7.

Differentiation of Trigonometric Function

RADIAN MEASURE. Let s denote the length of arc AB

intercepted by the central angle AOB on a circle of
radius r and let S denote the area of the sector AOB. (If s is
1/360 of the circumference,  AOB = 10; if s = r,
AOB = 1 radian). Suppose AOB is measured as a
degrees; then

 csc u du   cot u  C
2
(i) and


S  r2
360
Suppose next that AOB is measured as  radian; then
(ii) s=r and S = ½  r2
A comparison of (i) and (ii) will make clear one of the advantages of radian measure.

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS. Let  be any real

number. Construct the angle whose measure is  radians
with vertex at the origin of a rectangular coordinate
system and initial side along the positive x-axis. Take
P( x, y) on the terminal side of the angle a unit distance
from O; then sin  = y and cos  = x. The domain of
definition of both sin  and cos  is the set or real number;
the range of sin  is –1  y  1 and the range of cos  is –1  x  1. From
sin  sec  
1
tan   and
cos cos 

it follows that the range of both tan  and sec  is set of real numbers while the domain
2n  1
of definition (cos   0) is     , (n = 1, 2, 3, …). It is left as an exercise for
2
the reader to consider the functions cot  and csc .
In problem 1, we prove
sin 
lim 1
 0 
(Had the angle been measured in degrees, the limit would have been /180. For this
reason, radian measure is always used in the calculus)

This instruction material adopted from Calculus by Frank Ayres Jr 13

RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION. Let u be a differentiable function of x; then
d du d du
14. (sin u)  cos u 17. (cot u)   csc 2 u
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
15. (cos u)   sin u 18. (sec u)  sec u tan u
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
16. (tan u)  sec 2 u 19. (csc u)   csc u cot u
dx dx dx dx

8. Differentiation of Inverse trigonometric functions

THE INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS. If x  sin y , the inverse

function is written y  arc sin x . The domain of definition of arc sin x is –1  x  1,
the range of sin y; the range of arc sin x is the set if real numbers, the domain of
definition of sin y. The domain if definition and the range of the remaining inverse
trigonometric functions may be established in a similar manner.
The inverse trigonometric functions are multi-valued. In order that there be
agreement on separating the graph into single-valued arcs, we define below one such
arc (called the principal branch) for each function. In the accompanying graphs, the
principal branch is indicated by a thickening of the line.

y = arc sin x y = arc cos x y = arc tan x

Fig. 13-1
Function Principal Branch
y = arc sin x  12   y  12 
y = arc cos x 0 y 
y = arc tan x  12   y  12 
y = arc cot x 0 y 
y = arc sec x    y   12  , 0  y  12 
y = arc csc x    y   12  , 0  y  12 
RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION. Let u be a differentiable function of x, then
This instruction material adopted from Calculus by Frank Ayres Jr 14
 d 1 du d 1 du
20. dx (arc sin u)  23. (arc cot u)  
1  u 2 dx dx 1  u 2 dx
d 1 du d 1 du
21. dx (arc cos u)   24. (arc sec u) 
1  u 2 dx dx u u  1 dx
2

d 1 du d 1 du
22. dx (arc tan u)  25. (arc csc u)  
1  u 2 dx dx u u  1 dx
2

9. DIFFERENTIATION OF EXPONENTIAL AND

LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

h
 1
THE NUMBER e = hlim 1    lim (1  k )1 / k
 

k 0 h
1 1 1
= 11        2.178 28
2! 3! n!

