ELSEVIER Injury,
Care Injured 3 1 (2000) S-B 14-S-B23
Stiffness - an unknown world of mechanical science?
F. Baumgart
A0 Technical Commission, Clavadelerstrasse,
Summary’
“Stiffness” is a term used to describe the force needed
to achieve a certain deformation of a structure. In the
biomechanical world, several different definitions of
stiffness are used, but not all of them are explained ade-
quately to those readers who are less familiar with bio-
mechanical terminology
This paper gives examples for specific definitions
which are based on the basic definition of stiffness of a
loaded structure
“Stiffness” = “Load“ divided by “Deformation“,
a definition which automatically includes that the
“Deformation” is created by the “Load” addressed in
the formula.
There is an infinite number of possible configurations
of “Load” (forces, moments, stresses, arbitrary groups
of forces etc.) acting on a structure and there is also an
infinite number of possible points in the structure,
where the deformation (displacement, strain, angles,
radii, curvature, etc.) can be measured. Therefore, the
term “StiffMess” of a structurealways requires an exact
description of the load configuration and the exact localiza-
tion and kind of deformation measured. Otherwise, the mea-
sured or calculated values cannot be compared with
results from other authors.
An external fixator reacts to different functional forces
(axial force, bending moment, torque) with different
1 Abstracts in German, French, Italian, Spanish, Japanese and
Russian are printed at the end of this supplement.
2 Stress is defined as force divided by the area on which the
force acts.
0020-I 383/00/$ - see front matter 0 2000 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
Int. J.
CH-7270 Davos Platz
deformations (axial displacement, several angles, strain
etc.). Depending on the selection of the deformations,
several stiffness values can be determined. A definition
of stiffness as a constant property of a structure only
makes sense for structures consisting entirely of linear
elastic materials. This paper supports the understand-
ing of different stiffness definitions in the literature and
provides a simple rule for the control of the stiffness
definition applied.
Keywords: torsional stiffness, bending stiffness,
material stiffness, structural stiffness, stiffness matrix,
load configuration
Injury 2000, Vol. 31, Suppl. 2
Introduction
For the explanation of a well known mechanical phe-
nomenon such as “stiffness” some preliminary defini-
tions are needed.
If a mechanical structure becomes loaded, a defor-
mation occurs.
Here we investigate the phenomenon as seen in a
mechanical structure made from an elastic material. In
the case of non-elastic materials, the definition of stiff-
ness becomes very difficult and unusual.
We understand the terms in this paper as follows:
Y%ucture”
A structure can be a rod, a spring, a plate, a shell or a
similar geometrical body consisting of a solid material.
Baumgart: Stifiess in mechanical science S-B15

“Load” Basic Examples

A load can be a force, a moment, a stress2 or a combina- The following examples of the different definitions of
tion of some of these physical variables acting on the stiffness in common use (Figs 1-12) are explained in the
structure. text under the figures.

“Deformation”

Deformation means that the actual geometrical configur-

ation of the elastic structure is different from the original
“unloaded” reference configuration. A deformation is
always a comparison of two different configurations of
a structure. The measure of a deformation can be a
strains, a displacement, an angle or a modification of
these variables. The term “configuration” means that
each material particle of the body or structure can be
defined by a unique set of coordinates in space (e.g. x,y,z
or similar).

“Elasticity”, “elastic material”

Fig. 1: A rod of the length 4 the cross-sectional area A, and the
Elasticity is a material property which means that a
modulus of elasticity E is loaded axially by a force F, the load.
deformed elastic material springs back into its original
The relative axial displacement u of the two ends of the rod is
configuration when the load is removed. the deformation. In this case, the Longitudinal Stiffness is
defined as
Another definition (which is equivalent to this) means s
Cl*
=EA
that the internal stress in an elastic material depends e
only on the strain but not on other deformational vari-
ables like strain rate, frequency, or time. and the basic relation is F=&=S ax U
e

“Stiffness”

After clarification of the above-mentioned definitions, [Comgmasiooofarod:J

the stifiess ofa structure can be defined as

F
Load
Stiffness =
Deformation5

From this definition the following becomes clear:

For an elastic body, the stiffness of a structure is a time
independent value, in other words, the load and defor-
mation of the structure have identical time dependency.
Stiffness is not a fixed measure of a structure but is
dependent on position and kind of Zoad and on location
and kind of deformation.
Therefore: Several definitions of “StiffMess“ exist.
3 The most common definition of strain (the so-called
engineering strain) is the difference between the length of a
material line in the deformed configuration and the original
length in the undeformed configuration, divided by the
original length. In other words: The increase in length
divided by the original length. There are other definitions
in use too, but these are rarely used in the literature.
Fig. 2: Tension and compression are two states of the same load
configuration. A force acts on a rod coaxial with the axis of the
rod. If the vector arrow of the force at the end of the rod points
away from the end surface it is called “tension”, if the arrow
points against the end surface it is called “compression”.
The left part of Fig. 2 shows a rod under compression. The
force F (“load”) causes a displacement II (“deformation”) in the
same direction as the load acts.
We can use this as a model for the investigation of the tibia
under axial load. We apparently have the same situation as in
the rod on the left side. This is true if we just ask for the stiff-
ness of the system. We can define a stiffness constant S, as the
result of the quotient load /deformation, possibly received from

