NOUNS

A noun is the name of a person, animal, thing or place.

The following are types of nouns:
Proper Nouns:
Examples: Susan, Eric, Lucy, Ahmad, Proton Saga, Johor Bahru, Deepavali, August,
Thursday, Christian, Islam, Buddha, Hinduism, China, Korea...
Common Nouns
Common names
Countable and Uncountable Nouns
Examples:
Countable Nouns
Singular Nouns: Examples - woman, child, chair, desk, rat, cat, dog, bird
Plural Nouns: Examples - women, children, chairs, desks, rats, cats, dogs, birds
Uncountable Nouns
Abstract Nouns: Examples - joy, sadness, friendship, truth
Concrete Nouns: Examples - mud, wool, butter, juice

Nouns can also be singular or plural forms.

Nouns
Singular Nouns
A singular noun refers to ONE item.
Examples: a man, a goat, a tree, a lake
Plural Nouns
A plural noun refers to TWO or MORE than one item.
Examples: Two men, four goats, five children, many trees, those lakes...

The following are 8 rules for the formation of plural nouns:

1. Add -s
Examples: girls, cups, cats, stems, tables, beds, flowers, books, balls, fields, pens,
pencils, erasers, rulers, cars, bicycles, shirts, trousers, cakes
2. Add -es to nouns ending in -ch, -sh, -x, -s, -o
Examples:
switch - switches
branch - branches
brush - brushes
box - boxes
fax - faxes
class - classes
address - addresses
cargo - cargoes
3. For nouns that end in -y,
Examples (a)
change -y to -les:
army - armies
baby - babies
party - parties
puppy - puppies
Examples (b)
add -s only when there is a vowel before -y:
boy - boys
key - keys
tray - trays
4. Change -f or fe to -ves.
Some irregular nouns take on the plural form by first changing the last letter of the word
before adding “s.”
Words that end in “f” are a good example of this case.
To make such a word plural, you change the “f” to “ve” and add an “s.”
Examples:
elf - elves
calf - calves
knife - knives
loaf - loaves
shelf - shelves
wolf - wolves
loaf - loaves
leaf - leaves
life - lives
half - halves
wife - wives
relief - relieves
5. Change vowels in the middle.
Examples:
Goose - geese
tooth - teeth
foot - feet
6. Have the same form in the singular and the plural.
Examples:
deer
luggage
information
rubbish
7. Always in the plural form.
Examples:
spectacles
scissors
trousers
binoculars
8. Have irregular form in the plural.
Irregular nouns made plural by changing vowels, changing the word, or adding a
different ending.
Examples:
man - men
person - people
mouse - mice
child - children
foot - feet
goose - geese
tooth - teeth
louse - lice
cactus - cacti
appendix - appendices
ox -oxen
cod - cod or cods
shrimp - shrimp or shrimps
fish - fish or fishes
quail - quail or quails

Take Note:
Some irregular plural nouns have the same spelling as their singular form such as
scissors, pants, bison, deer, and sheep.
And then some animal nouns become plural by keeping the same spelling as the singular
form or by adding an s or es.
Examples:
cod - cod or cods
shrimp - shrimp or shrimps
fish - fish or fishes
quail - quail or quails
Nouns ending in -o: -s or -es (depending on the word!)
Examples
Always - ES
potato/tomato - potatoes/tomatoes
hero - heroes
torpedo - torpedoes
echo -echoes
Always - S
stereo - stereos
memo - memos
solo - solos
zoo - zoos
studio - studios
Some can be both!
ghetto - ghettos/ghettoes
mango - mangos/mangoes
motto - mottos/mottoes
tornado - tornados/tornadoes
tuxedo - tuxedos/tuxedoes
valcano - valcanos/valcanoes
Nouns that look plural, but take a singular verb.
Examples:
news - The news was so depressing.
gymnastics - Gymnastics is great for getting in shape.
economics/mathematics - Economics is quite difficult.
Nouns that look singular, but take a plural verb.
Examples:
pants - These pants are too small.
scissors - Where are the scissors?
glasses - When I last saw your glasses, they were on the table.
VERY irregular plural nouns
Examples:
man - men
woman - women
child - children
person - people
tooth -teeth
foot - feet
vertebra - vertebrae
mouse - mice
goose - geese
Some nouns that do not change
Examples
one sheep - two sheep
one deer - two deer
one fish - two fish
one series - two series
one species - two species
Latin/Greek words: US - I
Examples
alumnus/alumna - alumni
cactus - cacti
fungus - fungi
nucleus - nuclei
stimulus - stimuli
Latin/Greek words: IS - ES
Examples
analysis - analyses
crisis - crises
diagnosis - diagnoses
Latin/Greek Words: UM/ON - A
Examples
bacterium - bacteria
criterion - criteria
curriculum - curricula
datum - data
millennium - millennia
phenomenon - phenomena

