Part a

.1.b
2.b
3.b
4.c
5.d
6.b
7.d
8.a
9.c
10.c
11.b
12.
13.
14.a
15.c

Part b

16.A)LAN MAN PAN

LAN
local area network, or LAN, consists of a computer network at a single site, typically an
individual office building. A LAN is very useful for sharing resources, such as data storage and
printers. LANs can be built with relatively inexpensive hardware, such as hubs, network
adapters and Ethernet cables.

The smallest LAN may only use two computers, while larger LANs can accommodate
thousands of computers. A LAN typically relies mostly on wired connections for increased speed
and security, but wireless connections can also be part of a LAN. High speed and relatively low
cost are the defining characteristics of LANs.

LANs are typically used for single sites where people need to share resources among
themselves but not with the rest of the outside world. Think of an office building where
everybody should be able to access files on a central server or be able to print a document to
one or more central printers. Those tasks should be easy for everybody working in the same
office, but you would not want somebody just walking outside to be able to send a document to
the printer from their cell phone! If a local area network, or LAN, is entirely wireless, it is referred
to as a wireless local area network, or WLAN.

MAN
A metropolitan area network, or MAN, consists of a computer network across an entire city,
college campus or small region. A MAN is larger than a LAN, which is typically limited to a
single building or site. Depending on the configuration, this type of network can cover an area
from several miles to tens of miles. A MAN is often used to connect several LANs together to
form a bigger network. When this type of network is specifically designed for a college campus,
it is sometimes referred to as a campus area network, or CAN.

PAN
personal area network (PAN) is a computer network for interconnecting devices centered on an
individual person's workspace. A PAN provides data transmission amongst devices such as
computers, smartphones, tablets and personal digital assistants. PANs can be used for
communication amongst the personal devices themselves, or for connecting to a higher level
network and the Internet (an uplink) where one master device takes up the role as gateway. A
PAN may be carried over wired interfaces such as USB.

A wireless personal area network (WPAN) is a low-powered PAN carried over a short-distance
wireless network technology such as IrDA, Wireless USB, Bluetooth and ZigBee. The reach of a
WPAN varies from a few centimeters to a few meters.
16.B)Explain the OSI model with examples of each layer.
Layer 7 - Application
To further our bean dip analogy, the Application Layer is the one at the top - it’s what most
users see. In the OSI model, this is the layer that is the “closest to the end user”. Applications
that work at Layer 7 are the ones that users interact with directly. A web browser (Google
Chrome, Firefox, Safari, etc.) or other app - Skype, Outlook, Office - are examples of Layer 7
applications.

Layer 6 - Presentation
The Presentation Layer represents the area that is independent of data representation at the
application layer - in general, it represents the preparation or translation of application format to
network format, or from network formatting to application format. In other words, the layer
“presents” data for the application or the network. A good example of this is encryption and
decryption of data for secure transmission - this happens at Layer 6.

Layer 5 - Session
When two devices, computers or servers need to “speak” with one another, a session needs to
be created, and this is done at the Session Layer. Functions at this layer involve setup,
coordination (how long should a system wait for a response, for example) and termination
between the applications at each end of the session.

Layer 4 – Transport
The Transport Layer deals with the coordination of the data transfer between end systems and
hosts. How much data to send, at what rate, where it goes, etc. The best known example of the
Transport Layer is the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which is built on top of the Internet
Protocol (IP), commonly known as TCP/IP. TCP and UDP port numbers work at Layer 4, while
IP addresses work at Layer 3, the Network Layer.

Layer 3 - Network
Here at the Network Layer is where you’ll find most of the router functionality that most
networking professionals care about and love. In its most basic sense, this layer is responsible
for packet forwarding, including routing through different routers. You might know that your
Boston computer wants to connect to a server in California, but there are millions of different
paths to take. Routers at this layer help do this efficiently.

