Science and Computers

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FACULTY OF WEAPON TECHNOLOGY, EME SCHOOL

BARODA.
UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS

Units and Standards.: In making a measurement of any physical quantity, some definite
and convenient quantity of the same kind is taken as the standard, in terms of which the
quantity as a whole is expresses .The conventional quantity used as the standard of
measurement is called a unit. The unit of area is the area of a square each side of which is
of unit length. Two Important Systems of Fundamental Units are there. They are
The C.G.S. System (Metric System)
The F.P.S. System (British System)
In the C.G.S. system C stands for ‘Centimetre (cm.)’ as the unit of length, G for ‘Gram
(gm.) as the unit of mass, and S for “Second (sec.) as the unit of time.
In the F..P.S. system, F stands for ‘Foot (ft.)’ as the unit of length, P for ‘Pound (lb.)’ as the
unit of mass, and S for ‘Second (sec.) as the unit of time.
In MKS System M stands for metre, k stands for kilogram, S stands for second.
SI : In this system there are seven fundamental quantities which are as shown below:
S.No Physical quantity Name Symbol
1. Length meter m
2. Mass kilogram kg
3. Time second s
4. Temperature Kelvin K
5. Luminous Intensity Candle Cd
6. Electric current ampere A
7. Amount of substance mole mol
SPEED: The rate of change of position a of body irrespective of direction is called Speed.
Speed = Distance traveled = s meters
Time taken t seconds
= s m/s
t
Speed is a scalar quantity i.e., it has magnitude only.
VELOCITY:
The rate of change of position of a body in a particular direction is called velocity. The
distance covered in a particular direction per unit time measures it.
Velocity = Distance covered (in particular direction)
Time
 V = s meters = s m/s
T seconds t
Velocity is a vector quantity i.e., it posses both magnitude and direction.
UNIFORM VELOCITY:
If a body covers equal distances, in a particular direction, in equal intervals of time,
however small, it is said to move with uniform velocity.
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Consider a truck moving along Ahmedabad Road This truck is covering equal distances (5
meters) in equal intervals of time(sys , 1 second) in the same direction. Therefore truck is
moving with a uniform velocity. In this case, velocity of truck
= 5m = 5ms-1
1s
VARIABLE VELOCITY:
If a body covers unequal distances in a particular direction, in equal intervals of time
however small, it is said to move with a variable velocity.
It should be noted that even if a body covers equal distances in equal intervals of time, but
changes its direction, it is said to possess variable velocity.
AVERAGE VELEOCITY:
The average velocity of moving body during a given interval of time is measured by the
total distance traveled divided by total time taken.
Average velocity = Total distance traveled
Total time taken
ACCELERATION:
The rate of change of velocity is called acceleration. In other words, acceleration is a
change of velocity per unit time.
Acceleration = Change in velocity
Time
(OR) a= v-u
t
where a = Acceleration of body
u = Initial velocity
v = Final velocity
t = Time taken for the velocity to change from u to v.
Acceleration has magnitude as well as direction; therefore it is a vector quantity.
NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION:
“If a body is at rest, it will continue to remain at rest until it is acted upon by some external
agency.”
FORCE:
It is defined as that external agency that changes or tends to change the state of rest or of
uniform motion of a body in a straight line.
The first law of motion is also called the “Law of Inertia” inertia is the inability of a material
body to change by itself its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line.
NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION:
According to Newton’s second law of motion, the rate of change of momentum of a body is
directly proportional to the impressed force and takes place in the direction of the force.
Momentum: It is the quantity of motion of a body. It is the product of mass and velocity.
It is a vector quantity.
Momentum = mass x velocity.
The units of momentum are:(1) In C.G.S. units; g-cm/s (2) In rationalized units, kg-m/s.
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NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION:

