Design and Development of Manually Pedal PDF

Design and Development of Manually Pedal-Operated
Grain Thresher Machine
A Final Year Project Submitted to Department of Mechanical Engineering, College

of Engineering and Technology, Aksum University
In partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of
Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering
(Mechanical Design Stream)
By
Meron Mekonen
Project Advisor
Equbay Leake (MSc. in Mechanical Design)
June 2013
Design and Development of Manually Pedal-Operated Grain Thresher machine 2013
Acknowledgement
I have taken efforts in this project. However, it would not have been possible without the kind
support and help of my Lord who gave me patience in doing this final project and many
individuals. I would like to extend my sincere thanks to all of them.
I would like to express my deepest appreciation to my final year project advisor Mr. Equbay
Leake (MSc. in Mechanical design) for his guidance and constant supervision as well as for
providing necessary information regarding the project & also for his support in completing this
project in different aspects.
I would like to express my gratitude towards my family for their kind co-operation and
encouragement which help me in completion of this project.
My thanks and appreciations also go to my colleague in developing the project and people who
have willingly helped me out with their abilities and moral support.
ii By Meron Mekonen, Mechanical Engineer from Aksum University

Table of content
Contents page
Acknowledgement .......................................................................................................................... ii
Table of content ............................................................................................................................. iii
List of Figurers ............................................................................................................................... iv
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. v
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... vi
Chapter one ..................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1. Overview of the project ................................................................................................ 2
1.1.2. Objective of the project ................................................................................................ 3
1.2. Background of Threshing .................................................................................................... 4
1.2.1. Type of threshing methods and threshers ..................................................................... 6
1.2.2. Disadvantage and limitation of threshers ..................................................................... 8
1.2.3. Motivation .................................................................................................................... 9
1.2.4. Methodology............................................................................................................... 10
Chapter two ................................................................................................................................... 11
2.1. Design of pedal operated grain thresher machine .............................................................. 11
2.2. Embodiment design using solid modeling software (CATIA) .......................................... 11
2.3. Detail design of basic components .................................................................................... 13
2.3.1. Design of spring.......................................................................................................... 13
2.3.2. Design of spur gear ..................................................................................................... 26
2.3.3. Design of pulley, belt and drum shaft......................................................................... 38
CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 46
3.1. Result and Discussion ........................................................................................................ 46
Conclusions and Recommendations ............................................................................................. 51
i. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 51
ii. Recommendation ............................................................................................................... 51
Reference ...................................................................................................................................... 52
Appendix ....................................................................................................................................... 53
iii By Meron Mekonen, Mechanical Engineer from Aksum University

List of Figurers
Figure page
Figure 1-1: - A bicycle-powered drum thresher ............................................................................. 5
Figure 2-1: - Picture of the threshing drum .................................................................................. 12
Figure2-2: - compression and tension helical spring .................................................................... 14
Figure 2-3: - Conical and volute spring ........................................................................................ 15
Figure 2-4: - Helical and spiral torsion spring .............................................................................. 16
Figure 2-5: - laminated or leaf spring ........................................................................................... 16
Figure 2-6: - disc or bellevile spring ............................................................................................. 17
Figure 2-7: - compression spring nomenclature ........................................................................... 19
Figure 2-8: - end connection for compression helical spring ....................................................... 20
Figure 2-9: - loaded helical compression spring ........................................................................... 21
Figure 2-10: - spur gear in two parallel shafts .............................................................................. 27
Figure 2-11: - single and double helical gear in two parallel shafts ............................................. 27
Figure 2-12: - bevel gear in two intersecting shafts ...................................................................... 28
Figure 2-13: - spiral gear in two non-intersecting shafts .............................................................. 28
Figure 2-14: - external gearing ..................................................................................................... 29
Figure 2-15: - internal gearing ...................................................................................................... 30
Figure 2-16: - rack and pinion gear............................................................................................... 30
Figure 2-17: - terms used in gears................................................................................................. 32
Figure 2-18: - cross-section of V-belt and V-grooved pulley ....................................................... 39
Table 2-6: - proportions of standard parallel, tapered and gib headed keys ................................. 45
Figure 3-1: - Assembly drawing of the manually pedal operated grain thresher.......................... 47
Figure 3-2: - Isometric view of the machine in 2D drawing......................................................... 48
Figure 3-3: - Lower cover and gear spring of the machine........................................................... 49
Figure 3-4: - spur gear of the machine .......................................................................................... 49
Figure 3-5: - Gear box of the machine .......................................................................................... 50
iv By Meron Mekonen, Mechanical Engineer from Aksum University

List of Tables
Table page
Table 2-1: - Mechanical properties for various spring materials .................................................. 18
Table 2-2: - Total number of turns, solid length and free length of spring................................... 21
Table 2-3: - Recommended series of modulus ............................................................................. 32
Table 2-4: - Gear profile (dimensions) values .............................................................................. 37
Table 2-5: - Dimensions of standard V-grooved pulleys .............................................................. 44
Table 2-6: - proportions of standard parallel, tapered and gib headed keys ................................. 45
Table 3-1: - material, quantity used in the manually pedal-operated grain thresher .................... 48
v By Meron Mekonen, Mechanical Engineer from Aksum University

Abstract
Thresher machine is one of the agricultural machines that are used to separate the harvested grain
from its stalk by hitting the stalk with rotary drum that have blade on it. The machine has a
number of different components such as vertical stand frame (bars), horizontal bars, and gear
driving pinion gear inside the gear box that is used to drive the whole system to operate, attached
to pulleys, shafts, drum and spring. These components are faced to different type of loads and
forces like shear force, compressive and tensile loads. The dimensions of and materials of the
vertical and horizontal frames or bars were determining by assumption of an operator medium
height. And the dimensions of the main parts like rack gear and spur gear and also the spring is
determined by analyzing it to maximum bending, deflection and shear stress and loads produced
on each of them. The pinion driving gear’s material and profile had been determined by
designing due to the generated torque from the operator applied force.
The material for most of the components of this machine except for the pulleys, shafts and gears
was supposed to be an iron for its availability.
The vertical and bars and some horizontal bars are made of angle iron (L shape) with dimension
of standard from manufacturing at the length of 1000 mm and the horizontal bar has length of
600 mm, the gear has pitch diameter of 68 mm, module of 7, pressure angle of 20 0 full depth
and 10 and 40 number of teeth.
vi By Meron Mekonen, Mechanical Engineer from Aksum University

Chapter one
1.1. Introduction
Threshing is an integral part of postharvest activities for cereal and legume crops or grain. In
many developing countries, threshing is carried out manually by farmers that lead to low quality
of paddy rice and grain loss. When the rice or grain production increases, consequently the
manual threshing becomes arduous. In order to mechanize this process, a throw-in type thresher
JEP based on a prototype of a thresher made by IRRI (International Rice Research Institute) was
designed and tested. The wind board was modified after testing to enhance threshing quality.
Also, in place of welding the whole machine is joined by bolts, nuts and rivets for easy
assembling and disassembling. Output capacity from the performance test on the machine was
316 kg/hr at a moisture content of 21%wb (wet base). This could attain 350-400 kg/hr when
both, the speed and the feeding speed increase. The overall results are impressive and it will help
improve drudgery and threshing challenges with small scale farmers.
Cereals are the first cultivated grasses belonging to the Poaceae family. The popular cereal crops
in the world include wheat, barley, oats, rice, maize, sorghum, and millets. Whereas the major
cereal corps in the developing countries are maize, rice, sorghum, and millet.
Harvesting constitutes a major operation among agricultural activities and differs according to
the part of the plant to be harvested. A number of small, medium, and large threshers have been
in existence for quite a long time. But due to the fact that they have low and poor performance in
comparison with the traditional methods they have not been adopted to a significant extent.
Some of them are hand-held threshers and others are pedal operated ones. As it is explained
above, threshing is a major aspect that is usually carried out after harvesting of grain crops. This
involves the beating of the grains from the stalk.
This paper deals with the development and design of a grain threshing machine. Available
evidence suggests that the mode of threshing rice in the rural areas in developing countries is by
traditional use of hand beating of the paddy or using animals. This method is time consuming,
energy sapping and often it breaks the grains. In this paper, the developed and designed grain
thresher machine has the ability to winnow the premature grains and leaves, which are often
1 By Meron Mekonen, Mechanical Engineer from Aksum University

lighter in weight. Thus, this will leave aside the massy grains from being collected. It is also
capable of reducing time wastage, reduction in breakage of the grains and separation of the stalk
from the grains. In addition, it is clear that, from the design calculation, the total manpower
required to comb off the grains from stalk is only two people.
1.1.1. Overview of the project