Layer 2 – Data Link

The Data Link Layer provides node-to-node data transfer (between two directly connected
nodes), and also handles error correction from the physical layer. Two sublayers exist here as
well - the Media Access Control (MAC) layer and the Logical Link Control (LLC) layer. In the
networking world, most switches operate at Layer 2.
Layer 1 - Physical
At the bottom of our OSI bean dip we have the Physical Layer, which represents the electrical
and physical representation of the system. This can include everything from the cable type,
radio frequency link (as in an 802.11 wireless systems), as well as the layout of pins, voltages
and other physical requirements. When a networking problem occurs, many networking pros go
right to the physical layer to check that all of the cables are properly connected and that the
power plug hasn’t been pulled from the router, switch or computer

17.A)Differentiate between UDP and TCP/IP.

The network scanner supports TCP and UDP. Here is some information about TCP and UDP
and the differences between the different protocols.

General
Both TCP and UDP are protocols used for sending bits of data — known as packets — over the
Internet. They both build on top of the Internet protocol. In other words, whether you are sending
a packet via TCP or UDP, that packet is sent to an IP address. These packets are treated
similarly, as they are forwarded from your computer to intermediary routers and on to the
destination.

TCP and UDP are not the only protocols that work on top of IP. However, they are the most
widely used. The widely used term “TCP/IP” refers to TCP over IP. UDP over IP could just as
well be referred to as “UDP/IP”, although this is not a common term.

TCP
TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol. It is the most commonly used protocol on the
Internet.

When you load a web page, your computer sends TCP packets to the web server’s address,
asking it to send the web page to you. The web server responds by sending a stream of TCP
packets, which your web browser stitches together to form the web page and display it to you.
When you click a link, sign in, post a comment, or do anything else, your web browser sends
TCP packets to the server and the server sends TCP packets back. TCP is not just one way
communication — the remote system sends packets back to acknowledge it is received your
packets.

TCP guarantees the recipient will receive the packets in order by numbering them. The recipient
sends messages back to the sender saying it received the messages. If the sender does not get
a correct response, it will resend the packets to ensure the recipient received them. Packets are
also checked for errors. TCP is all about this reliability — packets sent with TCP are tracked so
no data is lost or corrupted in transit. This is why file downloads do not become corrupted even
if there are network hiccups. Of course, if the recipient is completely offline, your computer will
give up and you will see an error message saying it can not communicate with the remote host.

UDP
UDP stands for User Datagram Protocol — a datagram is the same thing as a packet of
information. The UDP protocol works similarly to TCP, but it throws all the error-checking stuff
out. All the back-and-forth communication and deliverability guarantees slow things down.

When using UDP, packets are just sent to the recipient. The sender will not wait to make sure
the recipient received the packet — it will just continue sending the next packets. If you are the
recipient and you miss some UDP packets, too bad — you can not ask for those packets again.
There is no guarantee you are getting all the packets and there is no way to ask for a packet
again if you miss it, but losing all this overhead means the computers can communicate more
quickly.

UDP is used when speed is desirable and error correction is not necessary. For example, UDP
is frequently used for live broadcasts and online games.
17.B) Diffferentiate wired LAN and wireless LAN?
WLAN vs LAN

LAN stands for Local Area Network, which is a collection of computers and other network
devices in a certain location that are connected together by switches and/or routers that
facilitate the communication of the network elements. Each computer or network element is
connected to the switches/routers via a UTP cable. The added letter in WLAN stands for
wireless. This is a type of network where the data is not transmitted via cables but over the air
through the use of wireless transmitters and receivers.

WLANs are deployed in areas where a wide number of computers may connect to the network
but not at the same time. Places like coffee shops often add WLAN to their shops to entice more
customers who do not stay for extended periods. Even at home where you have a somewhat
fixed number of computers that connect to the network, WLAN is also preferred as it gives users
the freedom to move around the house and carry their laptops with them without needing to fuss
with cables. For areas where the computers are pretty much fixed, a wired LAN is very desirable
due to the advantages that it offers.