According to Newton’s third law of motion, to every action there is always an equal and
opposite reaction.
CERTRIFUGAL FORCE:
Centrifugal force. When a body is rotating on a circular path, it has a tendency to move
along a tangent. If a body A leaves the circular; path at any instant, for an observer B who
is not sharing the motion along the circular path (i.e., a body B standing outside the
reference circle), the body A appears to fly off tangentially at the point of release. For an A
unit work is said to be done by a unit force when the body moves through a unit distance in
the direction of the observer C, who is sharing the same circular motion as that of the body
A, the body A appears t be at rest before it is released. According to C, when A is
released, it appears to fly off radically away from the center. It appears to the body C as if
the body A has been thrown off along the radius away from the center by some force. This
inertia force if known as centrifugal forces. Its magnitude is mv2/r. It is not a force of
reaction. Centrifugal force is a fictitious force and holds good in rotating frame of
reference.
When a car is turning round a corner, the persons sitting inside the car experience an
outward force. This is due to the fact that no centripetal force is provided by the
passengers are to exert an inward force.
Applications:
1.Sugar crystals are separated from molasses with the help of a centrifuge.
2.In cream separators, when the vessel containing the milk is rotated at high speed, the
lighter cream particles collect ear the axle while the skimmed milk moves away from the
axles.
3. In drying machines, the wet clothes are rotated at high speed. The water particles fly
off tangentially through the holes in the wall of the outer vessel.
4.Honey is also separated from bees wax with the help of a centrifuge.
5. Analysis of blood samples.
WORK:
The term ‘work’ by itself does not convey any meaning in physics. Work is either does
on a body or by a body. Therefore the complete term is
(I)work done on a body
(II) work done by a body.
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In everyday life the term work is attributed to numerous acts eg: lifting a log, going up a
hill, coming down the hill, stopping a moving ball, bullet hitting a target etc.
Work done is equal to the product of the force and distance moved by the body along the
direction of the force.
W = F x S
Units of Work:
W = F x S Force x distance,
MKS. UNITS Work is Joule
CGS .UNITS Work is ergs.
Power : power is defined as the rate of doing work.
Power = work done / Time
Units of power = watt in MKS
= ergs/s in CGS , =HP in FPS.
Energy : Energy of a body is defined as its capacity to do work. In physics there are many
forms of energy e.g heat, light, sound, magnetic, electric, potential etc.In mechanics we
are mainly concerned with the two forms of energy of a body v/z. Kinetic energy and
potential energy.
Kinetic Energy : It is energy possessed by a moving body
MAGNITUDE OF KINETIC ENERGY:
Consider a body of mass M moving with a velocity v. A retarding force F is applied on the
body to bring it to rest. Let the body move a distance S before coming to rest and the
retardation be a.
o - v2 = 2(-a)S
 a = v2
2s
Retardation force = Ma = Mv2
2S
work done by the before coming to rest
= F x S
= Mv2 x S = ½ Mv2
2S
 Kinetic energy = ½ Mv2
POTENTIAL ENERGY:
It is the mechanical energy passed by a body due to its position or distortion. At the
ground level, the potential energy of a body is a body of mass M at a higher h above the
ground.
This body can do work = Mg x h when allowed to fall freely. Therefore its capacity to
do work = Mgh and its potential energy = Mgh.
A compressed spring and stretched wire have potential energy spring in a watch after
winding possesses potential energy. Any body subjected to deforming forces possesses
potential energy.
Unit of Energy. Energy has the same units as that of work.
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LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY:

The total energy of a body remains constant. Only one form of energy changes into
another form. Potential Energy + kinetic Energy = Constant.
SIMPLE MACHINES:
In modern age, in every instrument or mechanism, we come across some simple devices.
These devices are levers, pulleys, screw jack, wedge, inclined plane etc. These devices
are called simple machines. If a tyre of a car is to be replaced, the screw jack is used to lift
the car. Loading of trucks and goods wagons is done with a plank serving as an inclined
plane. Scissors, pair of tongs, forceps, punching machine etc., work on the principle of
levers. Knife works on the principle of a wedge.
Simple machines are those where the effort is applied at a more convenient point in a
more convenient direction.
Eg.5 Physical quantities, formulas and units.
Sr.No Physical quantity Formula Units

1. Velocity displacement m/sec.
2. Acceleration Velocity/time m/sec2.
3. Force Mass x acceleration kg or Newton
4. Work Force x distance kg-m
5. Power Work / time kg-m/sec.
6. Pressure Force/ area kg/m2.
7. Stress Force/ area kg/m2
8. Moment Force x distance kg-m.
9. Torque Force x distance kg-m.
10. Couple Force x distance kg-m.
11. Effort Force kg.
12. Energy Capacity to do work kg-m
Eg.6. What is the work done by a man in carrying a suitcase weight 30 kg over head when
he travels a distance of 10 in (1) vertically and (2). Horizontal direction.
(1) Distance moved in vertical direction =10 m.
Work done = mgh = 30 x 9.8 x 10= 2940 Joules.
(2). Since a force has no component at right angles to it, therefore, component of mgh in
the horizontal direction = F = mg cos90=0,
Eg.7.A man whose mass is 60 kg walks up to the top of building whose height is 15 m
above the street level?
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(1) How many joules of work has he done.