This project is a final year project for my undergraduate study of Mechanical Engineering. I was
motivated to do this project because I have seen the traditional method of threshing from rural
areas which I grew in. I proposed the title, scope, objective and description of this project to
Mechanical Engineering Department and the department accepted it. Then after I started it to
develop and design.
So the project deals on development and design of manual operated thresher machine which
mainly used for paddy rice and wheat. This machine boasts a reasonable design, excellent
manufacturing, easy operation method and low energy requirement that are from human being.
The operation method is by pressing the rack gear which is manually operated.
It is a low cost machine used for efficient threshing of paddy or grain (removal of grains from the
stalk) with reduced labor input and grain loss in crop residue. The Thresher machine is operated
by one or two people’s power. It completely separates paddy or grains from the straw. The
threshing capacity of this machine is 150Kg/hr paddy or grain. This capacity of the machine is
measured when it is compared with the traditional method of threshing. The approximate
capacity of the traditional threshing method is 35Kg/hr. The traditional threshing method is
performed by moving over animals on the harvested grains or beating the harvested grains by
stick using hand. It is a hold-on type open thresher and cheap in price.
The feature of this manually operated grain thresher machine is small in size, light in weight,
high efficiency, easy for operation and maintenance. It is widely used in mountainous areas, hilly
and inaccessible areas for harvesters and that do not have the power of electricity. Users can use
it at yard or move it in fields if it is needed. It has been a great favorite with farmers.

1.1.2. Objective of the project

The main objective of this project work is to design and develop a manually operated grain
thresher machine that can be easily manufactured locally from available local materials. Then
after it will replace the old traditional threshing process we use nowadays which was modified
by chine’s manufactures.
So this needs to know the current Ethiopia’s technology and available standard mechanical
machine components to synthesize and develop this machine. In doing this the problems of
material handling at different local areas for this threshing machine will be minimized. This is
necessary as the existing threshers are randomly modified without considering more on material
strength and some design considerations.

1.2. Background of Threshing

The sheaves of wheat are carried to the threshing floor manually or on the backs of animals like
camel donkeys and bullock. Tractor trolleys and bullock carts are mostly used for transporting
harvested wheat crop to the threshing floor where they are spread out to dry in the sun and wind
for a few days. The threshing and separation of the grain from the straw is done in a variety of
ways. The wheat crop may be beaten with sticks or trampled by a bunch of animals. Animals
may be used to draw a wheat bundle/stone roller over the thick layer of harvested wheat crop. As
an alternative, implement consisting of a series of steel disks may be used. In some locales, a
tractor may be repeatedly driven over the wheat stack spread on the threshing floor.
The tractor-drawn thresher and self-propelled harvester combine causes the least grain
contamination, but are capital intensive solutions. Farmers, who cultivate only one or two
hectares a season, hire small threshers, which are, light enough to be carried from one field to
another by two people. Pedal or motor-driven mechanical threshers have been devised. One type
has a revolving drum with projecting teeth that strip off the grain when a sheaf of wheat is held
against the moving surface.
After threshing, the straw is stacked around the threshing floor, and used as animal feed,
bedding, cooking fuel, to make sun-dried bricks, or compost. The wheat grain will be
contaminated with pieces of straw chaff, broken grains, stones, and dirt when it is spread on the
threshing floor for further drying.
Labor saving schemes are employed in some farming communities. An old and simple
improvement in threshing is to beat a sheaf of wheat and the grain heads against a low wall, an
oil drum, or a wagon bed. This method is more efficient than trampling as the grains fall into a
container or onto a woven mat. Small quantities are threshed but are less likely to become
contaminated.
In many developing countries manpower is shifting from cereal production to cash crops or to
industry causing a dearth of manpower in the urban areas. However, by tradition, the whole
family participates in the harvesting and threshing process together with borrowed or hired labor.

Women also join in these activities. In places where mechanical harvesters are used women do
not participate. Labor prefers to be paid in kind than in cash. In typical communities, the farmers
share resources of the village. Manpower reciprocates labor in the harvesting and threshing
schedule. Whenever threshing is by bullocks, the community shares the threshing floor and
animals.
Tractor-driven threshers and at times combine harvesters are used. The design and maintenance
of the thresher are central to reducing the broken grain percentage. Threshing using animals is
also common in many areas of world. Several animals continuously walk around a pole to crush
The first pedal-power drum thresher machine which I have taken the picture from the internet is
simple and easy to operate manually as shown in figure 1-1. Basically, it is clear from the figure
that a bicycle is hooked up to a utility-wire spool. The spool is inside a collection bin of some
sort and is studded with xd (ex dividend) nails, pounded in every two or three inches. One
person pedals, which causes the drum to spin, while another person holds the grain heads against
the drum. The nails pull seeds out of the grain heads relatively quickly you can thresh about 40
pounds or18 kilogram of grain in an hour with the DIY (do it yourself) thresher.
Figure 1-1: - A bicycle-powered drum thresher

1.2.1. Type of threshing methods and threshers

After being harvested paddy bunches may be stacked on the plot. This in-field storage method
results in a pre-drying of the rice or grain before threshing. This purpose is to separate seeds
from panicles that cover the seed. There are different types of threshing methods. These are:
i. Traditional threshing
The traditional threshing of rice and grain is generally made by hand. A bunches of panicles are
beaten against a hard element (e.g., a wooden bar, bamboo table or stone) or with a flail. The
outputs are 10g to 30kg of grain per man-hour according to the variety of rice or grain and the
method applied. The grain losses produced is an amount of 1-2%, or up to 4% when threshing is
performed excessively late. This means some un-threshed grains can also be lost around the
threshing area.
In many countries of the world, the crop is threshed by being trodden underfoot by humans or
animals. The output of this method is 30kg to 50kg of grain per man hour. The same method, but
using a vehicle such as tractor or lorry is also commonly applied. The vehicle is driven in circles
over the paddy bunches as these are thrown on to the threshing area like 15m to 20m in diameter
around the stack. The output is a few hundred kilograms per hour. This method results in some
losses due to the grain being broken or buried in the earth.
ii. Mechanized threshing
From a historical viewpoint, threshing operations were mechanized earlier than harvesting
methods, and were studied throughout the 18th century. Therefore, two main types of stationary
threshing machines have been developed. These machines are through-flow and axial-flow
thresher machines.
The machines of Western design are known as 'through-flow' threshers because stalks and ears
pass through the machine. They consist of a threshing device with pegs, teeth or loops, and it has
a more complex models. They use cleaning-winnowing mechanism based upon shakers, sieves
and centrifugal fan. The capacities of the models from European manufacturers (e.g., Alvan

Blanch, Vicon, Borga) or tropical countries (Brazil, India, etc.) range from 500 to 2000kg per
hour.
In the 70s, IRRI developed an axial-flow thresher which has been widely manufactured at local
level. In Thailand such thresher machine was manufactured where several thousands of its units
have been put into use. It is generally mounted on Lorries and belongs to contractors working
about 500 hours per year.
More recently, a Dutch company, VOTEX, has developed a small mobile thresher machine
provided with either one or two threshers. The machine has been widely adopted in many rice
growing areas. The simple design and work rates of these machines is about 500kg per hour.
This seems to meet the requirements of rural communities.
The 'hold-on' thresher machine of Japanese design is so-called because the bundles are held by a
chain conveyor which carries them and presents only the panicles to the threshing cylinder by
keeping the straw out. According to the condition of the crop, work rates can range between
300kg and 700kg per hour (Iseki model). The main disadvantage of these machines is their
fragility.
iii. Combined harvesting and threshing methods
Combine-harvesters, as the name implies, combine the actions of reaping and threshing. Either
the 'through-flow' or the 'hold-on' principle of threshing may be employed, but the reaping action
is basically the same. The main difference is that combine-harvesters of the Western ('through-
flow') type are equipped with a wide cutting bar (4-5m) while the working width of the Japanese
('hold-on') units is small (1m). According to the type of machine used, and especially to their
working width, capacities range from 2 to 15 hours per hectare.
Such machines are being increasingly used in some tropical countries. In the Senegal River delta
region, private contractors or farmers' organizations have recently acquired combine harvesters,
mainly of the Western type (Massey Ferguson, Laverda, etc.). So, almost 40% of the Delta
surface area is harvested with a pool of about 50 units. Between 200 and 300 hectares of winter

rice are mechanically harvested. In this region the popularity of combine harvesters is high
despite their poor suitability for some small-sized fields.
In Brazil, several manufacturers have adapted machines to rice growing conditions by

substituting tracks for wheels; some machines are simple mobile threshers equipped with cutter
bars.
In Thailand, local manufacturers have recently transformed the IRRI thresher into a combine
harvester so as to reduce the labor requirement. The unit can harvest 5 hectares per day and
seems to have been rapidly adopted.
1.2.2. Disadvantage and limitation of threshers