First off, a wired LAN is much faster compared to a WLAN. Most wireless routers nowadays are
limited to a theoretical maximum speed of 54mbps while a contemporary wired LAN has a
bandwidth of 100mbps. Gigabit network equipment can even ramp this up to 1000mbps or
1Gbps. This might not be such a big issue for browsing the internet or sending email but when
you are copying large files, it can take a while with a WLAN.

1. LAN refers to a wired network while WLAN is used to refer to a wireless network.

2. LAN is commonly used in fixed networks while WLAN is common in areas where computers
are moved quite often.

3. WLAN is more convenient to users compared to LAN.

4. LAN is much faster compared to WLAN.

5. LAN is more secure compared to WLAN.

18.A)Explain the use of IP address and subnetting?

IP address

In the most widely installed level of the Internet Protocol (IP) today, an IP address is a 32-bit
number that identifies each sender or receiver of information that is sent in packets across the
Internet. An IP address has two parts: the identifier of a particular network on the Internet and
an identifier of the particular device (which can be a server or a workstation) within that network.
Each device must know its own IP address and the IP address of the device with which it needs
to communicate (source and destination). To communicate on the Internet, every organization
must have at least one valid Internet IP address. This unique network number is included in any
packet sent out of the network onto the Internet. In addition to the network address or number,
information is needed about which specific machine or host in a network is sending or receiving
a message. So the IP address needs both the unique network number and a host number
(which is unique within the network)

Subnetting

Subnetting is the logical segmentation of a network address space into segments that are
appropriate for the size of an organization's internal networks, improving address allocation
efficiency. It is described in Request for Comments 950 (RFC 950) and is tightly linked to IP
addresses, subnet masks, and CIDR notation.

An IP address is divided into two fields: a Network Prefix (also called the Network ID) and a
Host ID. The default point that separates the Network Prefix and the Host ID depends on
whether the address is a Class A, Class B or Class C address. Figure 1 shows an IPv4 Class B
address, 172.16.37.5. Its Network Prefix is 172.16.0.0, and the Host ID is 37.5.

The subnet mechanism uses a portion of the Host ID field to identify individual subnets. Figure 2
shows the third octet of the 172.16.0.0 network being used as a Subnet ID. A subnet mask is
used to identify the part of the address that should be used as the Subnet ID. The subnet mask
is applied to the full network address using a binary AND operation, resulting in the Subnet ID.
In the binary AND operation, only when two bits are both 1, the result is 1 (1 AND 1 = 1).

18.B)Explain the following Routers,Bridges,Switches and Hub.

Hub – A hub is basically a multiport repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from
different branches, for example, the connector in star topology which connects different stations.
Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices. In other words,
collision domain of all hosts connected through Hub remains one. Also, they do not have
intelligence to find out best path for data packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.

3. Bridge – A bridge operates at data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on functionality
of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of source and destination. It is also used for
interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol. It has a single input and single output
port, thus making it a 2 port device.

4. Switch – A switch is a multi port bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its
efficiency(large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. Switch is data link layer
device. Switch can perform error checking before forwarding data, that makes it very efficient as
it does not forward packets that have errors and forward good packets selectively to correct
port only. In other words, switch divides collision domain of hosts, but broadcast domain
remains same.

5. Routers – A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP
addresses. Router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and
WANs together and have a dynamically updating routing table based on which they make
decisions on routing the data packets. Router divide broadcast domains of hosts connected
through it.

19.A). Explain ISDN and Broadband

Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network (B-ISDN) is a standard for transmitting voice data
and video at the same time over fiber optic telephone lines. Boadband ISDN can support data
rates up to 2 Mbps which is an improvement on the original ISDN bandwidth rate of 64Kbps or
128Kbps when using both connections. The B-ISDN was envisaged to run over ATM carrying
both the synchronous voice and the asynchronous data on the same transport bearer.