Injury 2000, Vol. 31, Suppl. 2


test results. This is possible and permissible. However, calcu-
lation of this stiffness must allow for the fact that the cross-
section of the tibia is not constant along the axis and the mod-
ulus of elasticity also varies in the whole material volume of
the bone. Anatomical variations in these properties will influ-
ence the stiffness of the system.
We additionally neglect the viscoelastic properties of the bone,
this means that forces may not only depend on the deforma-
tion, but also on the speed of its application. Published test
results have shown that this effect in the domain of functional
loading variation is small and can be neglected with sufficient
accuracy.
Fig. 3: An elastic spring, here shown as a helical spring, is the
most common representation of the mechanical term “stiff-
mss”. The basic relation between the spring force F and the
spring elongation x is
F = cx
where the spring constant c represents the spring stiffness
which can be determined according to our fundamental def-
inition as
(1)
c =- F
x Fig. 5: Material stiffness4 is defined by a linear relationship
Fig. 4: A spring model (left) of axial loading in part of the
L
human spine (right) is an extreme simplification of the com-
plex real situation in the biomechanical structure of the spine.
The axial displacement (“deformation”) x caused by the axial
S-B16
force (“load”) F in a mechanical test is the sum of the local dis-
placement differences in the vertebrae and in the interverte-
bral discs.
All the biological parts of the spine are heterogeneous, have
complex shapes, and show more or less anisotropic behaviour.
Despite these complex structures a spring constant c can be
determined by mechanical testing which allows for the deter-
mination of axial deformation caused by axial forces, or for
the estimation of the axial forces created by a certain applied
axial displacement. The spring constant describes the stiffness
of the spine model against axial forces.
It goes without saying that the necessarv assumntion is as
alwavs nure elastic behaviour of all Darts of the structure!
Tests at different loading speeds may be needed in order to
gather information on the magnitude of hidden viscoelastic
effects. This allows an assessment on the accuracy of the
assumption of a linear elastic material. This does not mean
that all parts of the biological structure must have the same
modulus of elasticity.
It is also clear that the instability of the spine under compres-
sion must be excluded.
between the normal stress o acting on the surface of a parti-
cle and the strain E measured in the same direction as the stress
acts. Normally, these variables are determined by a uniaxial
tensile or compresssion test.
The “sti@ess” of the material is then defined by the relation-
ship
E ~2
E
where the Modulus of elasticity E (YOUNGS modulus) func-
tions as the “Material stiffness”. This law is well known as
HOOKE’S law of elasticity.
4 of a homogeneous and isotropic material.
Baumgart: Stifiess in mechanical science S-B17

This definition has the advantage that the length f of the beam
Uaiform saws in the apancumris m. bicipitia in a pure bending mode does not show up, because it is super-
bra&ii (t&m. appmximatcly)

,, deformed contiguratm

Fig. 6: Anexample of (approximately) pure tension is the stress

transmitted by a tendon to the bone. The tendon axis defines
the direction of the axial force. This force divided by the cross-
sectional area of the tendon results in almost uniformly dis-
tributed axial stress cs (“load”), and uniform strain E (“defor- Fig. 8: Sometimes another definition can be found in the lit-
mation”) of the tendon tissue. The factor of proportionality erature:
between the force and the displacement of the elastic tendon
material is the modulus of Elasticity E , the “material stiffness”

Bending moment M
Bending angle a
,R / deformed configuration
“Bending stiffness” -E J
I
It is obvious that the definition of the angle a as the deforma-
tion introduces the length 1 of the beam into the stiffness defi-
nition which has to be compensated by multiplying the cur-
vature by the length f
Seemingly the length f has an influence on the intrinsic beam
stiffness, but in reality it has not. A person bending a longer
and a shorter, but sufficiently long rod by hand to the same
radius R needs the same bending moment for both tests and
he will not feel a difference.
This definition has been introduced in civil engineering to
facilitate the analysis of structures such as frames and trusses
consisting of beams of certain lengths. It has specific advan-
tages if the bending moment is not constant over the length of
Fig. 7: A straight beam is loaded by a pure bending moment
the beam. In such cases, the deformed centre line of the beam
M and the deformational response is the radius R. The com-
is not a circle.
mon definition of the beam stiffness uses the reciprocal value
of R,

1
the Curvature K = F

as the deformation parameter. undeformed

stsge
twist angle
The basic relationship of the beam theory for bending, which
is the most important law used in civil engineering in the
analysis for all houses, bridges etc., can be formulated as
I

M = EJK = EJ f
torque
Deformation: Twist: D = $1
introducing the Bending stifiess EJ.