Useful links
Irregular Plural Nouns (espressoenglish.net)
Irregular Plurals (with pictures)
English Grammar - Singular + Plural
Speaking English - Irregular Plural Nouns
ARTICLES
Articles consist of indefinite articles ("a"/"an") and the definite article ("the").
Indefinite Articles.
"a"/"an"
"a"
Used with nouns that begin with a consanant sound or 'you' sound.
Examples:
a bird
a man
a got
a university

"an"
Used with nouns that begin with a vowel sound or a silent 'h'.
Examples:
an apple
an eel
an idol
an hour

Definite article ("the")

Used to refer to a particular person, animal or thing
Examples:
the police,
the tiger,
the bus
Used to show something that is the one of its kind
Examples:
the sun
the moon
Used before a noun that represents a whole class
Examples:
I have a bird.
I feed the bird once a day.
Used with the superlative adjectives and adverbs
Examples:
the youngest child
run the fastest
Used before names of seas, rivers, mountain, ranges, islands, important buildings and
musical instruments
Examples:
the Alps
the Taj Mahal
the blue

PRONOUNS
A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun.
Examples:
John is a friendly boy.
He is my best friend.

Type of Pronouns
Personal Pronouns
(a) Subject Pronouns: Examples - I, he, they...
(b) Object Pronouns: Examples - me, him, them...
Possessive Adjectives
Examples - my, his,hers, theirs...
Reflexive Pronouns
Examples - myself, himself, themselves...
Relative Pronouns
Examples - who, whom, whose, which...
Demonstrative Pronouns/Adjectives
Examples - this, that, these, those...

Personal Personal Possessive Possessive

Subject
I Object Adjectives Pronouns
me my mine
you you your yours
we us our ours
they them their theirs
he him his his
she her her hers
it it its -

Personal Subject:
Used in front of a VERB.
Example: I like him. (like = verb)
Personal Object:
Used behind a VERB/PREPOSITION.
Examples:
He likes me (likes = verb)
Wait for us. (for = preposition)
Possessive Adjectives
Used in front of a noun.
Examples:
Look at my car. (car = noun)
Possessive Pronouns
Used at the end of a sentence.
That car is mine. (mine - at the end of a sentence)

Interrogative Pronouns
We use wh-words to ask questions.
What is used to ask questions about people, animals and things.
What is your name?
What is the weight of the puppy?
What is the title of the book?
We use who to ask about people.
Who likes to eat grapes?
We use where to ask about places.
Where is the museum?
Where can I get a box of flour?
We use when to ask about date and time.
When is your birthday? )
When will the show begin?
We use which to ask questions about objects with one choice or more.
Which colour do you like?
We use why to ask questions about reasons.
Why is the sky blue?
Why is eating vegetables good for you?
We use how to ask questions about ways or manners.
How do we get from here to the library?
How are you doing today?

THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

The simple present tense is used:
(a) to show a repealed or habitual action.
Examples: Nina goes to bed at ten every night.
(b) to state a fact or general truth
Examples: Bees and ants are insects.

