilibrium, this force acting upwards is
equal to weight of the water column acting
downwards.
r (i.e) F = W ...(2)

C D Now, volume of water in the tube is

assumed to be made up of (i) a cylindrical
water column of height h and (ii) water in the
Fig. 5.29 Liquid meniscus above the plane CD.
meniscus
Volume of cylindrical water column = πr2h
Volume of water in the meniscus = (Volume of cylinder of height
r and radius r) – (Volume of hemisphere)

234
 3 ⎛2 ⎞
∴ Volume of water in the meniscus = (πr2 × r) – ⎜ π r ⎟
⎝3 ⎠
1
= πr3
3
1
∴ Total volume of water in the tube = πr2h + πr3
3
⎛ r ⎞
= πr2 ⎜ h + 3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
If ρ is the density of water, then weight of water in the tube is
⎛ r⎞
W = πr2 ⎜ h + ⎟ ρg ...(3)
⎝ 3 ⎠
Substituting (1) and (3) in (2),

⎛ r⎞
πr2 ⎜ h + ⎟ ρg = 2πrT cos θ
⎝ 3⎠

⎛ r⎞
⎜ h + ⎟ r ρg
T = ⎝ 3 ⎠
2 cos θ
r
Since r is very small, 3
can be neglected compared to h.
hrρg
∴ T = 2 cos θ

For water, θ is small, therefore cos θ 1

hrρg
∴T =
2
5.5.9 Experimental determination
of surface tension of water
by capillary rise method M
h
A clean capillary tube of uniform N
bore is fixed vertically with its lower
end dipping into water taken in a
beaker. A needle N is also fixed with
the capillary tube as shown in the Fig.
5.30. The tube is raised or lowered until
the tip of the needle just touches the
water surface. A travelling microscope Fig. 5.30 Surface tension
M is focussed on the meniscus of the by capillary rise method

235
water in the capillary tube. The reading R1 corresponding to the lower
meniscus is noted. The microscope is lowered and focused on the tip of
the needle and the corresponding reading is taken as R2. The difference
between R1 and R2 gives the capillary rise h.
The radius of the capillary tube is determined using the travelling
microscope. If ρ is the density of water then the surface tension of water
hrρg
is given by T = where g is the acceleration due to gravity.
2

5.5.10 Factors affecting surface tension

Impurities present in a liquid appreciably affect surface tension. A
highly soluble substance like salt increases the surface tension whereas
sparingly soluble substances like soap decreases the surface tension.
The surface tension decreases with rise in temperature. The
temperature at which the surface tension of a liquid becomes zero is
called critical temperature of the liquid.

5.5.11 Applications of surface tension

(i) During stormy weather, oil is poured into the sea around the
ship. As the surface tension of oil is less than that of water, it spreads
on water surface. Due to the decrease in surface tension, the velocity
of the waves decreases. This reduces the wrath of the waves on the
ship.
(ii) Lubricating oils spread easily to all parts because of their low
surface tension.
(iii) Dirty clothes cannot be washed with water unless some
detergent is added to water. When detergent is added to water, one end
of the hairpin shaped molecules of the detergent get attracted to water
and the other end, to molecules of the dirt. Thus the dirt is suspended
surrounded by detergent molecules and this can be easily removed.
This detergent action is due to the reduction of surface tension of water
when soap or detergent is added to water.
(iv) Cotton dresses are preferred in summer because cotton dresses
have fine pores which act as capillaries for the sweat.

236
 Self evaluation
(The questions and problems given in this self evaluation are only samples.
In the same way any question and problem could be framed from the text
matter. Students must be prepared to answer any question and problem
from the text matter, not only from the self evaluation.)