NOTATION. If a > 0 and a  1, and if ay = x, then y = log ax

y  log e x  ln x y  log10 x  log x
The domain of definition is x > 0; the range is the set of real numbers.

y = ln x y = eax y = e-ax
Fig. 14-1
Rules of differentiation. If u is a differentiable function of x,
d a 1 du
26. ( log u)  ,  a  0 , a  1
dx u ln a dx
d 1 du
27. (ln u) 
dx u dx
d u du
28. (a )  au ln a ,  a  0
dx dx
d u du
29. (e )  e u
dx dx
LOGARITHMIC DIFFERENTIATION. If a differentiable function y = f(x) is the
product of several factors, the process of differentiation may be simplified by taking the

This instruction material adopted from Calculus by Frank Ayres Jr 15

natural logarithm of the function before differentiating or, what is the same thing, by
using the formula
d du
30. (y)  y  ln y 
dx dx

10. DIFFERENTIATION OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

DEFINITIONS OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTION. For u any real number, except

where noted:
e u  e u 1 e u  e u
sinh u  coth u   u , (u  0)
2 tanh u e  e u
e u  e u 1 2
cosh u  sec h u   u
2 cosh u e  e u
sinh u e u  e  u 1 2
tanh u   csc h u   u , (u  0)
cosh u e u  e u sinh u e  e u

DIFFERENTIATION FORMULAS. If u is a differentiable function of x,

d du d du
31. (sinh u)  cosh u 34. (coth u)   csc h 2 u
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
32. (cosh u)  sinh u 35. (sec h u)   sec h u tanh u
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
33. (tanh u)  sec h 2 u 36. (csc h u)   csc h u coth u
dx dx dx dx

DEFINITIONS OF INVERSE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS.

u 1
sinh 1 u  ln(u  1  u 2 ) ,all u coth 1 u  12 ln , (u 2  1)
u 1
1 1 u2
cosh 1 u  ln(u  u 2  1), (u 1) sec h 1u  ln , (0  u  1)
u
1 u 1 1 u2 
tanh 1 u  12 ln , (u 2  1) csc h 1u  ln  , (u  0)
1 u u u 
 

This instruction material adopted from Calculus by Frank Ayres Jr 16

Differentiation formulas. If u is a differentiable function of x,
d 1 1 du
37. dx (sinh u) 
1u 2 dx

d 1 1 du
38. dx (cosh u)  , (u  1)
1  u 2 dx
d 1 1 du
39. dx (tanh u)  , (u 2  1)
2
1  u dx
d 1 1 du
40. dx (coth u)  , (u 2  1)
2
1  u dx
d 1 1 du
41. dx (sec h u)  , (0  u  1)
u 1u 2 dx

d 1 du
(csc h 1 u)  , (u  0)
42. dx u 1  u 2 dx

11. PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF CURVES

PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS. If the coordinates (x, y) of a point P on a curve are

given as functions x = f(u), y = g(u) of a third variable or parameters u, the equations x
= f(u), y = g(u) are called parametric equations of the curve.
Example:
(a) x  cos , y  4 sin 2  are parametric equations, with parameter , of the parabola
4x + y = 4, since 4 x 2  y  4 cos 2   4 sin 2  4
(b) x  12 t , y  4  t is another parametric representation, with parameter t, of the
2

same curve.

(a) (b)
Fig. 16-1
It should be noted that the first set of parametric equations represents only a
portion of the parabola, whereas the second represents the entire curve.
This instruction material adopted from Calculus by Frank Ayres Jr 17
 dy dy dy / du
THE FIRST DERIVATIVE is given by 
dx dx dx / du
d2y d2y d  dy  du
The second derivative is given by 2
  
dx 2
dx du  dx  dx

SOLVED PROBLEMS
dy d2y
1. Find and , given x =  - sin , y = 1- cos
dx dx 2
dx dy dy dy / d sin 
 1  cos ,  sin  , and  
d d dx dx / d 1  cos
d2y d  sin   d cos  1 1 1
     
d  1  cos  dx 1  cos  1  cos 1  cos  2
2 2
dx

12. FUNDAMENTAL INTEGRATION FORMULAS

IF F(x) IS A FUNCTION Whose derivative F`(x)=f(x) on a certain interval of the x-

axis, then F(x) is called an anti-derivative or indefinite integral of f(x). The indefinite
integral of a given function is not unique; for example, x2, x2 + 5, x2 – 4 are indefinite
d d d
integral of f(x) = 2x since (x 2 )  ( x 2  5)  ( x 2  4)  2 x . All indefinite
dx dx dx
integrals of f(x) = 2x are then included in x2 + C where C, called the constant of
integration, is an arbitrary constant.
The symbol  f ( x ) dx is used to indicate that the indefinite integral of f(x) is to be