The simple present tense is used:

to show a repeated or habitual action
Example: Nina goes to bed at ten every night.
to state a fact or general truth
Example: Bees and ants are insects.
Subject Example:
I I usually go fishing when I
am free„

am/base form
you/we/they/ is/ He usually goes fishing
Babies
when healways cry when they
is free.
he/she/it singular
+ -s/-es/-ies
are/base form
plural nouns The baby always cries when
Suitable time expressions:
every
nouns day/week are hungry.

he/she is hungry.
often, always
usually
sometimes

THE SIMPLE PAST TENSE

The simple past tense is used to show an action that began and ended in the past.
e.g. Johan went to Ipoh yesterday.
We visited the orphanage last week.

Subject Verb Example

you They moved to Kedah 3
we years ago.
they
he + -d/-ed
she
it Xiu Lin called me this
change letters partly or She felt sleepy so she went

remain the same form I read the news just now.

singular/ completely to bed early last night.
morning.
Suitable time expressions:
last night/month
ago
yesterday
plural nouns
just now
this morning

Take note:
The Simple Past Tense
Used to show that an action began and ended at a particular time in the past
I answered the phone call at 10:00 p.m. last night.
More examples…
He slept at 12:00 midnight yesterday. (sleep – slept – slept - sleeping)
Mother went to the market two days ago. (go – went – gone – going)
Mimi walked to school last week. (walk – walked - walked – walking)
I drank the milk an hour ago. (drink – drunk – drunk – drinking)
She returned to her house just now. (return - returned - returned – returning)
I walked to my office three years ago but now I drive to work. (walk – walked - walked
– walking)

Simple Past Tense shows an activity that took place at a given point in time, in the
past.
Examples: yesterday, last week, ten years ago, two minutes ago, six days ago.
I visit my grandmother today. (now)
I visited my grandmother yesterday. (past tense)
I shall visit my grandfather tomorrow. (future tense)
THE PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE
The past continuous tense is used:
(a) to show an action or two stimultaneous actions going on in the past.
Examples:
The plants were growing fast.
Susan was reading while her brother was playing badminton.
(b) To show an ongoing past action interrupted by a shorter action
Examples:
I was watching television when the lights suddenly went off.

Subject Verb Example

were ' The baby was sleeping
soundly all night.
you we they plural Mrs Liu was cooking
, + -ing verb was J while her children were
I playing chess.
he
she
nouns
it They were making a lot

THE SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE/‘GOING TO’ FORM

The simple
singular nounsfuture or ‘going to’ form ofcan
noise
be used
whentothe
show a future action.
Examples:
I shall meet you tomorrow morning.
You will get your test results next week.
They are going to watch a film tonight. teacher entered the

Subject Verb Example

I/we shall + base We shall finish all the projects by
will form classroom.
Friday.
you they he/she/it
singular/ plural She will take a few days off to
nouns rest at home.
Aisyah will cook chicken
porridge tomorrow.
I am I am going to join the club next
you are term.
we They are going to leave now
they + going + base to My friends and I are going for a
plural nouns form school trip next week.
he/she/it He is going to cook dinner
singular nouns is tonight.

Suitable time expressions:

tomorrow
tonight
later
soon
afterwards
next day/week

VERB ‘TO BE’

Verb ‘to be’ has three forms in the present: am, are, is

Subject Verb to be’

I am very happy now.
you/we/they/plural nouns are
he/she/it/singular nouns is

VERBS
Verbs can be divided into regular verbs and irregular verbs.
Regular verbs
The past tense and past participle are formed by adding -ed or -d (for verbs ending in -
e).

Infinitive/ Past Particle Continuous

Base form Tense
accept accepted accepted accepting
borrow borrowed borrowed borrowing
escape escaped escaped escaping
follow followed followed following
help helped helped helping
import imported imported importing
joke joked joked joking

Irregular verbs
The past tense and past participle have totally different forms from the infinitive/base
form. Some do not change at all.