1.1 Which of the following are equivalent?

(a) 6400 km and 6.4 × 108 cm (b) 2 × 104 cm and 2 × 106 mm
(c) 800 m and 80 × 102 m (d) 100 µm and 1 mm
1.2 Red light has a wavelength of 7000 Å. In µm it is
(a) 0.7 µm (b) 7 µm
(c) 70 µm (d) 0.07 µm
1.3 A speck of dust weighs 1.6 × 10–10 kg. How many such particles
would weigh 1.6 kg?
(a) 10–10 (b) 1010
(c) 10 (d) 10–1
1.4 The force acting on a particle is found to be proportional to velocity.
The constant of proportionality is measured in terms of
(a) kg s-1 (b) kg s
(c) kg m s-1 (d) kg m s-2
1.5 The number of significant digits in 0.0006032 is
(a) 8 (b) 7
(c) 4 (d) 2
1.6 The length of a body is measured as 3.51 m. If the accuracy is
0.01 m, then the percentage error in the measurement is
(a) 351 % (b) 1 %
(c) 0.28 % (d) 0.035 %
1.7 The dimensional formula for gravitational constant is
1 3 –2 –1 3 –2
(a) M L T (b) M L T
–1 –3 –2 1 –3 2
(c) M L T (d) M L T

33
1.8 The velocity of a body is expressed as v = (x/t) + yt. The dimensional
formula for x is
(a) MLoTo (b) MoLTo
(c) MoLoT (d) MLTo
1.9 The dimensional formula for Planck’s constant is
3 2
(a) MLT (b) ML T
o 4 2 –1
(c) ML T (d) ML T
1.10 _____________have the same dimensional formula
(a) Force and momentum (b) Stress and strain
(c) Density and linear density (d) Work and potential energy
1.11 What is the role of Physics in technology?
1.12 Write a note on the basic forces in nature.
1.13 Distinguish between fundamental units and derived units.
1.14 Give the SI standard for (i) length (ii) mass and (iii) time.
1.15 Why SI system is considered superior to other systems?
1.16 Give the rules and conventions followed while writing SI units.
1.17 What is the need for measurement of physical quantities?
1.18 You are given a wire and a metre scale. How will you estimate the
diameter of the wire?
1.19 Name four units to measure extremely small distances.
1.20 What are random errors? How can we minimise these errors?
1
1.21 Show that gt2 has the same dimensions of distance.
2
1.22 What are the limitations of dimensional analysis?
1.23 What are the uses of dimensional analysis? Explain with one
example.
Problems
1.24 How many astronomical units are there in 1 metre?

34
1.25 If mass of an electron is 9.11 × 10–31 kg how many electrons would
weigh 1 kg?
1.26 In a submarine fitted with a SONAR, the time delay between generation
of a signal and reception of its echo after reflection from an enemy
ship is observed to be 73.0 seconds. If the speed of sound in water is
1450 m s–1, then calculate the distance of the enemy ship.
1.27 State the number of significant figures in the following:
(i) 600900 (ii) 5212.0 (iii) 6.320 (iv) 0.0631 (v) 2.64 × 1024
1.28 Find the value of π2 correct to significant figures, if π = 3.14.
1.29 5.74 g of a substance occupies a volume of 1.2 cm3. Calculate its
density applying the principle of significant figures.
1.30 The length, breadth and thickness of a rectanglar plate are 4.234 m,
1.005 m and 2.01 cm respectively. Find the total area and volume of
the plate to correct significant figures.
1.31 The length of a rod is measured as 25.0 cm using a scale having an
accuracy of 0.1 cm. Determine the percentage error in length.
1.32 Obtain by dimensional analysis an expression for the surface tension
of a liquid rising in a capillary tube. Assume that the surface tension
T depends on mass m of the liquid, pressure P of the liquid and
1
radius r of the capillary tube (Take the constant k = 2 ).
1.33 The force F acting on a body moving in a circular path depends on
mass m of the body, velocity v and radius r of the circular path.
Obtain an expression for the force by dimensional analysis (Take
the value of k = 1).
1.34 Check the correctness of the following equation by dimensinal
analysis

mv 2
(i) F= where F is force, m is mass, v is velocity and r is radius
r2
1 g
(ii) n = where n is frequency, g is acceleration due to gravity
2π l

and l is length.