 2 x dx  x C
2
found. Thus we write

FUNDAMENTAL INTEGRATION FORMULAS. A number of the formulas below

follow immediately from the standard differentiation formulas of earlier chapters while
Formula 25, for example, may be checked by showing that
d 1 u 
 2 u a  u  2 a arcsin  C   a  u
2 2 1 2 2 2

du  a 
Absolute value signs appear in certain of the formulas. For example, we write
d
5.  du  ln u  C
instead of
du du
5(a)  u
 ln u  C , u  0 5(b).  u
 ln(u )  C , u  0

This instruction material adopted from Calculus by Frank Ayres Jr 18

and
10.  tan u du  ln sec u C

instead of
10(a)  tan u du  ln sec u  C , all u such that sec u  1
10(b)  tan u du  ln ( sec u )  C , all u such that sec u  -1

Fundamental Integration Formulas

d
1.  dx  f (x) dx  f (x)  C 18.

 csc u cot u du   csc u  C

du 1 u
2.  (u  v) dx   u dx   v dx 19.  a2  u2 
a
arc tan  C
a

3.  au dx  a u dx , a any constant 20.

du u
 a2  u2
 arc sin
a
C

u m 1
4.  u m du 
m 1
 C, m  1

du
5.  u
 ln u  C

au
6.  a u du 
ln a
 C, a  0, a  1

 e du  e  C,
u u
7.
8.  sin u du   cos u  C
9.  cos u du  sin u  C
10.  tan u du  ln sec u  C
11.  cot u du  ln sin u  C
12.  sec u du  ln sec u  tan u  C
13.  csc u du  ln csc u  cot u  C
14.  sec u du  tan u  C
2

15.  csc u du   cot u  C

2

16.  sec u tan u du  sec u  C

du 1 u
21.  2 2

a
arc sec  C
a
u u a
du 1 ua
22.  2 2
 ln
2a u  a
C
u a
du 1 au
23.  2 2
 ln
2a a  u
C
a u

This instruction material adopted from Calculus by Frank Ayres Jr 19

 du
24.   ln u  u 2  a 2   C
2
u a 2  

du
25.  2 2
 ln u  u 2  a 2  C
u a
u
26.  a 2  u 2 du  1 u a 2  u 2  1 a 2 arcsin  C
2 2 a
 
27.  u 2  a 2 du  1 u u 2  a 2  1 a 2 ln u 
2 2 
u2  a2   C

 
28.  u 2  a 2 du  1 u u 2  a 2  1 a 2 ln u 
2 2 
u2  a2   C


13. INTEGRATION BY PARTS

INTEGRATION BY PARTS. When u and v are differentiable function of

d (uv) = u dv + v du
u dv = d(uv) – v(du)
(i)  u dv  uv   v du
To use (i) in effecting a required integration, the given integral must be
separated into two parts, one part being u and the other part, together with dx, being dv.
(For this reason, integration by the use of (i) is called integration by parts.) Two general
rules can be stated:
(a) the part selected as dv must be readily integrable
(b)  v du must not be more complex than  u dv

x
3
Example 1: Find e x dx

2
Take u = x2 and dv  e x x dx ; then du = 2x dx and v  12 e x . Now by the rule
2

x e dx  12 x 2 e x   x e x dx  12 x 2 e x  12 e x  C
2 x2 2 2 2 2

 ln( x  2) dx
2
Example 2: Find
2 x dx
Take u = ln (x2 + 2) and dv = dx; then du  and v = x. By the rule.
x2  2
2 x 2 dx  4 
 ln(x  2)dx  x ln(x  2)   x 2  2  x ln(x  2)    2  x 2  2 dx
2 2 2