Infinitive/ Past Past

Base Tense Participle Continuous

arise form arose arisen arising
blow blew blown blowing
choose chose chosen choosing
cut cut cut cutting
do did done doing
eat ate eaten eating
run ran run running
see saw seen seeing
wake woke woken waking

CONJUNCTIONS (joining words)

A conjunction is a part of speech that is used to connect words, phrases,
clauses, or sentences. (or)
Conjunction is a word used to connect clauses or sentences or to coordinate
words in the same clause. (or)
A conjunction is a word that joins two or more words, phrases, or clauses.
Think of them as gluing words. They glue words, phrases, and clauses together.
Conjunctions are considered to be invariable grammar particle, and they may or may
not stand between items they conjoin.
Below is several examples of the conjunction words (e.g., and, or, but, because, so, if ..).
Examples:
‘and’ - joins two words, phrases or sentences
If you go to the canteen, please buy a plate of noodles and a cup of water.
‘or’ - to show a choice between two things
You can eat the cake or the pie.
‘but’ - joins two ideas that are different
Suzan wanted to enter the contest but her mother said no.
‘because’ - shows reasons
The dress is expensive because it is imported from France.
‘so’ - shows results
Come closer so I can see you better.

PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions are words used before a noun or pronoun to show how the noun or
pronoun is linked to another word in the sentence.
The table below shows different types of prepositions and its examples.
(Time, location, Direction, and Other uses)

Prepositions of time
- show when something happens
Examples: about/around, after, at,
before, by, during, for, from, in, on, since, till/until, to He was born in 1990.
I will be there before August next year.
She was here since last two years.

Prepositions of location
Prepositions of location show where a person, animal or object is at.
The prepositions of location are: on, above, in front of, between, against, in,
under, behind, beside, at.
Examples:
Sheila puts the bag on the chair.
Sanny hung a picture above the window.
The boy is standing in front of the car.
Rosli sits between Rani and Ani.
The spoon is in the glass.
The girl sits under a shady tree.
There is a cat behind her.
Puan Asiah sits beside/next to Encik Maslan.
Marina is waiting for her father.
Raju puts the ladder against the wall.

Note: Location - Show where someone or something is.

The dog rested under the tree.
Examples: above, against, among, at, behind,
below, by/beside, between, in, inside, near, on, opposite, outside, under

Prepositions of Direction
Prepositions of direction show the movement of someone or something from one place
to another.
The prepositions of direction are: up, out, down, over, to, from, along, across,
around.
Examples:
The boy is climbing up the tree.
Lily threw the pen out of the window.
The girls run down the stairs.
Line is going to the library.
The dog jumps over the fence.
The boy runs across the road.
The boys walk along the beach.

Note: Direction - show which way someone or something is moving towards

She walks to school every day.
Examples: across, along, around, about, down, from, to, into, off, out, over,
past, round, through, towards, up

Other uses - show manner, condition, purpose, method, relationship

The shirt is made of wool.
Examples: at, by, for, from, in, of, with

ADJECTIVES
Adjectives are words that describe a noun or a pronoun.
It tells us what colour, size or shape the noun is. It is usually before a noun.
The red dress belongs to Anna. (red = adjective, dress = noun)
That tall giraffe is eating. (tall = adjective, giraffe = noun)

Different Types of Adjectives

Colour: yellow, blue, pink, brown, purple…
Size: big, small, tall, short…
Shape: round, oval, square, triangular…
Quality: new, cheap, expensive, sad, happy…

Comparative Adjectives
Positive degree
She is tall/short/fat/slim. (no comparison here)
Comparative degree
Angelina is taller than Kumar. (a comparison between Angelina and Kumar)
Superlative degree
Eric is the tallest of them all. (Comparison among them: Angelina, Kumar and Eric)

Degree od Adjective
Comparative
-compares two objects or people
-adjective + ‘er’ + than
Superlative
-compares three or more objects or people
-adjective + ‘erst’/’most’

ADVERBS
Adverbs show how a person does something.
Examples: Neatly, softly, carefully, soundly and gracefully.