35
 1
(iii) mv 2 = mgh 2 where m is mass, v is velocity, g is acceleration
2
due to gravity and h is height.
1.35 Convert using dimensional analysis

18
(i) kmph into m s–1
5

5
(ii) m s–1 into kmph
18
(iii) 13.6 g cm–3 into kg m–3

Answers

1.1 (a) 1.2 (a) 1.3 (b) 1.4 (a)

1.5 (c) 1.6 (c) 1.7 (b) 1.8 (b)

1.9 (d) 1.10 (d)

1.24 6.68 × 10–12 AU 1.25 1.097 × 1030

1.26 52.925 km 1.27 4, 5, 4, 3, 3

1.28 9.86 1.29 4.8 g cm–3

1.30 4.255 m2, 0.0855 m3 1.31 0.4 %

Pr mv 2
1.32 T = 1.33 F =
2 r

1.34 wrong, correct, wrong

1.35 1 m s–1, 1 kmph, 1.36 × 104 kg m–3

36
 Self evaluation
(The questions and problems given in this self evaluation are only samples.
In the same way any question and problem could be framed from the text
matter. Students must be prepared to answer any question and problem
from the text matter, not only from the self evaluation.)

2.1 A particle at rest starts moving in a horizontal straight line with

uniform acceleration. The ratio of the distance covered during
the fourth and the third second is

4 26
(a) (b)
3 9

7
(c) (d) 2
5
2.2 The distance travelled by a body, falling freely from rest in one,
two and three seconds are in the ratio
(a) 1 : 2 : 3 (b) 1 : 3 : 5
(c) 1 : 4 : 9 (d) 9 : 4 : 1
2.3 The displacement of the particle along a straight line at time t
is given by, x = a0 + a1 t +a2 t 2 where a0,a1 and a2 are
constants. The acceleration of the particle is
(a) a0 (b) a1
(c) a2 (d) 2a2
2.4 The acceleration of a moving body can be found from:
(a) area under velocity-time graph
(b) area under distance-time graph
(c) slope of the velocity-time graph
(d) slope of the distance-time graph
2.5 Which of the following is a vector quantity?
(a) Distance (b) Temperature
(c) Mass (d) Momentum
2.6 An object is thrown along a direction inclined at an angle 45°
with the horizontal. The horizontal range of the object is
(a) vertical height (b) twice the vertical height
(c) thrice the vertical height (d) four times the vertical height

112
2.7 . Two bullets are fired at angle θ and (90 - θ) to the horizontal with
some speed. The ratio of their times of flight is
(a) 1:1 (b) tan θ :1
(c)1: tan θ (d) tan2 θ :1
2.8 A stone is dropped from the window of a train moving along a
horizontal straight track, the path of the stone as observed by an
observer on ground is
(a) Straight line (b) Parabola
(c) Circular (c) Hyperbola
2.9 A gun fires two bullets with same velocity at 60° and 30° with
horizontal. The bullets strike at the same horizontal distance.
The ratio of maximum height for the two bullets is in the ratio
(a) 2 : 1 (b) 3 : 1
(c) 4 : 1 (d) 1 : 1
2.10 Newton’s first law of motion gives the concept of
(a) energy (b) work
(c) momentum (d) Inertia
2.11 Inertia of a body has direct dependence on
(a) Velocity (b) Mass
(c) Area (d) Volume
2.12 The working of a rocket is based on
(a) Newton’s first law of motion
(b) Newton’s second law of motion
(c) Newton’s third law of motion
(d) Newton’s first and second law
2.13 When three forces acting at a point are in equilibrium
(a) each force is equal to the vector sum of the other two forces.
(b) each force is greater than the sum of the other two forces.
(c) each force is greater than the difference of the other two
force.