Threshers have disadvantages and limitations even though their advantage is better. Even if we
see from the early type of threshing machines we can figure out some limitations and
disadvantages in their threshing process.
There are also limitations on the traditional process of threshing while we observe the machines
during field work and even from their design and manufacturing process. Some of the
disadvantages and limitations of the thresher are:
 It needs or consume more time (traditional threshing)
 It requires maximum cost for labor (in traditional threshing)
 It requires maximum cost for the machines (for mechanized threshing) that is spent
for fuel, spare parts like tire, blade and other related parts found in the machine.
 It requires more space for threshing floor of the mechanized threshing process
 It may occur some injuries
 There may be some loss of grains
 There may be a contamination of product etc…

1.2.3. Motivation
Mechanical Engineering was my first choice when I joined to Aksum University. The reason for
my choice from the second my feet touch to Aksum university is because I want to create
something that help our feeders the most powerful farmers by producing a machine that increase
their productivity and produce more products in short period of time.
As most of you know, our country’s farmers are nowadays suffering from their production. They
use their maximum effort but their production is small because of their way of farming and
harvesting. Threshing process is also one part after harvesting. It needs also improvement for the
framers to have good result from their effort.
So I select this machine from what I observed and the above listed limitations and advantages I
have tried myself to solve these limitations by designing and developing this pedal operated
grain thresher machine.
The need to design and develop manually pedal operated grain thresher machine is mainly arises
from:
 The need for deeply design of traditionally manufactured local thresher machine. This
would help to replace the popular and existing traditional way of threshing on the
threshing floor in Ethiopia.
 Since I thought that this machine is important for the farmers who live in rural part of the
country especially who do not have enough money to offer the big mechanized threshing
machine.
 The need to make sure that all the components of the thresher machine should be safe and
capable to resist the load that applied on it by selecting appropriate material and stress
analysis. So that the poor farmers of the country will use it safely.
 The interest I have to solve the problem of poor farmers of the country in harvesting their
products, I decided my final year project to be designing and developing of this machine.

1.2.4. Methodology
The manual (pedal) operated grain thresher machine helps to thresh grain and it has main parts so
in order to design and develop it I followed this methodology and procedure. These are:
 Selection of material which will not contaminate or easily rust.
 Selection of easy pressing moveable mechanism.
 Development of the pedal operated thresher.
 Design different type of gears.
 Design of drum.
 Design of belts and pulleys.
 Preparation of manufacturing drawing.
 And finally, preparation of 3D model of the machine using CATIA software.

Chapter two
2.1. Design of pedal operated grain thresher machine
Grain thresher machine is used to thresh grains from it stalk. Now in this paper its basic
components are designed to perform its intended purpose. In order to design the components it is
first necessary to develop its embodiment design.
2.2. Embodiment design using solid modeling software (CATIA)
2.2.1. Threshing drum

This component of the machine is one of the main most use full next to the ear box. It uses to
separate the grain from stalk.
It is made up or collection of: -
i. Drum: - two drums which are drilled on their edge having the number of holes 8 for each
drum separated at 45 degree. These holes are used to attach the drum blade using bolt.
ii. Drum blade: - an angle iron, sharpened at one end edge. These sharp edges help for the
threshing operation and make it easy.
iii. Drum shaft: - support the drum and transfer the rotary motion developed from the gear box
by connecting the two pulleys found in the gear box and the threshing drum.
Features of this component

 Less weight
 No need of nails
 Can easily separate the grain from its stalk
 Can easily rotate
 Maintenance is easy and can be done in short period of time for assembling and
disassembling
 Long life time
 Safe for use and operation since it has upper cover

Figure 2-1: - Picture of the threshing drum
2.2.2. Gear box

The gear box we are going to use here in this manually pedal operated grain thresher machine is
a collection of helical spring, spur gear, and rack gear.
i. The operation system is: - as we apply an axial force on the rack gear and this will
compress the spring, as the spring compresses the teeth of the rack gear come in contact
with spur gear and start to rotate o operate the whole system.
Features of this component: -

 The gear is made up of polymers this help to
 Protect the gear from
 Corrosion
 Wear
 Contamination

 Light in weight
 No more use of lubricants (negligible)
 No noise
2.3. Detail design of basic components

The thresher machine has a number of components but all do not need a serious analysis. There
are only some basic components such as the gear, rake, spring and frictional wheel which needs
detail design.
Detail design of basic components means determining of the major dimensions of the basic
components of the manually pedal-operated grain thresher machine which are subjected to
critical loads. So in order to determine the size, types of material, the force distribution on each
component, the part has to be identified clearly. Therefore, to do so the different geometries
should first be determined by considering the given specifications. This allows to calculate the
stress induced on each component and to check the strength of the machine component in
particular the machine in general.
2.3.1. Design of spring
A spring is defined as an elastic body, whose function is to distort when it is loaded and to
recover its original shape when the load is removed from it. In this machine the spring helps to
restore the force and return the rake back to its original position. There are also various numbers
of important applications of a spring. These are listed as follows:
 To cushion, absorb or control energy due to either shock or vibration as in car springs,
railway buffers, air-craft landing gears, shock absorbers and vibration dampers.
 To apply forces, as in brakes, clutches and spring loaded valves.
 To control motion by maintaining contact between two elements as in cams and
followers.
 To measure forces, as in spring balances and engine indicators.
 To store energy, as in watches, toys, etc.

2.3.1.1. Types of spring
There are different types of springs. They can be categorizing according to their shape so these
are the followings.
i. Helical spring
The helical springs are made up of a wire coiled in the form of a helix and are primarily intended
for compressive or tensile loads. The cross-section of the wire from which the spring is made
may be circular, square or rectangular. The two forms of helical springs are compression helical
spring as shown in Figure 2-2(a) and tension helical spring as shown in Figure 2-2 (b).
Figure2-2: - compression and tension helical spring

The helical springs are said to be closely coiled when the spring wire is coiled so close that the
plane containing each turn is nearly at right angles to the axis of the helix and the wire is
subjected to torsion. In other words, in a closely coiled helical spring, the helix angle is very
small; it is usually less than 10°. The major stresses produced in helical springs are shear stresses
due to twisting. The load applied is parallel to or along the axis of the spring. In open coiled
helical springs, the spring wire is coiled in such a way that there is a gap between the two
consecutive turns, as a result of which the helix angle is large. Since the application of open
coiled helical springs are limited, therefore our discussion shall confine to closely coiled-helical
springs only.
The helical springs have the following advantages:

These are easy to manufacture.
These are available in wide range.

These are reliable.

These have constant spring rate.
Their performance can be predicted more accurately.
Their characteristics can be varied by changing dimensions.
ii. Conical and volute springs
The conical and volute springs, as shown in Figure 2-3, are used in special applications where a
telescoping spring or a spring with a spring rate that increases with the load is desired. The
conical spring, as shown in Figure 2-3 (a), is wound with a uniform pitch whereas the volute
springs, as shown in Figure 2-3 (b), are wound in the form of parabolic with constant pitch and
lead angles.
Figure 2-3: - Conical and volute spring

The springs may be made either partially or completely telescoping. In either case, the number of
active coils gradually decreases. The decreasing number of coils results in an increasing spring
rate. This characteristic is sometimes utilized in vibration problems where springs are used to
support a body that has a varying mass. The major stresses produced in conical and volute
springs are also shear stresses due to twisting.
iii. Torsion springs
These springs may be of helical or spiral type as shown in Figure 2-4. The helical type torsion
spring, figure 2-4 (a), may be used only in applications where the load tends to wind up the
spring and are used in various electrical mechanisms. The spiral type torsion spring, figure 2-4

(b) is also used where the load tends to increase the number of coils and when made of flat strip
are used in watches and clocks. The major stresses produced in torsion springs are tensile and
compressive due to bending.
Figure 2-4: - Helical and spiral torsion spring
iv. Laminated or leaf springs
The laminated or leaf spring which is also known as flat spring or carriage spring, consists of a
number of flat plates which are known as leaves with various lengths held together by means of
clamps and bolts as shown in Figure 2-5. These are mostly used in automobiles. The major
stresses produced in leaf springs are tensile and compressive stresses.
Figure 2-5: - laminated or leaf spring
v. Disc or bellevile springs
These springs consist of a number of conical discs held together against slipping by a central bolt
or tube as shown in Figure 2-6. These springs are used in applications where high spring rates
and compact spring units are required. The major stresses produced in disc or bellevile springs
are tensile and compressive stresses.