 x ln ( x 2  2)  2 x  2 2 arc tan x / 2  C

This instruction material adopted from Calculus by Frank Ayres Jr 20

REDUCTION FORMULAS. The labour involved in successive applications of
integration by parts to evaluate an integral may be materially reduced by the use of
reduction formulas. In general, a reduction formula yields a new integral of the same
form as the original but with an exponent increased or reduced. A reduction formula
succeeds if ultimately it produces an integral which can be evaluated. Among the
reduction formulas are:
du 1  u 2m  3 du 
(A).  (a 2
u )
2 m
 2 2 2 m 1
a  (2m  2)(a  u )
  2 m 1 
2m  2 ( a  u ) 
2
, m 1

u (a 2  u 2 ) m 2ma 2
(B).  (a 2  u 2 ) m du 
2m  1 
 (a 2  u 2 ) m1 du, m  1 / 2
2m  1
du 1  u 2m  3 du 
(C).  (u 2
a )
2 m
 2  2 2 m 1
a  (2m  2)(u  a )
  2 m 1 
2m  2 (u  a ) 
2
, m 1

u (u 2  a 2 ) m 2ma 2
(D).  (u 2  a 2 ) m du 
2m  1 
 (u 2  a 2 ) m 1 du, m  1 / 2
2m  1
1 m
u du  u m e au   u m 1e au du
m
(E). e au
2 a
sin m 1 u cos u m  1
(F).  sin m u du  
m 
 sin m  2 u du
m
cos m 1 u sin u m  1
 cos u du    cos m  2 u du
m
(G).
m m
sin m 1 u cos n 1 u n 1
(H).  sin m u cos m u du  
mn
 sin m u cos n  2 u du
mn
sin m 1 u cos n 1 u m  1

mn

mn  sin m  2 u cos n u du , m  n

um m
 n sin bu du   cos bu   u m 1 cos bu du
m
(I).
b b
um m
 n cos bu du   sin bu   u m 1 sin bu du
m
(J).
b b

This instruction material adopted from Calculus by Frank Ayres Jr 21

 14. TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGRALS

THE FOLLOWING IDENTITIES are employed to find the trigonometric integrals

of this chapter.

This instruction material adopted from Calculus by Frank Ayres Jr 22

1. sin 2 x  cos 2 x  1 7. sin x cos y  12  sin( x  y )  sin( x  y )
2. 1  tan 2 x  sec 2 x
8. sin x sin y  12  cos( x  y )  cos( x  y )
3. 2
1  cot x  csc x 2
9. cos x cos y  12  cos( x  y)  cos( x  y)
4. sin 2 x  1 (1  cos 2 x )
2
10. 1  cos x  2 sin 2 1 x
2 1 2
5. cos x 
2
(1  cos 2x )
11. 1  cos x  2 cos 2 1 x
2
6. sin x cos x  12 sin 2x
12. 1  sin x  1  cos( 12   x )

This instruction material adopted from Calculus by Frank Ayres Jr 23

 SOLVED PROBLEMS

SINES AND COSINES

 sin x dx   (1  cos 2 x ) dx  x  14 sin 2 x  C
2 1 1
1. 2 2

 cos 3 x dx   (1  cos 6 x ) dx  x  12 sin 6 x  C

2 1 1 1
2. 2 2

 sin x dx   sin 2 x sin x dx   (1  cos 2 x) sin x dx   cos x  18 cos 3 x  C

3
3.