How?

(Adverbs)
Azizah writes her essay neatly in the book.
Yusri speaks softly to the old lady.
I read the instructions carefully before answering the question.
The baby slept soundly last night.
Osma sings gracefully at the concert.

MODELS
Modals are used with another verb to show possibility, permission or intention.
Examples:
Modals Meaning Examples
You must come early.
must obligation
You must
I could not buy
never litterthe
around.
bungalow.
Could I sit here?
could past ability

have to insistence IWe

have to go
could goto
tohospital now.
the cinema this evening.
permission

possibility
might possibility We might borrow his car next week.
obligation You should leave this room now.
should
likelihood
request past He should
Would yoube entering
bring the officetomorrow?
the storybook by now.
would
activity Every afternoon the baby would sleep with her

Modals are used with the base form of verbs.

mother.
They are used to add special meanings like ability, permission, possibility, etc. to the
main verbs.

Can/Could
To show ability
Examples:
He can swim.
Sam could write at the age of three.
‘could’ is the past tense of ‘can’
To request or give permission
Examples:
Can/Could I come with you?
You can/could leave now.

Will/Would
(a) to predict or express a future action
Examples:
It will rain tomorrow.
They will go to the zoo next Sunday.
He said that he would be busy next week.
('would' is the past tense of 'will')
(b) to make a request or an offer.
Examples:
Will/Would you carry these books for me?
Would you like some coffee.

May/Might
To request or give permission
Examples:
May/Might I borrow your pen?
You may take a short break.
To show possibility
Examples:
The bus may arrive at any time.
Liza might be ill because she was absent from class yesterday.
‘might’ is the past tense of ‘may’
To express a future action or something that is expected to happen
Examples:
We shall tell Mum what we did yesterday.
They should be on their way already.
‘should’ is the past tense of ‘shall’
To make an offer or a suggestion
Example:
Shall/Should I book the tickets first?
To give an advice or show what is the right thing to do
Examples:
You should pay attention in class.
We shall/should exercise regularly.

Ought to/Used to
To give an advice or show what is the right thing to do
Example:
You ought to thank them personally.
We ought to eat more vegetables.
Used to
To show a past habit
Example:
I used to go swimming on Sundays.
They used to live in the village when they were young.
(‘used to’ is in the past tense)

Must/Has to/Have
Has to –
To show necessity
Examples:
She must/has to send her homework by tomorrow morning.
They had to postpone the trip until next month.
‘had to’ is the past tense of ‘must’ and ‘has/have to’
To show an obligation
Example:
We must/have to follow the rules and regulations.

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
Singular verbs are for singular nouns
He is my friends
She is hungry.
This is my pet dog.
Plural verbs are for plural nouns,
They are my friends.
They are hungry.
These are my pet dogs.

GERUNDS
A gerund is formed by adding ‘-ing’ to a verb.
Mr Subra enjoys gardening.
Their son enjoys playing football.
Mrs Subra loves sewing.

The Simple Present Tense

(a) Used to show an activity or an event that is happening now
I need to have my bath now.
I want to take my lunch now.
I want to go swimming.
(b) Used to show actions that are done habitually.
I eat breakfast every morning.
I swim every weekend.
She plays tennis every Friday.
(c) Used to express something that was true in the past, is true in the
present, and will be true in the future
The earth is round
Health is wealth.
God is perfectly great.

WH-QUESTION WORDS
Wh-question words are used to ask questions.
Wh-question word Example
what - to ask about: What is that?
-things
-people
What is your name? What is
who/whom - to ask about: Who is he?
-people (subject)
-time
Whom
the time did
now?you invite to your
when
-people- (object)
to ask about time When shall we meet?
where - to ask about places Where does he come from?
why - to ask about reasons Why is she absent?
whose - to ask about: party yesterday?
(i) relationship
Whose child is crying?
which - to ask about:
(ii) possession
-people
Whose bag is missing?
-things Which boy is naughty?