Figure 2-6: - disc or bellevile spring
vi. Special purpose springs
These springs are air or liquid springs, rubber springs, ring springs etc. The fluids (air or liquid)
can behave as a compression spring. These springs are used for special types of application only.
2.3.1.2. Material for Helical Springs
The material of the spring should have high fatigue strength, high ductility, high resilience and it
should be creep resistant. It largely depends upon the service for which they are used i.e. severe
service, average service or light service.
- Severe service means rapid continuous loading where the ratio of minimum to maximum
load or stress is one-half or less, as in automotive valve springs.
- Average service includes the same stress range as in severe service but with only
intermittent operation, as in engine governor springs and automobile suspension springs.
- Light service includes springs subjected to loads that are static or very infrequently varied,
as in safety valve springs.
The springs are mostly made from oil-tempered carbon steel wires containing 0.60 to 0.70
percent carbons and 0.60 to 1.0 per cent manganese. Music wire is used for small springs. Non-
ferrous materials like phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, monel metal, brass etc., may be used
in special cases to increase fatigue resistance, temperature resistance and corrosion resistance.
Table 2-1 shows the values of allowable shear stress, modulus of rigidity and modulus of
elasticity for various materials used for springs.
The helical springs are either cold formed or hot formed depending upon the size of the wire.
Wires of small sizes with diameter less than 10 millimeters are usually wound cold whereas

larger size wires are wound hot. The strength of the wires varies with size; smaller size wires
have greater strength and less ductility, due to the greater degree of cold working.
Table 2-1: - Mechanical properties for various spring materials
Material Allowable shear stress ( ) MPa Modulus of Modulus of
Sever Average Light rigidity elasticity
service service service (G ) kN / m 2 ( E ) kN / mm 2
Carbon steel
(a) Up to 2.125 mm dia 420 525 615
(b) 2.125 to 4.625 mm 385 483 595
(c) 4.625 to 8.00 mm 336 420 525
(d) 8.00 to 13.25 mm 294 364 455
(e) 13.25 to 24.25 mm 252 315 392 80 210
(f) 24.24 to 38.00 mm 224 280 350
Music wire 392 490 612
Oil tempered wire 336 420 525
Hard-drawn spring wire 280 350 437.5
Stainless-steel wire 280 350 437.5 70 196
Monel metal 196 245 306 44 105
Phosphor bronze 196 245 306 44 105
Brass 140 175 219 35 100
2.3.1.3. Terms used in Compression Springs
The following terms used in connection with compression springs are important from the subject
point of view.
i. Solid length: - When the compression spring is compressed until the coils come in contact
with each other, then the spring is said to be solid. The solid length of a spring is the
product of total number of coils and the diameter of the wire. Mathematically, the solid
length, L s of the spring can be obtained as:

Ls  n' d where n'  total numberof coils

d  diameter of the wire
ii. Free length: - The free length of a compression spring as shown in Figure 2-7 is the length
of the spring in the free or unloaded condition. It is equal to the solid length plus the
maximum deflection or compression of the spring and the clearance between the adjacent
coils when fully compressed.
Figure 2-7: - compression spring nomenclature
Mathematically, the free length, L f of the spring can be calculated as:
L f  Ls   max  0.15 max where  max is max imum compression

L f  n' d   max  0.15 max 0.15 max is clearnce between adjacentcoils or clash allowance
The following relation may also be used to find the free length of the spring, i.e.
L f  n' d   max  (n'1) *1mm
In this expression, the clearance between the two adjacent coils is taken as one millimeter.
iii. Spring index: - The spring index, C is defined as the ratio of the mean diameter of the coil
to the diameter of the wire. Mathematically it can be expressed as:
CD d where D is mean diameter of the coil
iv. Spring rate: - The spring rate, stiffness or spring constant, k is defined as the load required
per unit deflection of the spring. Mathematically it is calculated as:
k W  where W is load and  is deflection of the spring
v. Pitch: - The pitch of the coil is defined as the axial distance between adjacent coils in
uncompressed state. Mathematically the pitch, p of the coil is expressed as:
Free length L f
p 
n'1 n'1
The pitch of the coil may also be obtained by using the following relation.

L f  Ls
p d
n'
In choosing the pitch of the coils, the following points should be noted:
 The pitch of the coils should be such that if the spring is accidently or carelessly
compressed, the stress does not increase the yield point stress in torsion.
 The spring should not close up before the maximum service load is reached.
It is necessary to note in designing a tension spring, the minimum gap between two coils when
the spring is in its free state should be taken as one millimeter. Thus the free length of the spring
could be calculated as:
L f  n' d  (n'1)
2.3.1.4. End Connections for Compression Helical Springs
The end connections for compression helical springs are suitably formed in order to apply the
load on it. So the various forms of end connections are shown in figure 2-8.
Figure 2-8: - end connection for compression helical spring

In all springs, the end coils produce an eccentric application of the load, increasing the stress on
one side of the spring. Under certain conditions, especially where the number of coils is small,
this effect must be taken into account. The nearest approach to an axial load is secured by
squared and ground ends, where the end turns are squared and then ground perpendicular to the
helix axis. It may be noted that part of the coil which is in contact with the seat does not

contribute to spring action and hence are termed as inactive coils. The turns which impart spring
action are known as active turns.
As the load increases, the number of inactive coils also increases due to seating of the end coils
and the amount of increase varies from 0.5 to 1 turn at the usual working loads. The following
table 2-2 shows the total number of turns, solid length and free length for different types of end
connections.
Table 2-2: - Total number of turns, solid length and free length of spring
Type of end Total number of Solid length Free length

turns (n' )
1. Plain ends n (n  2)d p*n  d
2. Ground ends n n* d p*n
3. Squared ends n2 ( n  3) d p * n  3d
4. Squared ends and ground ends n2 (n  2)d p * n  2d
2.3.1.5. Stresses in Helical Springs of Circular Wire
Consider a helical compression spring made of circular wire and subjected to an axial load, W as
shown in figure 2-9 (a).
Figure 2-9: - loaded helical compression spring

Now consider a part of the compression spring as shown in figure 2-9 (b). It is the free body
diagram showing that wire is subjected to torsional shear and a direct shear. The load W tends to
rotate the wire due to the twisting moment, T set up in the wire. Thus torsional shear stress  1 is
induced in the wire.
A little consideration will show that part of the spring, as shown in figure 2-9 (b), is in
equilibrium under the action of two forces W and the twisting moment T . We know that the
twisting moment is expressed as:
WD 1 d 3
T 
2 16
8WD
1 
d 3
In addition to the torsional shear stress  1 induced in the wire, the following stresses also act on
the wire. These are direct shear stress due to the load, W and stress due to curvature of wire. We
know that direct shear stress,  2 due to the load.
load
2 
Cross  sec tional area of the wire
W 4W
2  
 d 2
d2
4
In order to solve and analyze the stress there are some considerations to be remember or just.
Therefore, during the spring design we took an initial point to design some components.
Allowable shear stress,  all of spring material that is made up of music wire with modulus of
rigidity, G and modulus of elasticity E for severe service are given:

 all  392MPa G  80KNm 2 E  196KNmm 2
n6 d  5mm D  50mm
The axial weight, w applying over the spring due to the mass, m of the operator is
w  mg  35kg * 9.81m / s 2
w  343.35N  345N
The solid length of the spring can be calculated when the end condition is assumed to be squared
ends and ground ends of helical spring with number of turns n' 8 .