One of the underlying motives to develop ISDN was to provide subscribers with a wide variety of
services direct to their home. These included video telephony, video surveillance, high speed
Internet, High Definition TV, and these services would require delivery at different bit rates and
with different time constraints. For example video and TV have greater time constraints’ than
data. B-ISDN over ATM was considered a good fit as ATM could handle various contracts
based on the service required. The only problem was that ATM had a small payload size of only
48KB and an overhead of 5 Bytes making it an extensive transport protocol. I.E. 5/53 x 100/1 =
9.9% overhead.
19.B)Explain two routing algorithms with examples

Routing algorithms can be divided into two groups:

i. Nonadaptive algorithms:

For this type of algorithms, the routing decision is not based on the measurement or estimations
of current traffic and topology.
However the choice of the route is done in advance, and known as static routing.
ii. Adaptive algorithms:

For these algorithms the routing decision can be changed if there are any changes in topology
or traffic etc.
This is called as dynamic routing.

The examples of static algorithms are:

i. Shortest path routing:

Given a network topology and a set of weights describing the cost to send data across each link
in the network
Find the shortest path from a specified source to all other destinations in the network.

D. The arrows indicate the working node

Shortest path algorithm first developed by E. W. Dijkstra

a. Mark the source node as permanent.

b. Designate the source node as the working node.

c. Set the tentative distance to all other nodes to infinity.

d. While some nodes are not marked permanent

Compute the tentative distance from the source to all nodes adjacent to the working node. If this
is shorter than the current tentative distance replace the tentative distance of the destination
and record the label of the working node there. Examine ALL tentatively labelled nodes in the
graph. Select the node with the smallest value and make it the new working node. Designate
the node permanent.

ii. Flooding:

In this algorithm every incoming packet is sent out on every outgoing line except the line on
which it has arrived.
One disadvantage of flooding is that it generate a large number of duplicate packets. In fact it
produces infinite number of duplicate packets unless we somehow dump the process.
Therefore, we use selective flooding.
In this algorithm every incoming packet is not sent out on every output line.
Instead packet is sent only on those lines which are approximately going in the right direction.
iii. Flow Based Routing

Flow-based routing uses network topology, traffic matrices, and capacity matrices to determine
static routes.
For example in figure below,there is always a huge traffic from A to B and/or B to D.

Then the traffic from A to D should not be routed through B.

Instead route it through ACFED even though it is a longer path than ABD. This is called flow
based routing.
The example of Dynamic Routing Algorithms are:

i. Distance vector Routing Algorithm

In this algorithm, each router maintains a table called vector, such a table gives the best known
distance to each destination and the information about which line to be used to reach there.
In this, we assume that each router knows the identity of every other router in the network, but
the shortest path to each router is not known.
ii. Count to Infinity problem:

Consider a linear subnet of Figure 4.4 which has five nodes. The delay metric used is the number of hops.

Assume that A is initially down and that all the other routers know this. So all the routers have recorded
that the delay to A is infinity.
When A becomes OK, the other routers come to know about it via the vector exchanges. Then suddenly a
vector exchanges at all the routers will take place simultaneously.
At the time of first vector exchange, B comes to know that its left neighbor has a zero delay to A. So as
shown in Figure 4.4.B makes an entry in its routing table that A is one hop away to the left.
All the other routers still think that A is down. So in the second row of Figure 4.4, the entries below C D
E are ∞
On the Second vector exchange, C comes to know that B has a path of 1 hop length to A, so C updates its
routing table and indicates a path of 2 hop length. But D and E do not change their table entries.

iii. Link State Routing

The link state routing is simple and each router has to perform the following operations

Each router should discover its neighbours and obtain their network addresses.
Then it should measure the delay or cost to each of these neighbours.
It should construct a packet containing the network addresses and the delays of all the
neighbours.
Send this packet to all other routers
Compute the shortest path to every other router.
Sometimes the network becomes so large that the size of the router table becomes excessively
large and practically it becomes impossible for every router to have an entry for every other
router. Then the hierarchical routing such as the one used in telephone networks should be
adopted.
20.B)Explain DHCP,ICMP and DNS
DNS