This value can easily be determined by a four point bending

Fig. 9: The definition of stiffness for a rod under pure torsional
test, measuring the radius R of the deformed beam.
load by a torque Mt is completely analogue to the definition

Injury 2000, Vol. 31, Suppl. 2

 S-B18

of stiffness for pure bending. The basic equation for the early on the shear strain y. The material constant is the Shear
load/deformation relationship is here Modulus G (“Material shear stiffness”).
The material equation reads
M, = GJf D = GJt 3
G+
where M, is the Torque (load) and D = ;

is the Twist or torsional angle per unit length (deformation).

The angle 0 is the torsional angle, that means it is the relative

rotation of the two end faces of the rod.

Following this we have for the torsional stijfness

G is the shear modulus of the elastic material.

Jt is the torsional moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area

of the rod. It depends on the shape and main dimensions of
the cross-section. For circular cross-sections, it is identical with
the polar moment of inertia, which is twice the value of the 'LT
moment of inertia ] of a circular cross-section [l]. - +
We see here that this measure of stiffness is independent of the Unloaded Deformed Resultant Local
intervertebral disc shear shear
length of the rod. It depends only on the shear modulus (mate-
rial property) and on the torsional moment of inertia.
disc
force T stress T

Fig. 12: An example of shear loading is the transmission of

A-P forces through the human spine of a standing individual.
The intervertebral discs are the less stiff parts in the chain of
undeformed stage the human vertebrae, they show the greatest local deforma-
twist angle tion.
In this specific case of loading, the A-P force T results in the
distributed shear stress z (“load”) over the end surface of the
disc. This causes tilting of all vertical material “fibres” in the
disc, it can be described by an angulation y , the shear strain
(“deformation”). The factor of proportionality between the two
variables is the shear modulus G of the disc material, the mate-
Deformation: Twist angle: Cl
rial stiffness against shear stresses.
It has to be commented on here that the true shear strain is the
Fig. 10: If we use the torsional angle 8 itself as the deforma-
trigonometric sinus of the angle between two originally per-
tion variable, the definition of torsional stiffness changes to pendicular material lines. But in the case of real structural
s,, = y materials (for instance, cortex), the angular changes under
functional loading below the failure levels are very small.
Therefore, the trigonometric sinus and also tangents can be
In this case, the basic relation for rods under torque load reads
approximately replaced by the angle itself. This is a common
Mt=p e=st2e assumption in engineering calculations on real structures and
the results show an embarrassing accuracy.
I
* 1 . . 1 . I These definitions provide only an incomplete overview.
It is obvious that there are some which are not unique
(bending stiffness, torsional stiffness). They depend on
the definition of the load configuration and on the
selected deformation. Furthermore, in most cases the
direction of the deformation used is identical to the
direction of the “load” used. The following chapter
undeformed deals with different directions and the more common
description of stiffness used in today’s structural
stage * analysis methods (Finite Element Method, FEM).
It is also possible to use a load configuration consist-
ing of more than one force (e.g. two parallel forces or
Fig. 11: Hooke’s law for a material particle under pure she?r
stress z is an example of another basic linear constitutive mate- other combinations of forces and moments). Then
rial equation (see also Fig. 5). The shear stress z depends lin- “load” means a scale factor to this “unit” configuration.
Baumgart: Stiffness in mechanical science
Expanded explanation
The material of the structure is still assumed to be lin-
early elastic.
This means the stress in the structure depends linearly
on the strain. Also all possible deformations depend
then linearly on the “load” as long as they are “small”
in comparison to characteristic dimensions of the struc-
ture or to the dimensionless unit 1.
Therefore, the stifness values defined above are
always constant and independent of load or deforma-
tional variables, and as mentioned before independent
of the time.
The linear relationship between load and deforma-
tion is valid as long as the load configuration remains
unchanged by the deformation (Example: In the case of
HERTZ’ contact problems between two elastic bodies,
the size of the contact area changes due to elastic defor-
mation. This leads to a nonlinear relationship between
load and deformation despite the fact that the material
is linearly elastic! ).
Additionally, we call the behaviour of a material par-
ticle “isotropic” if the deformational response of the par-
ticle to a stress is the same in all directions.
Example: A circular sheet of metal is loaded by a normal
stress parallel to the axis of the cylinder, that means pure
compression.
We can measure the radial expansion (displacement)
of the cylindrical sheet on two arbitrary, different points
of the circumference. If these two values are always the
same, we call the behaviour of the material isotropic, if
they are different we call it anisotropic (Fig. 13).
identical loading by normal stress
Anisotropic material
LJV*Llx
Deformation behavior is different!
Fig. 13: Isotropic and anisotropic behaviour of materials.
Injury 2000, Vol. 31, Suppl. 2
S-B19
Comment: This definition is not sufficient in general
because a material can be found to be “isotropic” by this
test, but it is only isotropic with reference to the axis of
this cylinder, but not with reference to other differently
oriented axes. We call this property “transversally
isotropic with respect to the axis of the cylinder.” But for
a first explanation of the anisotropic effect, this exam-
ple may be useful and impressive.
Fig. 14: In order to visualize the terms “stress”, “strain” and
“anisotropy” applied to biomechanical problems, we must
look into the details of the diaphysis of a tibia1 bone A). It is
well known that the cortex has an orientation in its structure:
Haversian canals helically covered by collagen-hydroxy-
apatite microstructures are oriented in a longitudinal direc-
tion, other structures show a circumferential orientation, and
finally the radial direction is different from the other two.
Without better knowledge, we may assume that these three
local axes are the main axes of the anisotropy of the bone. This
means: Oriented physical properties measured in these three
directions would show three different values.
If we cut a prismatic longitudinal piece of bone out of the tibia
B), we have a piece of a truly so-called orthotropic material in
front of us. If we cut this to an appropriate length C), compa-
rable with the other two dimensions of the prismatic bar, we
have found a representative piece of bone showing locally
anisotropic behaviour.
We can assume that this piece represents the basic local struc-
ture of the bone. The whole bone can be puzzled together from
such pieces. One piece may show different properties com-
pared to others, but the general structure remains the same for
all pieces. Only the values of their typical physical properties
change from piece to piece.
We will now use this typical piece C) to demonstrate the
mechanical terminology of the local stiffness properties. The
local stiffness parameters determine the overall stiffness con-
stants of a structure, even a biological one.