Ls  n' d  (n  2)d
Ls  8 * 5mm  40mm
The spring index can be obtained from the given data for the spring and coil diameter as:
D 50mm
C   10
d 5mm
The maximum compression would be obtained as:
8WC 3 n 8 * 345 *103 * 6
 max    41.4mm
Gd 80 * 5 *1000
Therefore, the free length of the spring is then
L f  Ls   max  0.15 max
L f  40  41.4  0.15 * 41.4
L f  87.61mm
The pitch of the spring is calculated from free length and number of turns.
Lf 87.61
p   12.51mm
n'1 8 1
The spring constant or spring rate k can be calculated from the load and deflection of the spring,
 which is equal to the pitch of the spring:
W 345
k   8.33N / mm
 12.51
The twisting shear stress and direct shear stress induced on the spring are calculated as follow:
8WD 8 * 345 * 50
1    351.4 N / mm 2
d 3
5 3
4W 4 * 345
2    17.57 N / mm 2
d 2
5 2
Therefore, the resultant shear stress,  is the sum up of the two shear stresses induced on the
spring. It is calculated as:
   1   2  351.4  17.57
  368.9 N / mm 2
It is also possible to find the stress factor, k s
1 1
ks  1   1  1.05
2C 2 * 10

Wahl’s stress factor, k w is also calculated as
4C  1 0.615
kw  
4C  4 C
4 * 10  1 0.615
kw    1.145
4 * 10  4 10
The stress concentration factor, k c due to the curvature is obtained from the stress factor and
Wahl’s stress factor as follow:
k w 1.145
kc    1.09
ks 1.05
In order to consider the effects both direct shear stress, twisting shear stress and curvature of the
wire a Wahl’s stress factor and other stress factors may be used to find the final induced
maximum shear stress,  max on the wire of the spring.
 max  k w k s k c
 max  1.145 *1.05 *1.09 * 368.9
 max  483.6 N / mm 2
Since the maximum shear stress induced is less than the shear stress of the material selected for
the spring, the spring is safe for design of shear force. The twisting moment, T is then obtained
from the following expressing.
 max d 3  * 483.6 * 5 3
T   11870.24Nmm
16 16
The active length, L of the wire used for the spring is obtained from the length of the one round
coil of the spring and the active number of the coil turns in the spring.
L  Dn   * 50 * 6  942.5mm
The angular deflection,  and axial deflection,  of the spring can be calculated based on the
maximum deflection,  max and diameter, D of the spring.
2 max 2 * 41.1
   1.644 radians
D 50
D 1.644 * 50
   41.1mm
2 2
Stiffness of spring or spring rate has been already calculated in other approach but if we check
with this approach and compare it is the previous one they are the same.

W Gd 4 345
k    8.4 N / mm
 max 3
8D n 41.1
In order to find the critical axial buckling load, W cr that compress the spring, the buckling
factor, k b should be determined from the free length and diameter of the spring.
Lf 87.61
kb    1.75  2
D 50
The buckling factor is therefore, now determined from a table to be k b  0.63
The axial critical buckling load on the spring is calculated as:
Wcr  kkb L f  8.4 * 0.63 * 87.61
Wcr  463.6 N
The outer diameter of the spring D0 is calculated as:
D0  D  d  50  5  55mm
Energy U store in the spring due to the storing behavior of the spring is calculated as follow:
1 1
U  W max  * 345 * 41.1
2 2
U  7089.75watt
Volume V of spring can be calculated using the following expression.
 d 2    * 52 
V  Dn    * 50 * 6 
 4   4 
V  18505.5mm 3

2.3.2. Design of spur gear
In precision machines, in which a definite velocity ratio is important as in watch mechanism, the
only positive drive is by gears or toothed wheels. A gear drive is also provided, when the
distance between the driver and the follower is very small.
The motion and power transmitted by gears is kinematically equivalent to power that is
transmitted by frictional wheels or discs. Gears and frictional wheels have some difference. The
following are the advantages and disadvantages of gear drive as compared to other drives such as
belt, rope and chain drives.
The advantages are:
It transmits exact velocity ratio.
It may be used to transmit large power.
It may be used for small centre distances of shafts.
It has high efficiency.
It has reliable service.
It has compact layout.
The disadvantages are:
Since the manufacture of gears requires special tools and equipment, it has high cost
when compared to other drives.
The error in cutting teeth may cause vibrations and noise during operation.
It requires suitable lubricant and reliable method of applying it for the proper operation of
gear drives.
2.3.2.1. Classification of Gears
The gears or toothed wheels may be classified according different approaches. These approaches
are discussed as follows:
i. According to the position of axes of the shafts
The axes of the two shafts between which the motion is to be transmitted may be:
(a) Parallel
(b) Intersecting, and
(c) Non-intersecting and non-parallel.

The two parallel and co-planar shafts connected by the gears are shown in figure 2-10. These
gears are called spur gears and the arrangement is known as spur gearing. These gears have teeth
parallel to the axis of the wheel as shown in figure 2-10. A pair of spur gears is kinematically
equivalent to a pair of cylindrical discs, keyed to a parallel shaft having line contact.
Figure 2-10: - spur gear in two parallel shafts

Another name given to the spur gearing is helical gearing, in which the teeth are inclined to the
axis. The single and double helical gears connecting parallel shafts are shown in figure 2-11 (a)
and (b) respectively. The object of the double helical gear is to balance out the end thrusts that
are induced in single helical gears when transmitting load. The double helical gears are known as
herringbone gears.
Figure 2-11: - single and double helical gear in two parallel shafts

The two non-parallel or intersecting but coplanar shafts connected by gears are shown in
following figure 2-12. These gears are called bevel gears and the arrangement is known as bevel
gearing. The bevel gears like spur gears may also have their teeth inclined to the face of the
bevel in that case they are known as helical bevel gears.
Figure 2-12: - bevel gear in two intersecting shafts

The two non-intersecting, non-parallel and non-coplanar shafts connected by gears are shown in
figure 2-13. These gears are called skew bevel gears or spiral gears and the arrangement is
known as skew bevel gearing or spiral gearing. This type of gearing also has a line contact, the
rotation of which about the axes generates the two pitch surfaces known as hyperboloids.
Figure 2-13: - spiral gear in two non-intersecting shafts

It is necessary to point out that when equal bevel gears having equal teeth connect two shafts
whose axes are mutually perpendicular, and then the bevel gears are known as mitres. A
hyperboloid is the solid formed by revolving a straight line about an axis not in the same plane,
such that every point on the line remains at a constant distance from the axis. The worm gearing
is essentially a form of spiral gearing in which the shafts are usually at right angles.

ii. According to the peripheral velocity of the gears
The gears, according to the peripheral velocity of the gears, may be classified as:
(a) Low velocity: - the gears having velocity less than 3 m/s are termed as low velocity
(b) Medium velocity: - gears having velocity between 3 and 15 m/s are known as medium
velocity gears
(c) High velocity: - if the velocity of gears is more than 15 m/s, then these are called high
speed gears
iii. According to the type of gearing
The gears can be classified according to the type of gearing they have into three. These are:
a) External gearing: - in external gearing, the gears of the two shafts mesh externally with
each other as shown in figure 2-14. The larger of these two wheels is called spur wheel or
gear and the smaller wheel is called pinion. In an external gearing, the motion of the two
wheels is always unlike.
Figure 2-14: - external gearing

b) Internal gearing: - in internal gearing the gears of the two shafts mesh internally with
each other as shown in figure 2-15. The larger of these two wheels is called annular
wheel and the smaller wheel is called pinion. In an internal gearing the motion of the
wheels is always like as shown in figure 2-15.

Figure 2-15: - internal gearing

c) Rack and pinion: - sometimes the gear of a shaft meshes externally and internally with
the gears in a straight line. Such a type of gear is called rack and pinion. The straight line
gear is called rack and the circular wheel is called pinion. A little consideration will show
that with the help of a rack and pinion, we can convert linear motion into rotary motion
and vice-versa as shown in figure 2-16.
Figure 2-16: - rack and pinion gear
iv. According to the position of teeth on the gear surface
The teeth on the gear surface may be straight, inclined, and curved. It has been discussed earlier
that the spur gears have straight teeth whereas helical gears have their teeth inclined to the wheel
rim. In case of spiral gears, the teeth are curved over the rim surface.