113
 (d) each force is to product of the other two forces.
2.14 For a particle revolving in a circular path, the acceleration of the
particle is
(a) along the tangent
(b) along the radius
(c) along the circumference of the circle
(d) Zero
2.15 If a particle travels in a circle, covering equal angles in equal
times, its velocity vector
(a) changes in magnitude only
(b) remains constant
(c) changes in direction only
(d) changes both in magnitude and direction
2.16 A particle moves along a circular path under the action of a
force. The work done by the force is
(a) positive and nonzero (b) Zero
(c) Negative and nonzero (d) None of the above
2.17 A cyclist of mass m is taking a circular turn of radius R on a
frictional level road with a velocity v. Inorder that the cyclist
does not skid,
(a) (mv2/2) > µmg (b) (mv2/r) > µmg
(c) (mv2/r) < µmg (d) (v/r) = µg
2.18 If a force F is applied on a body and the body moves with
velocity v, the power will be
(a) F.v (b) F/v
(c) Fv2 (d) F/v2
2.19 For an elastic collision
(a) the kinetic energy first increases and then decreases
(b) final kinetic energy never remains constant
(c) final kinetic energy is less than the initial kinetic energy

114
 (d) initial kinetic energy is equal to the final kinetic energy
2.20 A bullet hits and gets embedded in a solid block resting on a
horizontal frictionless table. Which of the following is conserved?
(a) momentum and kinetic energy
(b) Kinetic energy alone
(c) Momentum alone
(d) Potential energy alone
2.21 Compute the (i) distance travelled and (ii) displacement made by
the student when he travels a distance of 4km eastwards and
then a further distance of 3 km northwards.
2.22 What is the (i) distance travelled and (ii) displacement produced
by a cyclist when he completes one revolution?
2.23 Differentiate between speed and velocity of a body.
2.24 What is meant by retardation?
2.25 What is the significance of velocity-time graph?
2.26 Derive the equations of motion for an uniformly accelerated body.
2.27 What are scalar and vector quantities?
2.28 How will you represent a vector quantity?
2.29 What is the magnitude and direction of the resultant of two
vectors acting along the same line in the same direction?
2.30 State: Parallelogram law of vectors and triangle law of vectors.
2.31 Obtain the expression for magnitude and direction of the resultant
of two vectors when they are inclined at an angle ‘θ’ with each
other.
2.32 State Newton’s laws of motion.
2.33 Explain the different types of inertia with examples.
2.34 State and prove law of conservation of linear momentum.
2.35 Define impulse of a force
2.36 Obtain an expression for centripetal acceleration.
2.37 What is centrifugal reaction?

115
2.38 Obtain an expression for the critical velocity of a body revolving
in a vertical circle.
2.39 What is meant by banking of tracks?
2.40 Obtain an expression for the angle of lean when a cyclist takes a
curved path.
2.41 What are the two types of collision? Explain them.
2.42 Obtain the expressions for the velocities of the two bodies after
collision in the case of one dimensional motion.
2.43 Prove that in the case of one dimensional elastic collision between
two bodies of equal masses, they interchange their velocities
after collision.
Problems
2.44 Determine the initial velocity and acceleration of particle travelling
with uniform acceleration in a straight line if it travels 55 m in
the 8th second and 85 m in the 13th second of its motion.
2.45 An aeroplane takes off at an angle of 450 to the horizontal. If the
vertical component of its velocity is 300 kmph, calculate its actual
velocity. What is the horizontal component of velocity?
2.46 A force is inclined at 60o to the horizontal . If the horizontal
component of force is 40 kg wt, calculate the vertical component.
2.47 A body is projected upwards with a velocity of 30 m s-1 at an
angle of 30° with the horizontal. Determine (a) the time of flight
(b) the range of the body and (c) the maximum height attained by
the body.
2.48 The horizontal range of a projectile is 4√3 times its maximum
height. Find the angle of projection.
2.49 A body is projected at such an angle that the horizontal range is
3 times the greatest height . Find the angle of projection.
2.50 An elevator is required to lift a body of mass 65 kg. Find the
acceleration of the elevator, which could cause a reaction of
800 N on the floor.
2.51 A body whose mass is 6 kg is acted on by a force which changes
its velocity from 3 m s-1 to 5 m s-1. Find the impulse of the

116
 force. If the force is acted for 2 seconds, find the force in
newton.
2.52 A cricket ball of mass 150 g moving at 36 m s-1 strikes a bat and
returns back along the same line at 21 m s-1 . What is the
change in momentum produced? If the bat remains in contact
with the ball for 1/20 s, what is the average force exerted in
newton.