Example: A quadratic disc of fibre reinforced material
with fibre orientation in the x-direction is loaded per-
pendicular to the sheet plane (z direction) by a force F.
Then the sheet shows different displacements u, und uY
in the x and y directions. Its behaviour is anisotropic. In
this special case the material is called orthotropic, which
is an abbreviation of the term “orthogonal anisotropic”
(Fig. 15).
Fig. 15: Stiffness coefficients.
If we use the displacement u, for the definition of stiff-
ness, we get a certain value of stiffness. If we use uY for
the definition of stiffness, the value is different. There-
fore, we have to distinguish two different coeficients of stifi
ness.
If we refer to an anisotropic (but elastic) material, the
definition of stiffness in the above-mentioned sense still
holds but becomes more common and difficult because
we also have to take into consideration the orientation
of the material axes relative to the load configuration that
means load axes. We need stiffness coeficients (not only
one modulus of elasticity) to distinguish the material
axes orientation relative to the load configuration.
In the case of forces and moments acting on structures
or bars (trusses, frameworks), this new aspect causes no
differences in general.
The stiffness matrix
The most common case of “load” acting on a particle of
a material is the stress state. In general, the three-dimen-
sional stress state consists of 6 different components of stress:
- three normal stress components acting perpendicular to
three different planes. The normal stress always acts
parallel to that coordinate axis which is perpendicu-
lar to the reference plane and
- three shear stress components acting in three different
planes.
In each plane two shear stress components act paral-
lel to the two in-plane coordinate axes (Fig. 16).
S-B20
Txx CT
-v = Qx
6 independent stress components
Fig. 16: Stress state on a rectangular particle.
\r Normal stress CJ
L Shear stress T
Fig. 17: Our typical example of a bone piece can be shown by
orientation. The axes x,y,z are chosen parallel to the main
orthotropic axes of the bone as described above.
The physical loading of such a piece, cut (in imagination) from
a real bone, is performed by the stress components acting on
the surfaces of the piece.
There are only two different types of stress:
The normal stress o (red) always and only acts pernendicular
to the addressed surface.
The shear stress r (pink) always and only acts b the addressed
surface. Due to the fact that a surface is a 2-D geometrical
object, a shear stress acting in a plane always has two differ-
ent components, as shown in the picture.
The model has six plane surfaces. Three stress components act
on each surface. Normally, we would assume that there are 18
independent stress components. However, due to the balance
equations for the forces (equilibrium conditions), the three
stress components on opposite surfaces must be identical.
We now only have 9 remaining different components. But due
to the balance equations for the moments, we can conclude
that the shear stresses acting on two orthogonal surfaces but
in the same plane must be the same: e.g. ZZY= ZYZ This pre-
vents rotation of the piece in the three possible planes.
We conclude: The whole stress state around our representa-
tive piece of bone is determined by 6 independent stress com-
ponents: 3 normal stresses and 3 shear stresses.
Baumgart: Stiffness in mechanical science
The use of strain components is the most common
three-dimensional description of local deformation. A
complete analogy to the stress state exists:
There are --
- three direct strain components, which describe the rela-
tive elongation of a particle in the directions of the
three axes of the coordinate system and
- three shear strain components, which each describe the
change of the angles between two edges of the parti-
cle. In the unloaded state, the two edges are perpen-
dicular if we refer to the standard description (Fig. 18).
- 3 axial strain
components
b _ undeformed
3 shear strain
components _ deformed
-angle
Fig. 18: Strain states of a rectangular particle.
In general, each stress component acting on a parti-
cle can cause any of the strain components. That means
6 * 6 = 36 different stifiess coefficients exist.
Strain
L linear “stress vector” s
Fig. 19: This picture shows pure axial strain (tensional strain
[extension] or compression strain [shrinkage]).
We see the unloaded original configuration and the green
deformed configuration of our bone piece. Only the two strain
components in the y-z-plane (perpendicular to the x-axis) have
been drawn.
Inju y 2000, Vol. 32, Suppl. 2
S-B21
Example: The elongation in the z direction is obviously L - c
The original length is .!. The axial strain in the z-direction is
then:
E
z
= L-l
-
1
this means: Change of length divided by original length.
The other component &ycan be determined by analogue cal-
culation using the lengths in the y-direction. The third axial
strain &xmust be found analogue, measuring the lengths in x-
direction in the x-z-plane or in the x-y-plane.
Obviously the strain is a dimensionless geometrical object!
change
Shear strain
Y YZ
I
Fig. 20: Many individuals have difficulty in imagining a shear
deformation. A shear deformation is very easy to understand.
It is the change of the angle between two material lines, which
were originally perpendicular to each other.
It is evident that we can observe only one of these deforma-
tions in each plane.
Part A) again shows the y-z-plane. The total angular defor-
mation in this plane has two parts (a and p). If we turn the
green deformed figure around the point of the angle and bring
one branch into coincidence with the direction of the original
configuration (black line), part B), then the sums of the two
angles become visible and the shear strain yvzis determined.
To achieve a most effective and clear mathematical
description matrix calculus is used.
This means we arrange all 6 stress components to a
 S-l322