2.3.2.2. Terms used in gears
The following terms, which will be mostly used, should be clearly understood at this stage.
These terms are illustrated their physical meaning on the gear in figure 2-17 below. These terms
are:
i. Pitch circle: - It is an imaginary circle which by pure rolling action, would give the same
motion as the actual gear.
ii. Pitch circle diameter: - It is the diameter of the pitch circle. The size of the gear is usually
specified by the pitch circle diameter. It is also called as pitch diameter.
iii. Pitch point: - It is a common point of contact between two pitch circles.
iv. Pitch surface: - It is the surface of the rolling discs which the meshing gears have replaced
at the pitch circle.
v. Pressure angle or angle of obliquity: - It is the angle between the common normal to two
gear teeth at the point of contact and the common tangent at the pitch point. It is usually
0
1
denoted by  . The standard pressure angles are 14 and 20 0 .
2
vi. Addendum: - It is the radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to the top of the tooth.
vii. Dedendum: - It is the radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to the bottom of the
tooth.
viii. Addendum circle: - It is the circle drawn through the top of the teeth and is concentric with
the pitch circle.
ix. Dedendum circle: - It is the circle drawn through the bottom of the teeth. It is also called
root circle. It is better to note that root circle diameter equal to pitch circle diameter times
the cosine of the pressure angle of the gear.
x. Circular pitch: - It is the distance measured on the circumference of the pitch circle from a
point of one tooth to the corresponding point on the next tooth. It is usually denoted by p c .
Mathematically, it can be expressed in terms of pitch circle diameter D and number of
teeth on the wheel T as:
D
pc 
T
A little consideration will show that the two gears will mesh together correctly, if the two wheels
have the same circular pitch. If D1 and D2 are the diameters of the two meshing gears having

the teeth T1 and T2 respectively; then for them to mesh correctly the following expression has to
be fulfilled.
D1 D2 D1 T1
pc   or 
T1 T2 D2 T2
xi. Diametral pitch: - It is the ratio of number of teeth to the pitch circle diameter in
millimeters. It denoted by p d . Mathematically, it can be expressed as:
T 
pd  
D pc
Figure 2-17: - terms used in gears

xii. Module: - It is the ratio of the pitch circle diameter in millimeters to the number of teeth. It
is usually denoted by m . mathematically, it is expressed as:
1 D p
m   c
pd T 
The recommended series of modules in Indian Standard are tabulated in the following table 2-3.
Table 2-3: - Recommended series of modulus
Preferences Modules series

First choice 1, 1.25, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 32, 40 and 50
Second choice 1.125, 1.375, 1.75, 2.25, 2.75, 3.5, 4.5,5.5, 7, 9, 11, 14, 18, 22, 28, 36 and 45

xiii. Clearance: - It is the radial distance from the top of the tooth to the bottom of the tooth in
a meshing gear. A circle passing through the top of the meshing gear is known as clearance
circle.
xiv. Total depth: - It is the radial distance between the addendum and the dedendum circle of a
gear. It is equal to the sum of the addendum and dedendum.
xv. Working depth: - It is radial distance from the addendum circle to the clearance circle. It is
equal to the sum of the addendum of the two meshing gears.
xvi. Tooth thickness: - It is the width of the tooth measured along the pitch circle.
xvii. Tooth space: - It is the width of space between the two adjacent teeth measured along the
pitch circle.
xviii. Backlash: - It is the difference between the tooth space and the tooth thickness, as
measured on the pitch circle.
xix. Face of the tooth: - It is surface of the tooth above the pitch surface.
xx. Top land: - It is the surface of the top of the tooth.
xxi. Flank of the tooth: - It is the surface of the tooth below the pitch surface.
xxii. Face width: - It is the width of the gear tooth measured parallel to its axis.
xxiii. Profile: - It is the curve formed by the face and flank of the tooth.
xxiv. Fillet radius: - It is the radius that connects the root circle to the profile of the tooth.
xxv. Path of contact: - It is the path traced by the point of contact of two teeth from the
beginning to the end of engagement.
xxvi. Length of the path of contact: - It is the length of the common normal cut-off by the
addendum circles of the wheel and pinion.
xxvii. Arc of contact: - It is the path traced by a point on the pitch circle from the beginning to
the end of engagement of a given pair of teeth. The arc of contact consists of two parts.
These are the followings.
a) Arc of approach. It is the portion of the path of contact from the beginning of the
engagement to the pitch point.

b) Arc of recess. It is the portion of the path of contact from the pitch point to the end of the
engagement of a pair of teeth. It is better to note that the ratio of the length of arc of
contact to the circular pitch is known as contact ratio which means it is the number of
pairs of teeth in contact.
Spur gear is selected for the manually pedal-operated grain thresher machine. Therefore, some
conditions have to be fulfilled in order to prepare save and durable design of spur gear. The
inputs for the design of the spur gear such as velocity ratio G , angular revolution velocity N p ,
pressure angle  , center distance between the pinion and wheel C D are listed below.
  200 G4 Aw  1
N p  45rpm C D  170mm
Material property for non metallic plastics phenol formaldehyde is given as follows:
Specific gravity, S g  1.24  1.32
Tensile modulus, Et  2.76  4.83GPa
Tensile strength,  t  34.5  62.1MPa

Elongation at brake in % 1.5-2
Based on the above givens design data it is possible to design the gears. We know that the
minimum number of teeth in the pinion T p is found by the following formula:
2 Aw
Tp 
 11  
G  1    2  sin 2   1
 G G  
The number of teeth on the pinion can be obtained by substituting the values given above as
follow:
2 *1
Tp 
 11  
4 1    2  sin 2 200  1
 44  
T p  10
Since the velocity ratio is given it is possible to find the number of teeth on the gear, T p as
follow:

Tg
G  Tg  GT p  4 *10  40
Tp
The relation between the velocity ratios, G and the diameters of the gear and pinion is as follow:
Dg
G  D g  GD p
Dp
Dg  4D p
The center distance between the gear and pinion is calculated as follow:
Dg  D p Dg  D p
CD   170   340  Dg  D p
2 2
340  4 D p  D p  5 D p
340
Dp   68mm
5
Now, the diameter of the gear can be obtained as:
Dg  4D p  4 * 68  272mm
The module m can be obtained from the diameter of the pinion and the number of teeth of
pinion as follow:
Dp 68
m   6.8  7mm
Tp 10
The pitch line velocity v of the gears can be calculated as follow:

D p N p  * 68 *10 3 * 45
v   0.16m / s
60 60
The applied force to be consider as axial or tangential load, Wt over the gear and it can be
obtained from the pitch line velocity and power, P . The factor c s  1.25 is taken from table.
Wt v 345* 0.16
P   44.16watt
cs 1.25
Circular pitch, p c of the gear can be calculated as:
pc  m   * 7  21.99  22mm
Arc length, La of contact of the gear can be obtained by assuming the stress factor to
k1 p  k1g  1 as:

Dp Dg  D p  Dg 
La   mk1 p  D p cos2    mk1g  Dg cos2     sin 
2 2  2 
Substituting all the values in the above formula, the arc length is obtained to be:
La  125mm
Contact ratio, Q is calculated as:

La 125
Q  6
m cos  * 7 cos 200
Torque, T acting on the pinion can be obtained from the power and speed as follow:
60P 60 * 44.16
T   9.37 Nmm
2N p 2 *  * 45
Tangential load acting on the gears is calculated from the torque as:
2T 2 * 9.37
Wt    275.6 N
Dp 0.068
Since this load is less than the designed load it is possible to say the design is safe.
The normal force, W n on the tooth can be obtained from the tangential load applied on the gear
tooth as follow:
Wt 275.6
Wn    293.3 N
cos cos 20 0
The allowable static stress,  d for plastic material from machine design data book is given as:
 d  58.8MN / m2
The Lewis factor, y p for 20 0 full depth involutes system gear is calculated as:
0.912 0.912
y p  0.154   0.154   0.0628
Tp 10
The speed ratio, cv for non metallic gear materials can be calculated as:
 0.75 
cv     0.25  0.896
1 v 
The face width, b of the gear from the tangential load can be obtained as follow:

Wt   d bmy p   d cv bmy p
345  58.8 * 0.896 * b *  * 7 * 0.0628
b  3.78
Even the calculated face width of the gear is b  3.78 , in actual practice the face width is taken as
9.5m to 12.5m , but in certain cases, due to space limitations, it may also be taken as 6m .
Therefore let us take the face width to be
b  6m  6 * 7  42mm .
The profile of the gear is tabulated in table 2-4. The design of the gear is so using these
dimensions.
Table 2-4: - Gear profile (dimensions) values
Parameter Formula Value substituted Result

Module, m mm m7 m  7mm
Addendum, a a  1m a  1* 7 a  7mm
Addendum, d d  1.25m d  1.25* 7 d  8.75mm
w wd  2m wd  2 * 7 wd  14mm
Working depth, d
d
Whole depth, w d w  2.25m d w  2.25 * 7 d w  15.75mm
Circular tooth thickness,

tc t c  1.508m t c  1.508* 7 t c  10.995mm
rf rf  0.4m r f  0 .4 * 7 r f  2.8mm
Fillet radius at root,
Minimum basic clearance,
Cm C m  0.25m C m  0.25 * 7 C m  1.75mm
In designing gear shaft it is better to design step by step. The first step is to find the normal force:
Wt 345
Wn    367.1N
cos cos 200
The second step is to determine the vertical weight of the gear pinion:
W p  0.00118T p bm2  0.00118*10 * 452 * 7 2  24.28N
The third step is to find the resultant load, Wr acting on the pinion gear. Since the two loads vary
with the pressure angle, their resultant can be calculated as:

Wr  Wn2  W p2  2W pWn cos
Wr  367.12  24.282  2 * 367.1 * 24.28 cos 200

Wr  390N
The bending moment, M on the shaft due to the resultant load by assuming the overhanging
distance centre x  120mm from the gear to the centre of bearing at actual practice:
M  Wr x  390*120  46800Nmm
The twisting moment, T on the shaft is also calculated using the tangential load on the gear.
Wr D p 345 * 68
T   11730Nmm
2 2
The equivalent twisting moment, Te can be calculated from the two moments as:
Te  M 2  T 2  468002  117302  48247.6 Nmm

The shear stress of the material for the shaft is   40MPa . Now it is possible to determine the
diameter of the shaft. Therefore, the shaft diameter, d of the pinion is calculated as:
16Te 16 * 48247.6
d 3 3  18.3  18mm
  * 40
And also the diameter of the pinion hub D h can be calculated using the following expression.
Dh  1.8d  1.8 *18  32.4mm
The length of the hub Lh can be also calculated as:
Lh  1.25d  1.25 *18  22.5mm
Since the length of the hub should not be less than that of the face width which is 36 mm,
therefore let’s take length of the hub as 36 mm.
2.3.3. Design of pulley, belt and drum shaft
There are different types of belts. V-belt is one of them. A V-belt is mostly used in factories and
workshops where a great amount of power is to be transmitted from one pulley to another when
the two pulleys are very near to each other.

The V-belts are made of fabric and cords mould in rubber and covered with fabric and rubber as
shown in figure 2-18 (a). These belts are mould to a trapezoidal shape and are made endless.
These are particularly suitable for short drives. The included angle for the V-belt is usually from
30° to 40°. The power is transmitted by the wedging action between the belt and the V-groove in
the pulley or sheave. A clearance must be provided at the bottom of the groove as shown in
figure 2-18 (b) below. In order to prevent touching of the bottom as it becomes narrower from
wear. The V-belt drive may be inclined at any angle with tight side either at top or bottom. In
order to increase the power output, several V-belts may be operated side by side. It may be noted
that in multiple V-belt drive, all the belts should stretch at the same rate so that the load is
equally divided between them. When one of the set of belts breaks, the entire set should be
replaced at the same time. If only one belt is replaced, the new unworn and un-stretched belt will
be more tightly stretched and will move with different velocity.
Figure 2-18: - cross-section of V-belt and V-grooved pulley
V-belt derive has advantages and disadvantages over other flat belt drives. The advantages and
disadvantages of V-belt drive over other flat belt drive are listed below. The advantages are:
The V-belt drive gives compactness due to the small distance between centers of pulleys.
The drive is positive, because the slip between the belt and the pulley groove is
negligible.
Since the V-belts are made endless and there is no joint trouble, therefore the drive is
smooth.
It provides longer life, 3 to 5 years.

It can be easily installed and removed.

The operation of the belt and pulley is quiet.
The belts have the ability to cushion the shock when machines are started.
The high velocity ratio (maximum 10) may be obtained.
The wedging action of the belt in the groove gives high value of limiting ratio of
tensions. Therefore the power transmitted by V-belts is more than flat belts for the same
coefficient of friction, arc of contact and allowable tension in the belts.
The V-belt may be operated in either direction, with tight side of the belt at the top or
bottom. The centre line may be horizontal, vertical or inclined
The disadvantages are:
The V-belt drive cannot be used with large centre distances, because of larger weight per
unit length.
The V-belts are not so durable as flat belts.
The construction of pulleys for V-belts is more complicated than pulleys of flat belts.
Since the V-belts are subjected to certain amount of creep, therefore these are not suitable
for constant speed applications such as synchronous machines and timing devices.
The belt life is greatly influenced with temperature changes, improper belt tension and
mismatching of belt lengths.
The centrifugal tension prevents the use of V-belts derive at speeds below 5 m/s and
above 50 m/s.
In order to design the v-belt and pulley it is necessary to take some assumptions. The
assumptions and given data are:
- The coefficient of friction is take to be   0.25
- Belt width is in the range of 35 to 63 mm
- The thickness for crossed or twist belt drive is assumed in the range of 5 to 6.5 mm
- Center distance between the two shafts which are the lower and upper or between the
pulleys it taken to be 1000 mm
- The large pulley has a diameter of 350 mm
- The driving pulley is assumed to run at speed of N1  45rpm and N 2  38rpm
- The groove angle of pulley is taken to be 2  380

- The belt cross-sectional area A  280mm 2

- Density is taken to be   1170kg / m 3
- Allowable tensile strength S t  2.1MPa

- Driving pulleys overhung to the extent of 120 mm from nearest bearing and mounted on
the shaft that have a permissible shear stress of   40MPa with the help of key.
It is now possible to design the belt and pulley based the assumed and given values. Since the
speeds and diameter of the large pulley are given, it is possible to calculate the diameter of the
small pulley as follow:
N 1 D2

N 2 D1
N1 38
D1  D2  * 350
N2 45
D1  295mm
(r2  r1 ) ( D2  D1 )
sin   
X 2X
sin   (350  295)

2 * 120
sin   0.229
   13.250
 Angle of contact
  180  2
  180  2 * 13.25
  153.5 0
 In radian
  153.5 *  180 0
0
  2.679rad
Let T1- tension in the tight side of the belt
T2- tension in the slack side of the belt
From the given groove angle of the pulley 2β=380
β =190

T
2.3 log( 1 )   *  cos ec
T2
T
2.3 log( 1 )  0.25 * 2.679 * cos ec19  2.06
T2
T 2.06
log( 1 )   0.896
T2 2.3
T1
 7.86
T2
o Velocity of belt V
V 
D1 N 1
60
V   * 0.295 * 45
60
V  0.695 m say 0.7 m
s s
o Mass of belt per meter length

m  area * length* density
m  280 *10 6 m 2 *1m *1170kg
m3
m  0.3276kg
o Centrifugal tension on the belt
Tc  mv 2
Tc  0.3276* 0.7 2
Tc  0.16 N
o The maximum tension in the belt
T  stress* area   * a
T  2.1 * 280
T  588 N

o Tension in the tight side of the belt

T1  T  Tc
T1  588  0.16 N
T1  587.84N
Therefore for tension on the slack side T2
T 1 588.84
T2  
7.86 7.86
T2  74.79 N
o Power to be transmitted by belt
P  (T1 T 2) * v
P  (587.84  74.78) * 0.7
P  359 watt
And we know that the designed power is 44.1 watt

o Pitch length of the belt
L   (r 2  r1)  2 X  (r 2  r1)
2
X

( D 2  D1)  2 X  ( D 2  D1)
2
L
2 X
by substituting the values we get the belt length to be
L  1260.1 mm
o Design for shaft

Let D diameter of shaft
designed power
T
2N 2
(44.16 * 60)
T
2 * 38
T  11.097N  m or 11097N  mm
Since the overhanging of the pulley is X=120 mm the bending moment on the shaft due to the
belt tensions
M  (T1  T2  2Tc ) X
M  (588  74.79  2 * 0.16)120
M  9787.5 Nmm

And the equivalent twisting moment
Te  T 2  M 2
Te  110972  9787.5 2
Te  14796.57 Nmm
And we know that

 
Te   * D 3  14796.57  40 * D 3
16 16
 D  12.35 mm say D  12 mm
The dimensions of standard V-grooved pulleys according to IS: 2494-1974 is tabulated in the
following table 2-5.
Table 2-5: - Dimensions of standard V-grooved pulleys
Type of belt w d a c f e No. of sheave Groove angle 2β

grooves (n)
In degrees
A 11 12 3.3 8.7 10 15 6 32, 34,38
B 14 15 4.2 10.8 12.5 19 9 32, 34, 38
C 19 20 5.7 14.3 17 25.5 14 34, 36, 38
D 27 28 8.1 19.9 24 37 14 34, 36,38
E 32 33 9.6 23.4 29 44.5 20 -
By having the type of belt that is A we gain the w, d, a, c, f, e, and n from the above table
And the face width of the belt B be

B  (n  1) * e  2 f
B  (6  1) *15  2 *10
B  95 mm

For key at the standard shaft diameter d=12 mm and select it from table 2-6
Table 2-6: - proportions of standard parallel, tapered and gib headed keys
Shaft Key cross-section Shaft Key cross-section

diameter diameter
(mm) up to Width Thickness (mm) up to Width (mm) Thickness
and (mm) (mm) and including (mm)
including
6 2 2 85 25 14
8 3 3 95 28 16
10 4 4 100 32 18
12 5 5 130 36 20
17 6 6 150 40 22
22 8 7 170 45 25
30 10 8 200 50 28
38 12 8 230 56 32
44 14 9 260 63 32
50 16 10 290 70 36
58 18 11 330 80 40
65 20 12 380 90 45
75 22 14 440 100 50
For shaft diameter the selection of key cross sectional area just to have the dimension of width
and thickness in mm are
Width= 5 mm
Thickness= 5 mm
It is a square key since it has the same dimension on its width and thickness.