(2) What is the increase in his potential energy,
m= 60 kg, g= -9.8 m/.sec2. (1) work done = 60 x 9.8 x 15 joules.
(2). Increase in P.E = work done = 60 x 9.8 x 15 =8820 Joules.
Eg.8. The value of “g” is maximum at ( HMT 1993)

(a) At earth’s surface (b), At earth center (c) At hill top (d) Deep mine
Eg.9. If a ball thrown up, the highest point will be__________ ( HMT –1993)
Eg.10.One HP is equal to_____________ watts (HMT-1993)
Eg.11. Length, mass, time, are _______________ (HMT-1993)
Eg.12. Static friction is always less than the dynamic friction (T/F) (HMT-1994)
HEAT
Heat is defined as energy in transit.
The temperature of a system can be defined as the property that determines whether or
not the body is in thermal equilibrium with the neighboring systems. If a number of systems
are in thermal equilibrium, this common property of the system can be represented by a
single numerical vale called the temperature. It means that if two systems are not in
thermal equilibrium, they are at different temperatures.
THERMOMETRY:
The branch of heat relating to the measurement of temperature (degree of hotness) of a
body is called thermometry. Thermometer is the instrument used to measure the
temperature of a body.
Types of Thermometers:
There are different kinds of thermometers:
(i) Liquid thermometers. These thermometers are based on the principle of change in
volume of a liquid with change in temperature. Mercury and alcohol thermometers are
based on this principle.
(ii)Gas thermometers. These are based on the principle of change in pressure or volume
with change in temperature, Eg: Callendar’s constant pressure thermometer, constant
volume hydrogen thermometer, etc.
(iii) Resistance thermometers. These are based on the principle of change in resistance
with change in temperature, Eg: platinum resistance thermometer.
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(iv)Thermo-electric thermometers. These are based on the principle of thermo-electricity,