and the 6 strain components to a linear “strain vec- A unidirectional fibre-reinforced material is called
tor” e transversaZZy anisotropic. It has 4 independent stiffness
coefficients. It has one axis with rotational symmetry.
r &XX 1 Our definition of stiffness as the relation between
“load” and “deformation” still holds for this matrix

I!
EYY
e= 3 expression. (This means “load” is “stiffness” times
XY
“deformation”.)
&YZ
&zx However, an explicit expression for the stiffness
matrix is not available for mathematical reasons (There
The relationship between the two vectors for a linear is no simple calculus for division of matrices).
elastic and generally anisotropic material is then Theoretically, the stiffness components can be deter-
mined by 6 independent tests where always all stress
s = Ce
components are set to zero except one. All 6 strain com-
where C is a 6*6 matrix. It is called a Material Stifiess ponents can then be measured in each test. From these
Matrix: 36 equations for the 36 stiffness coefficients are avail-
able, which is sufficient. (In practice only 21 coefficients
are really independent in the case of a generally
anisotropic body.)
For materials with special symmetry as mentioned
above, less tests are necessary depending on the num-
ber of independent coefficients.

Plastic material behaviour

The relationship (2) represents
between the 6 stress components
components5.
In the case of an isotropic material, it contains only
two independent components, the modulus of elastic-
ity E and the shear modulus G (2).
The POISSON number v depends on these two
values.
the 6 equations
and the 6 strain If we increase the stress beyond a certain limit (the yield
strength), the material becomes irreversibly changed in
structure, i. e., after removal of the load the deformation
does not go back to zero, but a so-called plastic defor-
mation will remain (Fig. 21).
loading-unloading cycle of’21material
stress
A

EEEOOO flowstress
icE-icooo
EEEOOO
OOOGOO
OOOOGO
_O 0 0 0 0 G :

plastic strain elastic slrain

where (2)

,=1-v Fig. 21: Elastic - plastic material behaviour.

1 2G,
This means the relationship between stress and strain
1

-
V
2G, is non-linear and the definition of stiffness leads to a vari-
E = l-2v able value of “stiffness” which depends on the defor-

E
G = 2(l+v) . 5 The matrix multiplication on the right side of the equation
In the case of an orthotropic material (e.g. a fibre-rein-
forced material where fibres are oriented in three
orthogonal directions), there are 6 independent stiffness
coefficients. There are three axes of bilateral symmetry.
follows the rule that one selected row of the matrix C is
multiplied by the vector e in such a way that the first element
of the row is multiplied by the first element of the vector, the
second element of the row is multiplied by the second
element of the vector and so on. Ail 6 results will then be
summed up and deliver that element in the s vector which
is located at the position of the selected matrix row.
Baumgart: Stifiess in mechanical science S-B23

mation. Therefore, it is in general not reasonable to use

the definition “stiffness” in the plastic range of a mater-
ial.

This also means:

If a non-linear behaviour between load and defor-
mation can be observed in stiffness tests, parts of the
structure become plastically deformed. Then the defin-
ition of stiffness has to be discussed. Normally the ini-
tial elastic range of the structure in the case of low load
levels can be used to define the stiffness.

Conclusions

The “science” of stiffness obviously becomes quite

difficult if a general view is requested.
But if the definition is consistently applied, difficulties in
understanding should not occur. A clear description of the
kind and configuration of the load and deformation is always
required.
In most cases of use of the term “stifiess”, we should be
aware that only a special stiffness coefficient is addressed.

Reference

1. ROARK’s Formulas for Stress and Strain, 6th Ed., New

York: Warren C.Young, McGraw-Hill International, 1989.

injury 2000, Vol. 31, Suppl. 2

ELSEVIER Injury, Int. J. Care Injured 3 I (2000) S-B72-S-B96

A theory is something that nobody believes,

Experimentelle Biomechanik: Teil II except its author.