 cos x dx   cos x cos x dx   (1  sin x) cos x dx

3 4 2 2
4.
  cos x dx  2  sin x cos x dx   sin x cos x dx
2 4

 sin x  23 sin 3 x  15 sin 3 x  C

 sin x cos 3 x dx   sin x cos 2 x cos x dx   sin 2 x (1  sin 2 x) cos x dx

2 2
5.
  sin 2 x cos x dx   sin 4 x cos x dx  13 sin 3 x  15 sin 5 x  C

This instruction material adopted from Calculus by Frank Ayres Jr 24

 15. TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTIONS

AN INTEGRAND, which contains one of the forms a 2  b 2u 2 , a 2  b 2u 2 , or

b 2u 2  a 2 but no other irrational factor, may be transformed into another involving
trigonometric functions of a new variable as follows:

For Use To obtain

a b u
2 2 2 a a 1  sin 2 z  a cos z
u sin z
b
a 2  b 2u 2 a a 1  tan 2 z  a sec z
u  tan z
b
b 2u 2  a 2 a a sec 2 z  1  a tan z
u  sec z
b
In each case, integration yields an expression in the variable z. The corresponding
expression in the original variable may be obtained by the use of a right triangle as
shown in the solved problems below.

SOLVED PROBLEMS
dx
1. Find x 2
4  x2
Let x = 2 tan z; then dx = 2 sec2z dz and 4  x 2  2 sec z

dx 2 sec 2 z dz 1 sec z
x 2
4  x2
  (4 tan 2 z )(2 sec z )  4  tan 2 z dz
1 1 4  x2
4
 sin  2 z cos z dz   C   C
4 sin z 4x

x2
2. Find  x2  4
dx

Let x = 2 sec z; then dx = 2 sec z tan z dz and

x 2  4  2 tan z

x2 4 sec 2 z
 dx   2 tan z (2 sec z tan z dz)  4 sec z dz
3

x2  4
 2 sec z tan z  2 ln sec z  tan z  C

 1
2 x x 2  4  2 ln x  x2  4  C

9  4x 2
3. Find  x
dx

Let x  32 sin z ; then dx  32 cos z dz and

9  4 x 2  3 cos z

This instruction material adopted from Calculus by Frank Ayres Jr 25

 9  4x 2 3 cos z 3 2

 dx   3  2 cos z dz   3 cos z dz
x 2
sin z sin z
1  sin 2 z
 3 dz  3 csc z dz  3 sin z dz
sin z
 3 ln csc z  cot z  3 cos z  C

3 9  4x 2
 3 ln  9  4x 2  C
x

16. INTEGRATION BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS

A POLYNOMIAL IN x is a function of the form a0xn + a1xn + … + an-1xn + an, where the
a’s are constants, a0  0, and n is a positive integer including zero.
If two polynomials of the same degree are equal for all values of the variable, the
coefficients of the like powers of the variable in the two polynomials are equal.
Every polynomial with real coefficients can be expressed (at least, theoretically)
as a product of real linear factors of the form ax + b and real irreducible quadratic factors
of the form ax2 + bx + c.

f ( x)
A function F ( x )  , where f(x) and g(x) are polynomials, is called a rational
g ( x)
fraction.
If the degree of f(x) is less than the degree of g(x), F(x) is called proper;
otherwise. F(x) is called improper.
An improper rational fraction can be expressed as the sum of a polynomial and a
x2 x
proper rational fraction. Thus,  x 2 .
x 1
2
x 1
Every proper rational fraction can be expressed (at least, theoretically) as a sum
of simpler fractions (partial fractions) whose denominators are of the form (ax + b)n and
(ax2 + bx + c)n, n being a positive integer. Four cases, depending upon the nature of the
factors of the denominator, arise.

CASE I. DISTINCT LINEAR FACTORS

To each linear factor ax + b occurring once in the denominator of a proper
A
rational fraction, there corresponds a single partial fraction of the form , where A
ax  b
is a constant to be determined.

This instruction material adopted from Calculus by Frank Ayres Jr 26

CASE II. REPEATED LINEAR FACTORS
To each linear factor ax + b occurring n times in the denominator of a proper
rational fraction, there corresponds a sum of n partial fractions of the form
A1 A2 An
  
ax  b (ax  b) 2
(ax  b) n
where the A’s are constants to be determined.

