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Algebra PDF
Algebra PDF
Yunghsiang S. Han
Groups
• Let G be a set of elements. A binary operation ∗ on G is a rule
that assigns to each pair of elements a and b a uniquely defined
third element c = a ∗ b in G.
• A binary operation ∗ on G is said to be associative if, for any a,
b, and c in G,
a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c.
• A set G on which a binary operation ∗ is defined is called a
group if the following conditions are satisfied:
1. The binary operation ∗ is associative.
2. G contains an element e, an identity element of G, such
that, for any a ∈ G,
a ∗ e = e ∗ a = a.
such that
a ∗ a′ = a′ ∗ a = e.
a and a′ are inverse to each other.
• A group G is called to be commutative if its binary operation ∗
also satisfies the following condition: for any a and b in G,
a ∗ b = b ∗ a.
Properties of Groups
• The identity element in a group G is unique.
Proof: Suppose there are two identity elements e and e′ in G.
Then
e′ = e′ ∗ e = e.
Example of Groups
• (Z, +). e = 0 and the inverse of i is −i.
• (Q − {0}, ·). e = 1 and the inverse of a/b is b/a.
• ({0, 1}, ⊕), where ⊕ is exclusive-OR operation.
• The order of a group is the number of elements in the group.
• Additive group: ({0, 1, 2, . . . , m − 1}, ⊞), where m ∈ Z + , and
i ⊞ j ≡ i + j mod m.
– (i ⊞ j) ⊞ k = i ⊞ (j ⊞ k).
– e = 0.
– ∀0 < i < m, m − i is the inverse of i.
– i ⊞ j = j ⊞ i.
• Multiplicative group: ({1, 2, 3, . . . , p − 1}, ⊡), where p is a
prime and i ⊡ j ≡ i · j mod p.
Subgroups
• H is said to be a subgroup of G if (i) H ⊂ G and H ̸= ∅. (ii) H
is closed under the group operation of G and satisfies all the
conditions of a group.
• Let G = (Q, +) and H = (Z, +). Then H is a subgroup of G.
Fields
• Let F be a set of elements on which two binary operations,
called addition “+” and multiplication “·”, are defined. The set
F together with the two binary operations + and · is a field if
the following conditions are satisfied:
1. (F, +) is a commutative group. The identity element with
respect to addition is called the zero element or the additive
identity of F and is denoted by 0.
2. (F − {0}, ·) is a commutative group. The identity element
with respect to multiplication is called the unit element or
the multiplicative identity of F and is denoted by 1.
3. Multiplication is distributive over addition; that is, for any
three elements a, b and c in F ,
a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c.
Properties of Fields
• ∀a ∈ F, a · 0 = 0 · a = 0.
Proof: a = a · 1 = a · (1 + 0) = a + a · 0.
0 = −a + a = −a + (a + a · 0). Hence, 0 = 0 + a · 0 = a · 0.
• Let ∀a, b ∈ F and a, b ̸= 0. Then a · b ̸= 0.
• a · b = 0 and a ̸= 0 imply that b = 0.
• ∀a, b ∈ F , −(a · b) = (−a) · b = a · (−b).
Proof: 0 = 0 · b = (a + (−a)) · b = a · b + (−a) · b. Similarly, we
can prove that −(a · b) = a · (−b).
• Cancellation law: a ̸= 0 and a · b = a · c imply that b = c.
Proof: Since a ̸= 0, a−1 · (a · b) = a−1 · (a · c). Hence,
(a−1 · a) · b = (a−1 · a) · c, i.e., b = c.
Examples of Fields
• (R, +, ·).
• ({0, 1}, ⊞, ⊡), binary field (GF (2)).
• ({0, 1, 2, 3 . . . , p − 1}, ⊞, ⊡), prime field (GF (p)), where p is a
prime.
• There is a prime field for any prime.