An experiment is something that eveybody believes,

Mechanik des Materials except its author.

(Der National Academy of Sciences,
Washington DC zugeschrieben)

Einleitung: Grundlegende
nitionen der Mechanik
J. Cordey, Dipl. Phys., Dr. SC.
A0 Forschungsinstitut, Clavadelerstr.,
CH-7270 Davos Platz
Konzepte und Defi- chanik werden mehrere unterschiedliche Definitionen
von Steifigkeit verwendet, aber nicht alle liefern ange-
messene Erkltirungen fiir einen mit der biomechani-
schen Terminologie nicht allzu vertrauten Leser.
Dieser Artikel stellt Beispiele fiir spezifische Defini-
tionen vor, die sich auf die Basisdefinition der Steifig-
keit einer belasteten Struktur griinden:

Zusammenfassung &teifigkeib, = (<Last), geteilt durch c<Verformung)).

Diese Einleitung zielt darauf ab, Klinikern die grundle-
genden Begriffe der Mechanik von Materialien nahe-
zubringen. Was geschieht, wenn ein Knochen (vom
Mechanischen her gesehen ein Tr;iger) normalen Bela-
stungen ausgesetzt ist: Zentrische Axiallast, Biegung,
exzentrische Axiallast, Drehmoment? Wie verformt sich
der Knochen? Die grundlegenden Begriffe der Mecha-
nik werden unter Verwendung eines Radiergummis
unter Last als Anschauungsobjekt prgsentiert, wobei
versucht wird, die mathematischen Formeln so weit wie
m6glich beizubehalten.
SchliisselwGrter: Mechanik, Knochen,
Stress, Dehnung, lineare Biegungstheorie
Steifigkeit - eine unbekannte Welt innerhalb
der Mechanik?
F. Baumgart
A0 Technische Kommission, Clavadelerstrasse,
CH-7270 Davos Platz
Zusammenfassung
&teifigkeit>> ist ein Begriff, der zur Beschreibung der
notwendigen Kraft verwendet wird, urn eine bestimmte
Verformung einer Struktur zu erreichen. In der Biome-
Diese Definition beinhaltet automatisch, dass die
(<Verformung), durch die in der Formel genannte crLastj>
verursacht wird.
Es gibt unendlich viele Konfigurationsm6glichkeiten
fiir eine auf eine Struktur einwirkende c(Last), (Kr;ifte,
Momente, Spannungen, beliebige Krgftegruppen usw.),
und es gibt ebenfalls unendlich viele Punkte an der
Struktur, an denen die Verformung (Verschiebung, Deh-
nung, Winkel, Radien, Biegung usw.) gemessen werden
kann. Daher erfordert der Terminus &teifigkeib) einer
Struktur immer eine exakte Beschreibung der Lastkon-
Material, figuration sowie die exakte Lokalisierung und Art der
gemessenen Verformung. Sonst kijnnen die gemesse-
nen oder errechneten Werte nicht mit den Ergebnissen
anderer Autoren verglichen werden.
Ein Fixateur externe reagiert auf unterschiedliche funk-
tionelle Kr;ifte (Axialkraft, Biegemoment, Drehmoment)
mit unterschiedlichen Verformungen (axiale Verschie-
bung, verschiedene Winkel, Dehnung usw.). In Abhgn-
gigkeit von der Auswahl der Verformungen kiinnen v61-
lig verschiedene Steifigkeitswerte ermittelt werden.
Eine Definition der Steifigkeit als konstante Eigen-
schaft einer Struktur ist nur fiir solche Strukturen sinn-
~011, die ganz aus linear-elastischem Material bestehen.
Dieser Artikel illustriert die Interpretation von ver-
schiedenen speziellen Steifigkeitsdefinitionen in der
Literatur und verwendet eine einfache Regel zur Kon-
trolle der angewendeten Steifigkeitsdefinition.

SchliisselwBrter: Torsionssteifigkeit, Biegesteifigkeit,

1 ijbersetzung ins Deutsche: Petra Schwab-Telleria, Materialsteifigkeit, strukturelle Steifigkeit, Steifigkeits-
Pamplona, Spanien matrix, Lastkonfiguration

OOZO-1383/00/$ - see front matter 0 2000 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