CHAPTER THREE
3.1. Result and Discussion
i. Result
After finishing this project, the manually pedal operated grain thresher machine has many use
since it is operated by any person, it is capable of threshing grain continuously at large quantities
and extract grain from its stalk. Also it is possible to use anywhere as we want. We can use the
waste (stalk) for animal food.
ii. Projected Demand
The Ethiopian government has adopted agricultural-led industrialization as central plank of its
development program, with a focus on growth of productivity in the agricultural sector.
Increased agricultural productivity will be achieved primarily through utilization of modern
technology such as threshers and other related machines. Hence, in view of the above, it would
be reasonable to conclude that the future demand for the products will show a fast growth.
However, to be on the conservative side, the future demand for wheat thresher and other
agricultural machine is assumed to grow by 10 per cent per annum.
iii. MATERIALS AND INPUT
The main raw materials are angle iron, mild steel and cast iron rounds and square sections, etc.,
The inputs required by the envisaged plant are imported and manufactured in some Ethiopian
metal works like Akaki basic metals.
iv. Production Process
The manufacturing process of grain thresher is essentially a fabrication job. The raw materials
are cut out into the required shape and size and then joined together using bolts and some
welding to make the frame. The shafts are turned on the lathe. Bolts, nuts, screw etc. are
purchased from the market.
After assembly the machines components are going to be painted. The assembly of the machine
is shown in figure 3-1.

Description of the manually operated grain thresher machine with its operation system during
users tries to operate.
Figure 3-1: - Assembly drawing of the manually pedal operated grain thresher

Figure 3-2: - Isometric view of the machine in 2D drawing
Table 3-1: - material, quantity used in the manually pedal-operated grain thresher
12 Belt 1 Fabric woven

11 Upper cover 1 Sheet metal
10 Concave cover 1 Sheet metal
9 Threshing drum 1 Aluminum
pulley
8 Horizontal 4 Angle iron
frame/bar
7 drum 2 Aluminum
6 Drum shaft 1 Cast iron
5 Gear box shaft 1 Cast iron
4 Gear box pulley 1 Aluminum
3 Vertical bar 4 Angle iron
2 Rack gear 1 Polymer
1 Gear box 1 Cast iron
NUMBER PART NAME QUANTITY MATERIAL

Figure 3-3: - Lower cover and gear spring of the machine
Figure 3-4: - spur gear of the machine

Figure 3-5: - Gear box of the machine

Conclusions and Recommendations
i. Conclusion
From this design we can conclude that this machine can be manufactured in our country, as most
of the materials used to design it are available in our country, like in Akaki spare part S.C. and
the standards used are available in the market including the bolts and nuts. This will give the
accessibility of spare parts whenever needed. From the design and the application of this
manually operated grain thresher we can also conclude that using of the human labor will
minimize the human labor lost and animals’ labor that is going after them.
To convert the design into product, it needs the supervision of the designer while product is
under fabrication.
If this design is converted to the product and applicable to the selected area, it is believed that the
problems associated with the failure of improper designed parts will be minimized and the
maintenance time also reduced. It will accelerate the threshing process of our farmers and deliver
on time to the market.
ii. Recommendation
Generally this design is not complied fully to have a complete production plan; this is due to the
many parts to be designed and the shortage of time. But the main parts, which are used to
manufacture the thresher are designed well, the gears, the shafts, the pulleys, spring and belt are
well designed. The rest parts, like frames or bars and drum for the stand and flexible appliance &
other parts have their design considerations. So the design will be continued to have a complete
plan.

Reference
1. Joseph E.Shigley and Charles R.Mischke, Mechanical Engineering Design, eighth
edition, 2006 Budynas−Nisbett
2. J.K. Gupta and R.S Khurmi , A text book of machine design (multicolor) Eurasian
publishing house (Pvt Ltd) ram Nagra Nee delhi India
3. P .C. Sharma and D.K Agarwal, Machine design.
4. Dr.S P .C.Sharma Sadu Singu, Machine design
5. Robert L. Norton, Machine Design an integrated approach, Second edition, 2000 Pearson
Education, Inc.
6. Ouézou Yaovi Azouma, Makennibe Porosi, and Koji Yamaguchi Design of throw-in
type rice thresher for small scale farmers Vol.2 No. 9 (Sep 2009)

Appendix
MANUAL FOR USERS
Assemble sequence
 Stand the vertical frame or bars and connect them with the horizontal bars using bolt on
their position
 Put the concave lower cover of the thresher drum at the bottom of the thresher drum
 Fix the thresher drum over the concave lower cover on the upper side of the frames.
 Cover the thresher drum using the upper cover for safe and o control the jump out grains
 Put the gear box on its exact position at the right hand side of the frame over its stand
 Connect the thresher drum pulley and gear box pulley using belt
CAUTION
Make sure all the bolts are fixed tightly
Make sure the area of the shaft is pure i.e. clean and free from dirty
Check the belt
Put the whole machine over a leveled land
Connect a tent at the bottom side of the concave cover o collect the needed grain.
After you finish threshing blow the grain

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Design and Development of Manually Pedal-Operated

Grain Thresher Machine

A Final Year Project Submitted to Department of Mechanical Engineering, College

In partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of

Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering

(Mechanical Design Stream)

ii By Meron Mekonen, Mechanical Engineer from Aksum University

iii By Meron Mekonen, Mechanical Engineer from Aksum University

iv By Meron Mekonen, Mechanical Engineer from Aksum University

v By Meron Mekonen, Mechanical Engineer from Aksum University

vi By Meron Mekonen, Mechanical Engineer from Aksum University

1 By Meron Mekonen, Mechanical Engineer from Aksum University

1.1.1. Overview of the project

2 By Meron Mekonen, Mechanical Engineer from Aksum University

1.1.2. Objective of the project

3 By Meron Mekonen, Mechanical Engineer from Aksum University

1.2. Background of Threshing

4 By Meron Mekonen, Mechanical Engineer from Aksum University

Figure 1-1: - A bicycle-powered drum thresher

5 By Meron Mekonen, Mechanical Engineer from Aksum University

1.2.1. Type of threshing methods and threshers

ii. Mechanized threshing

6 By Meron Mekonen, Mechanical Engineer from Aksum University

iii. Combined harvesting and threshing methods

7 By Meron Mekonen, Mechanical Engineer from Aksum University

In Brazil, several manufacturers have adapted machines to rice growing conditions by

1.2.2. Disadvantage and limitation of threshers

8 By Meron Mekonen, Mechanical Engineer from Aksum University

9 By Meron Mekonen, Mechanical Engineer from Aksum University

10 By Meron Mekonen, Mechanical Engineer from Aksum University

2.2. Embodiment design using solid modeling software (CATIA)

2.2.1. Threshing drum

It is made up or collection of: -

Features of this component

11 By Meron Mekonen, Mechanical Engineer from Aksum University

Figure 2-1: - Picture of the threshing drum

2.2.2. Gear box

Features of this component: -

12 By Meron Mekonen, Mechanical Engineer from Aksum University

2.3. Detail design of basic components

2.3.1. Design of spring

13 By Meron Mekonen, Mechanical Engineer from Aksum University

2.3.1.1. Types of spring

Figure2-2: - compression and tension helical spring

The helical springs have the following advantages:

14 By Meron Mekonen, Mechanical Engineer from Aksum University

These are reliable.

ii. Conical and volute springs

Figure 2-3: - Conical and volute spring

iii. Torsion springs

15 By Meron Mekonen, Mechanical Engineer from Aksum University

Figure 2-4: - Helical and spiral torsion spring

iv. Laminated or leaf springs

Figure 2-5: - laminated or leaf spring

v. Disc or bellevile springs

16 By Meron Mekonen, Mechanical Engineer from Aksum University

Figure 2-6: - disc or bellevile spring