• It is possible to extend the prime field GF (p) to a field of pm
elements, GF (pm ), which is called an extension field of GF (p).
• Finite fields are also called Galois fields.
∑
n−m
Hence, 1 = 0.
i=1
∑
k ∑
m
Then 1 = 0 or 1 = 0. Contradiction.
i=1 i=1
∑
k ∑
m
• 1 ̸= 1 for any k, m < λ and k ̸= m.
i=1 i=1
∑
1 ∑
2 ∑
λ−1 ∑
λ
• 1= 1, 1, . . . , 1, 1 = 0 are λ distinct elements in
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
GF (q). It cab be proved that these λ elements is a field,
GF (λ), under the addition and multiplication of GF (q).
GF (λ) is called a subfield of GF (q).
• If q ̸= λ, then q is a power of λ.
a1 = a, a2 = a · a, a3 = a · a · a, · · ·
Contradiction.
Primitive Element
• In GF (q), a nonzero element a is said to be primitive if the
order of a is q − 1.
• The powers of a primitive element generate all the nonzero
elements of GF (q).
• Every finite field has a primitive element.
Proof: Assume that q > 2. Let h = pr11 pr22 · · · prmm be the prime
factor decomposition of h = q − 1. For every i, the polynomial
xh/pi − 1 has at most h/pi roots in GF (q). Hence, there is at
least one nonzero element in GF (q) that is not a root of this
polynomial. Let ai be such an element and set
r
h/(pi i )
bi = ai .
r
pi i
We have bi = 1 and the order of bi is a divisor of pri i .
h/p
Now, for 1 < i, pri i divides h/p1 , and hence bi 1 = 1.
h/p
Therefore, b1 1 = 1. This implies that the order of b1 must
divide h/p1 . Contradiction.
• Consider GF (7). We have
31 = 3, 32 = 2, 33 = 6, 34 = 4, 35 = 5, 36 = 1.
41 = 4, 42 = 2, 43 = 1
2m −1
x + 1. It will be easy to prove when we learn the
construction of an extension field.
• x3 + x + 1|x7 + 1, i.e., x7 + 1 = (x4 + x2 + x + 1)(x3 + x + 1).
• An irreducible polynomial p(x) of degree m is said to be
primitive if the smallest positive integer n for which p(x)
2m −1
divides x + 1 is n = 2 − 1, i.e., p(x)|x
n m
+ 1.
• Since x4 + x + 1|x15 + 1, x4 + x + 1 is primitive.
x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1 is not since x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1|x5 + 1.
• For a given m, there may be more than one primitive
polynomial of degree m.
ℓ ℓ
• For all ℓ ≥ 0, [f (x)]2 = f (x2 ).
Proof:
f 2 (x) = (f0 + f1 x + · · · + fn xn )2
= [f0 + (f1 x + f2 x2 + · · · + fn xn )]2
= f02 + (f1 x + f2 x2 + · · · + fn xn )2
Construction of GF (2m )
• Initially, we have two elements 0 and 1 from GF (2) and a new
symbol α. Define a multiplication · as follows:
1.
0 · 0 = 0, 0·1=1·0=0 1·1=1
0 · α = α · 0 = 0, 1·α=α·1=α
2. α2 = α · α α3 = α · α · α · · · αj = α · α · · · · · α (j times)
3. F = {0, 1, α, α2 , . . . , αj , . . .}.
• Let p(x) be a primitive polynomial of degree m over GF (2).
Assume that p(α) = 0. Since p(x)|x2 −1 + 1,
m
2m −1
x + 1 = q(x)p(x). Hence,
α2 −1 + 1 = q(α)p(α) = q(α) · 0 = 0, α2 −1 = 1, and αi is not
m m
1 for i < 2m − 1.
• Let
∗ 2m −2
F = {0, 1, α, α , . . . , α
2
}.
• It can be proved that F ∗ − {0} is a communicative group under
“·”.
m
−2
• 1, α, α2 , . . . , α2 represent 2m − 1 distinct elements.