La biomkcanique expkrimentale: Deuxi&me partie
Introduction P la mhcanique:
Concepts de base et definitions
J. Cordey, Dr SC Phys
Institut de recherche AO, Clavadelerstrasse,
CH-7270 Davos Platz
RCsume
Cet expose des concepts de base de la mkanique des
materiaux est une introduction pratique pour cliniciens.
Que se passe-t-i1 lorsqu’un OS (en mkcanique une
poutre) est soumis B des charges standard: charge axiale
centree, flexion, charge axiale excentrke, torsion? Com-
ment un OS se dkforme-t-il? Les idles de base du genie
mkanique sont illustrt+es B partir d’une gomme que l’on
soumet B une charge en maintenant autant que possible
les formules mathkmatiques.
Mots cl& mkcanique, OS, matkriaux, stress, tension,
theorie de la flexion linbaire
La raideur: un monde mCconnu de la science
mkanique?
F. Baumgart
Commission technique AO, Clavadelerstrasse,
CH-7270 Davos Platz
R&urn6
La ccraideur,) correspond &la force necessaire B la defer-
mation d’une structure. Si, en biomkanique, plusieurs
dkfinitions sont utilikes pour dkcrire la raideur, toutes
ne sont pas toujours clairement expliquees, surtout pour
des lecteurs peu familiers des termes spkcialisks. Cet
2 Traiduit de l’anglais par G. G. Pope, Rennes, France
S-B76
Une the’orie est une chose b laquelle
personne ne croif sauf Ihufeur.
Une expt?ience est une chose b laquelle
tout le monde croit sauf l’auteur.
(Attribube ?I 1’AcadCmie nationale
des sciences, Washington DC)
article presente des exemples de definitions spkifiques
issues de la dkfinition de base de la raideur d’une struc-
ture mise en charge:
(<Raideur,j = <Charge>) / ~<Dkformatiorw,
oh la c<Dkformatiorw est la conskquence de la (Charge,).
11 existe un nombre illimite de configurations pos-
sibles de la <Charge>> (forces, moments, tensions,
groupes arbitraires de force, etc.) agissant sur une struc-
ture et egalement un nombre illimitk de points de la
structure oh l’on peut mesurer la dkformation (dkpla-
cement, fatigue, angles, rayons, courbure, etc.). En
con&quence, appliquk ?I une structure, le terme c<Rai-
deur,, doit toujours correspondre a une description
exacte de la configuration de charge et prkciser la loca-
lisation et le type de deformation. Sans cette prkcision,
les valeurs mesurt?es ou calculkes par diffkrents auteurs
ne sont pas cornparables.
Un fixateur externe rkagit aux diffkrentes forces fonc-
tionnelles (force axiale, moment de flexion, moment de
torsion) en imposant differentes d&formations (dkpla-
cement axial, plusieurs angles, fatigue, etc). En fonction
des deformations choisies, onpeut dkterminer plusieurs
valeurs de raideur.
En tant que propri&! d’une structure, une definition
de raideur n’a de sens que pour les structures entike-
ment formkes de materiaux B elasticit linkaire.
Cet article est une aide B la comp&hension des diffk-
rentes dkfinitions de raideur presentes dans la lit&a-
ture et propose une regle simple pour valider la dkfini-
tion de raideur utilisee.
Mots cl&: raideur, torsion, flexion, raideur des mate-
riaux, raideur structurale, matrice de raideur, configu-
ration de charge
 S-B80

Una teoria 12qualcosa in cui nessuno crede,

Biomeccanica sperimentale: Parte II eccetto il suo autore.

Un esperimento k qualcosa in cui tutti credono,

Meccanica dei material3 eccetto il suo autore.

(Attribuito all’Accademia Nazionale
delle Scienze, Washington, D.C.)

Introduzione: suna di esse 6 spiegata adeguatamente a quei lettori the

Concetti di base e definizioni
J. Cordey, Fisico
A0 Research Institute, Clavadelerstr.,
CH-7270 Davos Platz
nella meccanica non hanno troppa familiarit& con la terminologia bio-
meccanica.
Quest0 lavoro fornisce degli esempi di definizioni
specifiche basate sulla definizione di base della rigi-
dezza di una struttura sottoposta a un carico.

&igidezza>, = cCarico,> diviso per c<Deformazione)),

Riassunto
Quest’introduzione ha lo scope di esporre ai medici le
idee di base della meccanica dei materiali. Che cosa suc-
cede quando un osso (da1 punto di vista meccanico una
trave) viene sottoposto a carichi standard: carico assiale
centrico, eccentrico, torsione? Come si deforma l’osso?
Vengono presentate le idee di base dell’ingegneria mec-
canica usando una gomma sotto carico come esempio
illustrativo, cercando di ricorrere quanto meno possi-
bile alle formule matematiche.
Parole chiave: meccanica, osso, materiali, sforzo,
deformazione, teoria della flessione lineare
Rigidezza - un mondo sconosciuto della
scienza meccanica?
F. Baumgart
A0 Technical Commission, Clavadelerstr.,
CH-7270 Davos Platz
Riassunto
&igidezza,> 12un termine usato per descrivere la forza
necessaria ad ottenere una certa deformazione di una
struttura. Nel mondo della biomeccanica, vengono
usate parecchie definizioni diverse di rigidezza, manes-
una definizione the presuppone automaticamente
the la c<Deformazione>) 6 creata da1 Xarico,) indicate
nella formula.
C’G un numero infinito di possibili configurazioni di
Karico>> (forze, momenti, sforzi, gruppi arbitrari di
forze, etc.) the agiscono su una struttura e c’i! anche un
numero infinito di possibili punti nella struttura, in cui
pui, essere misurata la deformazione (spostamento,
estensione, angoli, raggi, curvatura, etc.). Pertanto il ter-
mine CXigidezzax, di una struttura richiede sempre un’e-
satta descrizione della configurazione de1 carico e l’e-
satta localizzazione e l’esatta indicazione de1 tipo di
deformazione misurato. Altrimenti, i valori misurati o
calcolati non possono essere paragonati con i risultati di
altri autori.
Un fissatore esterno reagisce a forze funzionali
diverse (forza assiale, moment0 flettente, torsione) con
deformazioni diverse (spostamento assiale, vari angoli,
estensione, etc.). A seconda della scelta della deforma-
zioni, possono essere determinati parecchi valori di rigi-
dezza.
Una definizione di rigidezza come proprieth costante
di una struttura P sensata solo per le strutture the con-
sistono interamente di materiali elastici lineari.
Quest0 lavoro ha lo scope di cercare di far compren-
dere le diverse definizioni di rigidezza nella letteratura
scientifica e fornisce una regola semplice per il control10
della definizione di rigidezza applicata.