CASE III. DISTINCT QUADRATIC FACTORS

To each irreducible quadratic factor ax2 + bx + c occurring once in the
denominator of a proper rational fraction, there corresponds a single partial fraction of
Ax  B
the form , where A and B are constants to be determined.
ax  bx  c
2

CASE IV. REPEATED QUADRATIC FACTORS

To each irreducible quadratic factor ax2 + bx + c occurring n times in the
denominator of a proper rational fraction, there corresponds a sum of n partial fraction of
the form
A1 x  B1 A2 x  B2 An x  Bn
  
ax  bx  c (ax  bx  c)
2 2 2
(ax 2  bx  c) n
where the A’s and B’s are constants to be determined.

SOLVED PROBLEMS
dx
1. Find x 4 2

(a) Factor the denominator: x2 – 4 = (x-2)(x+2)

1 A B
Write 2   and clear of fraction to obtain
x 4 x2 x2
(1) 1 = A(x + 2) + B(x – 2) or (2) 1 = (A + B)x + (2A – 2B)
(b) Determine the constants
General method. Equate coefficients of like powers of x in (2) and solve
simultaneously for the constants. Thus, A + B = 0 and 2A – 2B = 1; A  14 , and
B   14 .
Short method. Substitute in (1) the values x = 2 and x = -2 to obtain 1 =
4A and 1 = -4B; then A  14 and B   14 , as before. (Note that the values of x
used are those for which the denominator of the partial fractions become 0).
1 1
1
(c) By either method: 2  4
 4 and
x 4 x2 x2
dx 1 dx 1 dx 1 1 1 x2
x 2
4
 
4 x  2
 
4 x  2
 ln x  2  ln x  2  C  ln
4 4 4 x 2
C

This instruction material adopted from Calculus by Frank Ayres Jr 27

 ( x  1)dx
2. Find x 3
 x 2  6x
x 1 A B C
(a) x3+ x2 – 6x = x(x – 2)(x + 3). Then    and
x  x  6x x x  2 x  3
2 3

(1) x + 1 = A(x – 2)(x + 3) + Bx(x + 3) + Cx (x – 2) or

(2) x + 1 = (A + B + C)x2 + (A + 3B – 2C)x – 6A
(b) General method. Solve simultaneously the system of equation
A + B + C = 0, A + 3B – 2C = 1, and -6A = 1
To obtain A = -1/6, B = 3/10, and C = -2/15.
Short method. Substitute in (1) the values x = 0, x = 2, and x = -3 to obtain 1 =
-6A or A = -1/6, 3 = 10B or B = 3/10, and –2 = 15C or C = -2/15
( x  1)dx 1 dx 3 dx 2 dx
(c)  3      
x  x  6x
2
6 x 10 x  2 15 x  3
3 / 10
1 3 2 x2
 ln x  ln x  2  ln x  3  C  ln 1 / 6 2 / 15
C
6 10 15 x x3

(3x  5)dx
3. Find x 3
 x2  x 1
3x  5 A B C
x3 – x2 – x + 1 = (x+1)(x-1)2. Then    and
x 3
x 2
 x 1 x 1 x 1 ( x  1) 2
3x + 5 = A(x – 1)2 + B(x + 1)(x – 1) + C (x+1).

For x = -1, 2 = 4A and A = ½. For x = 1, 8 = 2C and C = 4. To determine the

remaining constant, use any other value of x, say x = 0; for x = 0,
5 = A – B + C and B = -½ . Thus
(3 x  5)dx 1 dx 1 dx dx
x 3
   
 x  x 1 2 x 1 2 x 1
2
 4
( x  1) 2
1 1 4
 ln x  1  ln x  1   C
2 2 x -1
4 1 x 1
  ln  C
x -1 2 x -1

This instruction material adopted from Calculus by Frank Ayres Jr 28