Domain Name System (or Service or Server), an Internet service that translates domain names
into IP addresses. Because domain names are alphabetic, they’re easier to remember. The
Internet however, is really based on IP addresses. Every time you use a domain name,
therefore, a DNS service must translate the name into the corresponding IP address. For
example, the domain name www.example.com might translate to 198.105.232.4.

The DNS system is, in fact, its own network. If one DNS server doesn’t know how to translate a
particular domain name, it asks another one, and so on, until the correct IP address is returned.

Working
Computers and other network devices on the Internet use an IP address to route your request to
the site you’re trying to reach. This is similar to dialing a phone number to connect to the person
you’re trying to call. Thanks to DNS, though, you don’t have to keep your own address book of
IP addresses. Instead, you just connect through a domain name server, also called a DNS
server or name server, which manages a massive database that maps domain names to IP
addresses.

Whether you’re accessing a Web site or sending e-mail, your computer uses a DNS server to
look up the domain name you’re trying to access. The proper term for this process is DNS name
resolution, and you would say that the DNS server resolves the domain name to the IP address.
For example, when you enter “http://www.howstuffworks.com” in your browser, part of the
network connection includes resolving the domain name “howstuffworks.com” into an IP
address, like 70.42.251.42, for HowStuffWorks’ Web servers.

You can always bypass a DNS lookup by entering 70.42.251.42 directly in your browser (give it
a try). However, you’re probably more likely to remember “howstuffworks.com” when you want
to return later. In addition, a Web site’s IP address can change over time, and some sites
associate multiple IP addresses with a single domain name.

Without DNS servers, the Internet would shut down very quickly. But how does your computer
know what DNS server to use? Typically, when you connect to your home network, Internet
service provider (ISP) or WiFi network, the modem or router that assigns your computer’s
network address also sends some important network configuration information to your computer
or mobile device. That configuration includes one or more DNS servers that the device should
use when translating DNS names to IP address

Q.20(A).Explain the difference between packet switching and circuit switching

Definition of Circuit Switching

Circuit Switching establishes a physical path between the sender and receiver of the message
before a message is delivered. When a connection is established between a sender and a
receiver, the entire message travels through the established path from sender to the receiver.
Once the message is delivered to the receiver, the source informs the network about the
completion of transmission and all the switches released. Then the link and other connecting
devices are used to set up another connection.

Circuit switching is always implemented at the Physical Layer. Circuit switching can be
explained with an example of a telephone conversation. In a telephone conversation, once a
connection is established, between a caller and the receiver, it remains connected, till the whole
conversation is finished and both the caller and receiver hang up their phone. The Circuit
switching is not appropriate for data transmission because data is transmitted in spurts (stream)
and the line remains idle for most of the times and hence, the bandwidth is wasted. Circuit
Switching can be implemented using two technologies either Space Division Switching or Time
Division Switching.

Definition of Packet Switching

Packet Switching is connectionless as it doesn’t establish any physical connection before the
transmission starts. In packet switching before the message is transmitted, it is divided into
some manageable parts called packets. These packets are routed one by one from source to
destination. In packet switching, each packet may follow a different route to reach the
destination. Packets arrived at the destination are out of order but, they are assembled in order
before the destination forward it to the upper layer.

Packet Switching is always implemented at the Network Layer. Packet switching has two
approaches Datagram Approach and Virtual Circuit Approach. In Datagram Approach each
packet is independent of other though they belong to the same message and may also choose
a different path to reach the destination. In Virtual Circuit Approach, the relationship between
the packets that belong to the same message is preserved as the packet are not independent of
each other, and all the packets that belong to a particular message follow the same route to
travel to the destination.