Parole chiave: rigidezza alla torsione, rigidezza alla

flessione, rigidezza de1 materiale, rigidezza strutturale,
3 Traduzione italiana a cura di Antonio Pace, Milano, Italia matrice di rigidezza, configurazione de1 carico.

Biomechica experimental: Parte II
Mechica de materialesg
Introduccih:
Conceptos bhicos y definiciones de mechica.
J. Cordey, Dipl. Fisica, Dr. en Ciencias
Instituto de Investigation de AO, Clavadelerstr.,
CH-7270 Davos Platz
Resumen
Esta introduccibn pretende explicar 10s conceptos basi-
cos de la mecanica de materiales a 10s medicos. iQu6
Swede cuando un hueso (desde el punto de vista
mecanico, una viga) es sometido a cargas estandar:
carga axial centrica, flexion, carga axial excentrica,
moment0 de torsion? iCorn se deforma el hueso? Los
conceptos bdsicos de la ingenieria me&mica son pre-
sentados utilizando una goma bajo carga coma objet0
ilustrativo, intentando recurrir lo menos posible a las
formulas matembticas.
Palabras clave: mecanica, hueso, materiales, esfuerzo,
deformation, teoria de la flexion lineal
La rigidez: jun mundo desconocido
dentro de la mechnica?
F. Baumgart
Comision Tecnica de AO, Clavadelerstrasse,
CH-7270 Davos Platz
Resumen
El termino ccrigidez,, se emplea para describir la fuerza
necesaria para conseguir una determinada deformation
de una estructura. En el mundo biomecanico se utilizan
4 Traducci6n al espafiol realizada por ijbersetzergruppe
Ziirich, Suiza, Pace RiquC
S-B84
Urn teori’a es nlgo en lo que nadie tree,
salvo su nutor.
Un experimento es algo en 20 que todo el mundo tree,
salvo su a&or.
(Atribuido a la Academia National
de Ciencias, Washington DC)
varias definiciones distintas de rigidez, pero no todas
ellas se han explicado adecuadamente a 10s lectores
menos familiarizados con la terminologia biomecdnica.
En este trabajo se ofrece una serie de ejemplos para
definiciones concretas que estan basados en la defini-
cion basica de rigidez de una estructura bajo carga.
&igidez,, = Kargax> dividida por c~Deformaciom~,
una definicibn de la que automaticamente se deduce
que la c~Deformaci6r-w es creada por la Karga” a la que
hate referencia la formula.
Existe unnumero infinito de posibles configuraciones
de (Carga” (fuerzas, momentos, esfuerzos, grupos arbi-
trarios de fuerzas, etc.) que pueden actuar sobre una
estructura y, ademas, existe un numero infinito de posi-
bles puntos de la estructura en 10s que la deformation
(desplazamiento, alargamiento, bngulos, radios, cur-
vatura, etc.) puede ser medida. Por lo tanto, el termino
ccrigidez” de una estructura siempre requiere la descrip-
cibn exacta de la configuration de fuerzas y la exacta
localization y tipo de la deformation medida. Si no se
hate asi, 10s valores medidos o calculados no podran ser
comparados con 10s de otros autores.
Un fijador externo frente a una serie de fuerzas fun-
cionales distintas (fuerza axial, moment0 flector,
moment0 de torsion) reacciona con diferentes tipos de
deformacibn (desplazamiento axial, distintos angulos,
alargamiento, etc.). Dependiendo de la deformacibn,
pueden determinarse varios valores de rigidez.
Dar una definition de rigidez coma propiedad con-
stante de una estructura solo tiene sentido en el case de
estructuras constituidas en su totalidad por materiales
linealmente elasticos.
Este trabajo aporta datos para la comprension de dis-
tintas definiciones de rigidez que existen en la literatura
y ofrece una regla sencilla para controlar la definicidn
de rigidez aplicada.
Palabras clave: rigidez torsional, resistencia a la flex-
ion, rigidez de1 material, rigidez estructural, matriz de
rigidez, configuration de cargas