• Next we define an additive operation “+” on F ∗ such that F ∗
forms a communicative group under “+”.
• For 0 ≤ i < 2m − 1, we have
xi = qi (x)p(x) + ai (x), (1)
where
ai (x) = ai0 + ai1 x + ai2 x2 + · · · + ai(m−1) xm−1 and aij ∈ {0, 1}.
Since xi and p(x) are relatively prime, we have ai (x) ̸= 0.
• For 0 ≤ i ̸= j < 2m − 1, ai (x) ̸= aj (x).
0 + αi = αi + 0 = αi ,
3. For i ̸= j,
(ai0 +aj0 )+(ai1 +aj1 )α+(ai2 +aj2 )α2 +· · ·+(ai(m−1) +aj(m−1) )αm−1
! !2 !4 !8 !16 ! !
!3 !6 !12 !24 !48 ! !3
! !9
Representations of GF(24). p(z) = z4 + z + 1
Exponential Polynomial Binary Decimal Minimal
Notation Notation Notation Notation Polynomial
0 0 0000 0 x
!0 1 0001 1 x+1
!1 z 0010 2 x4 + x + 1
!2 z2 0100 4 x4 + x + 1
!3 z3 1000 8 x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1
!4 z+1 0011 3 x4 + x + 1
!5 z2 + z 0110 6 x2 + x + 1
!6 z3 + z2 1100 12 x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1
!7 z3 + z + 1 1011 11 x4 + x3 + 1
!8 z2 + 1 0101 5 x4 + x + 1
!9 z3 + z 1010 10 x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1
!10 z2 + z + 1 0111 7 x2 + x + 1
!11 z3 + z2 + z + 1 1110 14 x4 + x3 + 1
!12 z3 + z2 + z + 1 1111 15 x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1
!13 z3 + z2 + 1 1101 13 x4 + x3 + 1
!14 z3 + 1 1001 9 x4 + x3 + 1
GF(2) GF(3)
+ 0 1 * 0 1 + 0 1 2 * 0 1 2
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 1 1! 1 2 0 1 0 1 2
GF(2)[!] 2! 2 0 1 2 0 2 1
!2+ !+1 Primitive polynomial over GF(2)
GF(4) GF(22), p(x) = 1 + x + x2
( p(!) = 1 + ! + ! 2 = 0 )
+ 0 1 2 3 * 0 1 2 3
0 0 1 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0
1! 1 0 3 2 1 0 3 1 2 1! 1 10 2
!! ! 01 1
2! 2 3 0 1 2 0 1 2 3
!2 1+ ! 11 3
3! 3 2 1 0 3 0 2 3 1
Properties of GF (2m )
• In GF (2) x4 + x3 + 1 is irreducible; however, in GF (24 ),
x4 + x3 + 1 = (x + α7 )(x + α11 )(x + α13 )(x + α14 ).
• Let f (x) be a polynomial with coefficients from GF (2). Let β
be an element in extension field GF (2m ). If β is a root of f (x),
ℓ
then for any ℓ ≥ 0, β 2 is also a root of f (x).
• The element β 2ℓ is called a conjugate of β.
• The 2m − 1 nonzero elements of GF (2m ) form all the roots of
2m −1
x + 1.
Proof: Let β be a nonzero element in GF (2m ). It has been
2m −1 2m −1
shown that β = 1. Then β + 1 = 0. Hence, every
m 2m −1
nonzero element of GF (2 ) is a root of x + 1. Since the
degree of x2 −1 + 1 is 2m − 1, the 2m − 1 nonzero elements of
m
2m
• The elements of GF (2 ) form all the roots of x
m
+ x.
• Let ϕ(x) be the polynomial of smallest degree over GF (2) such
that ϕ(β) = 0. The ϕ(x) is called the minimal polynomial of β.
• ϕ(x) is unique.