-places
Which colour do you like?

Which hotel did you book?

how - to ask about: How shall I make a cake?
-methods How do you go to school?
-conditions How is your mother now?
-time How are you?
-quantities How long have you lived
here? How fast can they
swim across the river?
How many pens do you
have? How much is your
dress?
How many pupils are there
in the classroom?
Underline the correct word.
-opinions
(Who/What) is that woman? She is my sister.
(Who/Where) do you live? I live in Taman Mawar.
(What/How) does she go to school? She walks to school.
Where did the boys go? They went to the library.

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE STATEMENTS

Positive Statements
Jimmy sings well. How is your new school?
Mum buys a bag.
Negative Statements
Jimmy does not sing well.
Mum does not buy a bag.

Positive sentences express something that is positive or that can be done.

Negative sentences express something that is negative or that cannot be done.
It has the word ‘not in it.

Question Tags and Responses

Positive Statements with Negative Tags Answers
It is a moon, isn’t it? Yes, it is.
The babies are sleepy, aren’t they? Yes, they are.
He has repaired the car, hasn’t he? Yes, he has.
They will enjoy the trip, won’t they? Yes, they will.
She buys the biscuits, doesn’t she? Yes, she does.
They love going shopping, don’t they? Yes, they do.
You are hungry, aren’t you? Yes, I am.
You would like to leave now, wouldn’t you? Yes, I would.
You will have some tea, won’t you?
Negative Statements with Positive Tags
Answers

Yes, I will.
It isn’t a moon, is it? No, it isn’t.
The babies are not sleepy, are they? No, they aren’t.
He has not repaired the car, has he? No, he hasn’t.
They would enjoy the trip, would they? No, they wouldn’t.
She does not buy the biscuits, doesn’t she? No, she doesn’t.
They do not love going shopping, do they? No, they don’t.
You are not hungry, are you? No, I’m not.
You would not like to leave now, would you? No, I wouldn’t.
You would not have some tea, would you?
THE SENTENCE TYPES
Usage Examples
Simple Subject Predicate
Sentence
Has only one verb. It consists of one
No, I wouldn’t.
Miss Ong is sleeping. The box costs
Compoun Subject Predicate
d The girls sing and dance well.
Has two or more ideas. The
Sentence subject and one predicate. It ideas
Complex My fatherThe
RM5.00. returned home
boy loves camping.
Sentence The
immediately when he comfortable.
house is small but received that
are joined together by conjunctions phone call.
expresses
Has two oronly one
more idea.that are not
ideas

like and, but, or, so, as well as.

Sequence Connectors Although Maria is a smart girl, she
Used to connect words or sentences in a sequence of actions
How to Make of equal
Tea importance. The ideas are
First, boil the water.
Second, pour hot water into the teapot.
Then, put in a sachet of tea. is unfriendly.
Finally, putjoined
three spoonfuls ofsubordinating
together by sugar.
Others: next, later, soon, before, eventually

PUNCTUATION
Capital letters (A, Y, Z,...)
>for the firstconjunctions like although, if,
word of a sentence
>for proper nouns: names of people, places, days of the week
>for the pronoun ‘I’
Question Mark (?)
>for questionswhen and while.
-Where are you now?
-May I come in?
Comma (,)
->to separate a list of things
-He bought a pen, pencils, erasers and a bag.
Full stop (.)
>at the end of a sentence
>after initials e.g. P.H. Henry
>for abbreviations:
-months of the year - Jan. Feb.
-days of the week - Mon. Tues.
-time - mins. hrs.
Exclamation mark (!)
> to express strong emotion or feeling
- Help! Help!
Apostrophe (’)
- to show possession
sister’s bag, the man’s hat