2.53 Two forces of magnitude 12 N and 8 N are acting at a point. If

the angle between the two forces is 60°, determine the magnitude
of the resultant force?

2.54 The sum of two forces inclined to each other at an angle is

18 kg wt and their resultant which is perpendicular to the smaller
force is 12 kg wt Find the forces and the angle between them.

2.55 A weight of 20 kN supported by two cords, one 3 m long and the

other 4m long with points of support 5 m apart. Find the tensions
T1 and T2 in the cords.
2.56 The following forces act at a point
(i) 20 N inclined at 30o towards North of East
(ii) 25 N towards North
(iii) 30 N inclined at 45o towards North of West
(iv) 35 N inclined at 40o towards South of West.
Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force.

2.57 Find the magnitude of the two forces such that it they are at
right angles, their resultant is 10 N. But if they act at 60o, their
resultant is 13 N.

2.58 At what angle must a railway track with a bend of radius 880 m
be banked for the safe running of a train at a velocity of
44 m s – 1 ?

2.59 A railway engine of mass 60 tonnes, is moving in an arc of

radius 200 m with a velocity of 36 kmph. Find the force exerted
on the rails towards the centre of the circle.

2.60 A horse pulling a cart exerts a steady horizontal pull of 300 N

117
 and walks at the rate of 4.5 kmph. How much work is done by
the horse in 5 minutes?
2.61 A ball is thrown downward from a height of 30 m with a velocity
of 10 m s-1. Determine the velocity with which the ball strikes
the ground by using law of conservation of energy.
2.62 What is the work done by a man in carrying a suitcase weighing
30 kg over his head, when he travels a distance of 10 m in
(i) vertical and (ii) horizontal directions?
2.63 Two masses of 2 kg and 5 kg are moving with equal kinetic
energies. Find the ratio of magnitudes of respective linear
momenta.
2.64 A man weighing 60 kg runs up a flight of stairs 3m high in 4 s.
Calculate the power developed by him.
2.65 A motor boat moves at a steady speed of 8 m s– 1 , If the water
resistance to the motion of the boat is 2000 N, calculate the
power of the engine.
2.66 Two blocks of mass 300 kg and 200 kg are moving toward each
other along a horizontal frictionless surface with velocities of 50
m s-1 and 100 m s-1 respectively. Find the final velocity of each
block if the collision is completely elastic.

118
 Answers

2.1 (c) 2.2 (c) 2.3 (d) 2.4 (c)

2.5 (d) 2.6 (d) 2.7 (b) 2.8 (b)

2.9 (b) 2.10 (d) 2.11 (b) 2.12 (c)

2.13 (a) 2.14 (b) 2.15 (c) 2.16 (b)

2.17 (c) 2.18 (a) 2.19 (d) 2.20 (c)

2.44 10 m s–1 ; 6 m s–2 2.45 424.26 kmph ; 300 kmph

2.46 69.28 kg wt 2.47 3.06s; 79.53 m ; 11.48 m

2.48 30o 2.49 53o7’

2.50 2.5 m s-2 2.51 12 N s ; 6 N

2.52 8.55 kg m s–1; 171 N 2.53 17.43 N

2.54 5 kg wt ; 13 kg wt ; 112o37′ 2.55 16 k N, 12 k N

2.56 45.6 N ; 132o 18’ 2.57 3 N ; 1 N

2.58 12o39′ 2.59 30 kN

2.60 1.125 × 105 J 2.61 26.23 m s–1

2.62 2940 J ; 0 2.63 0.6324

2.64 441 W 2.65 16000 W

2.66 – 70 m s–1 ; 80 m s–1

119