• The minimal polynomial ϕ(x) of a field element β is irreducible.
Proof: Suppose that ϕ(x) is not irreducible and that
ϕ(x) = ϕ1 (x)ϕ2 (x), where degrees of ϕ1 (x), ϕ2 (x) are less than
that of ϕ(x). Since ϕ(β) = ϕ1 (β)ϕ2 (β) = 0, either ϕ1 (β) = 0 or
ϕ2 (β) = 0. Contradiction.
• Let f (x) be a polynomial over GF (2). Let ϕ(x) be the minimal
polynomial of a field element β. If β is a root of f (x), then
f (x) is divisible by ϕ(x).
Proof: Let f (x) = a(x)ϕ(x) + r(x), where the degree of r(x) is
less than that of ϕ(x). Since f (β) = ϕ(β) = 0, we have
r(β) = 0. Then r(x) must be 0 since ϕ(x) is the minimal
polynomial of β.
• The minimal polynomial ϕ(x) of an element β in GF (2m )
2m
divides x + x.
• Let f (x) be an irreducible polynomial over GF (2). Let β be an
element in GF (2m ). Let ϕ(x) be the minimal polynomial of β.
If f (β) = 0, then ϕ(x) = f (x).
• Let β be an element in GF (2m ) and let e be the smallest
e
non-negative integer such that β 2 = β. Then
∏
e−1
2i
f (x) = (x + β )
i=0
Proof: Consider
[e−1 ]2 e−1
∏ ∏
2 2i 2i 2
[f (x)] = (x + β ) = (x + β ) .
i=0 i=0
i i+1
Since (x + β 2 )2 = x2 + β 2 ,
2
∏
e−1
i+1 ∏
e
i
[f (x)] = (x2 + β 2 )= (x2 + β 2 )
i=0 i=1
[e−1 ]
∏
2 2i 2 2e
= (x + β ) (x + β )
i=1
2e
Since β = β, then
∏
e−1
2 2i
[f (x)] = (x + β ) = f (x2 ).
2
i=0
[f (x)]2 = (f0 + f1 x + · · · + fe xe )2
∑e ∑ e ∑ e
= fi2 x2i + (1 + 1) fi fj xi+j
i=0 i=0 j=0
i̸=j
∑
e
= fi2 x2i .
i=0
fi = fi2 .
b(β) = 0.
• Let ϕ(x) be the minimal polynomial of an element β in
m 2e
GF (2 ). Let e be the smallest integer such that β = β. Then
∏
e−1
2i
ϕ(x) = (x + β ).
i=0
n = q · (2m − 1).
ℓ
Then n = 2m − 1. Consequently, β 2 is also a primitive element
of GF (2m ).
• If β is an element of order n in GF (2m ), all its conjugates have
the same order n.
! !2 !4 !8 !16 ! !
!3 !6 !12 !24 !48 ! !3
! !9
Representations of GF(24). p(z) = z4 + z + 1
Exponential Polynomial Binary Decimal Minimal
Notation Notation Notation Notation Polynomial
0 0 0000 0 x
!0 1 0001 1 x+1
!1 z 0010 2 x4 + x + 1
!2 z2 0100 4 x4 + x + 1
!3 z3 1000 8 x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1
!4 z+1 0011 3 x4 + x + 1
!5 z2 + z 0110 6 x2 + x + 1
!6 z3 + z2 1100 12 x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1
!7 z3 + z + 1 1011 11 x4 + x3 + 1
!8 z2 + 1 0101 5 x4 + x + 1
!9 z3 + z 1010 10 x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1
!10 z2 + z + 1 0111 7 x2 + x + 1
!11 z3 + z2 + z + 1 1110 14 x4 + x3 + 1
!12 z3 + z2 + z + 1 1111 15 x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1
!13 z3 + z2 + 1 1101 13 x4 + x3 + 1
!14 z3 + 1 1001 9 x4 + x3 + 1