Eg:-production of thermo - EME in a thermo-couple when the two junctions are at different
temperatures.
(v)Radiation thermometers. These are based on the quantity of heat radiations emitted
by a body Ex:- furnaces. These instrument s are know as pyrometers.
(vi) Vapour pressure thermometers. These are based on the principle of change of vapour
pressure with change in temperature. These are used to measure low temperatures, Ex:-
helium vapour pressure thermometer, etc.
Celsius , Fahrenheit and Reaumur Relation:-
C = F - 32 = R
100 180 80
Relation between Celsius, Kelvin, Fahrenheit and Rankin Relation:
C -0 = F - 32 = K - 273 = R
100 180 100 80
SPECIFIC HEAT:
When a body is heated, its temperature rises. If 100gm of copper and 100gm of water are
heated by similar burners for the same time, the rise in temperature is not the same in the
two cases. The rise in temperature depends on the quantity of heat given to the body and
the nature of its material. Let Q be the quantity of heat given to a body of mass m and
let the rise in temperature be .
Then, Q = ms
where s is a constant that depends upon the nature of the substance. s is called the
specific heat of the substance.
Calorie: It is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water
from 14.50 to15.50 C. This is the standard unit recommend by International Committee of
Pure Physics.
For ordinary purposes, the specific heat of water is taken as 1 but specific heat of water is
not 1 at all temperatures. For practical purposes calorie may be defined as the amount of
heat required to raise the temperature of 1gm of water through 1 0 C.
Kilogram Calorie: It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature 1kg of water
through 10c.
1kg calorie = 1000 calories.
1pound calories = 453.6 calories.
UNITS OF HEAT
Unit Quantity of Rise in
Water temp. Relation
0
Calorie 1gm 1c = 1 Calorie
Kg Calorie 1 kg 1 0c = 1000 Calories
BUT 1 pound 1 0F = 252 Calories
Therm 105pound 1 0F =2.52x 107 calories
Pound Calorie 1 pound 10c =453.6 Calories
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Specific heat: Specific heat is defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature of one gram of a substance through 1 0c. The specific heat of a substance is
not constant and it is deferent at different temperatures. Ordinarily, the specific heat
determined is the mean specific heat, Suppose, m is the mass of the substance, s is the
mean specific heat and if Q units of heat is required to raise its temperature from 1 to 2 ,
then the mean specific heat
s = Q / m(2 - 1)
For qualitative work, if dQ heat is given to raise the temperature of m grams of substance
through d.
dQ = m s d
s = 1 x d
m x dt
The unit of specific heat is ‘cal/g0C’
Thermal Capacity. It is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of the whole
of the substance through 10C. Let the mass of the substance be m and its specific heat
s.
Thermal capacity = m x s x 1
= ms calories.
Water Equivalent. It is the amount of water that will absorb the same quantity of heat as
the substance for the same rise in temperature. Let the mass of the substance be m ,
specific heat s and rise in temperature .
Q = ms
If the water equivalent = W
Q = W x 1 x 
 W x 1 x  = ms
(OR) W = ms grams
Water equivalent is numerically equal to the thermal capacity but the unit of water
equivalent is gram and that of thermal capacity is calorie.
CHANGE OF STATE:
A substance can exit in three states viz. Solid, Liquid and Gas. The particular state of a
substance depends on its temperature. According to the kinetic theory, the molecules of a
substance in the solid state have less degree of freedom than a substance in the liquid or
gaseous state. The molecules are more free to move in the gaseous state. The change in
state can be brought about by supplying or withdrawing heat from the substance. Ice is
the solid state of water. By supplying heat to ice, it can be changed into water. Similarly
by supplying heat to water, it can be converted into the gaseous state(steam). This is true
for all substances. Even permanent gases like oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen etc can be
liquefied at low temperatures.
For a given substance the change of state takes place at a fixed temperature and
pressure. When the substance changes from the solid to the liquid state, the heat supplied
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at the constant temperature (called melting point) is used to overcoming the forces of
intermolecular attraction. The mean molecular distance increases and the molecules from
the liquid to the gaseous state at a fixed temperature (called the boiling point) and
pressure, the heat supplied is used in increasing the mean molecular distance. The
molecules become free to move about in the whole space available to them.
LATENT HEAT OF FUSION:
Take small pieces of ice in a beaker. Fix a thermometer to note the temperature of ice in
the beaker. Heat up beaker slowly. Ice melts but the thermometer does not show any rise
in temperature. When the whole of ice has melted the temperature of water rises and the
thermometer indicates it. During the process of conversion from ice to water (change of
state from solid to liquid) the heat supplied is used to change the state of ice from solid
state to liquid state. This heat is called latent heat. Latent means hidden i.e.. Which is not
indicated by the thermometer.
It has been found that one-gram of ice takes 80 calories of heat to get it converted to
water. This heat is called latent heat of fusion of ice. Its unit is ‘cal/gram’.
Latent heat of a substance is defined as the amount of heat required changing the state of
one gram of substance from solid to liquid without any change in its temperature.
LAW OF FUSION:
(1)Every substance changes its state from solid to liquid at a particular temperature (under
normal pressure) called the melting point.
(i)As long as the change of state takes place there is no changes in temperature.
(ii)On gram of every substance requires a definite quantity of heat of change of state from
solid to liquid and it is called the latent heat of fusion of that substance. It is different for
different substance.
(2)Some substances show increase in volume on melting e.g., wax, ghee, etc. While
some other substances show decrease in volume on malting e.g., ice
(i)The melting point of those substance which decrease in volume on melting, is lowered
with increase in pressure.
(ii)The melting point of those substance which increase in volume on melting ,is increased
with increases in pressure.
Note:- (1) Ice decreases in volume on melting and its melting point is lowered with
increases in pressure.
(2) The melting point or solidification point is the same for a substance.
LAWS OF EBULLITION OR BOILING:
(1)Every liquid change its state from liquid to its vapour at a particular temperature (under normal
pressure) called the boiling point.
(i)As long as the change of state takes place, there is no change in temperature.
(ii)One gram of every liquid require a definite quantity of heat for change of state from
liquid to vapour and it is called the latent heat of vaporization of that liquid. Latent heat is
different for different substances.
(a)All liquids show increase in volume on vaporization.
(b)The boiling point of a liquid increase with increase i pressure of a liquid.
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(c)The liquid can boil at a lower temperature under reduced pressure.

LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION:
The latent heat of vaporization of a liquid is the amount of heat required to convert one
gram of the liquid into vapour without any change in temperature. For water, latent heat of
vaporization is 537 cals/grm at a pressure of 75 cm of Hg . Latent heat of vaporization
is different for different substances.
CONDUCTION:
Is the process in which heat is transmitted from one point to ten other through the
substance without the actual motion of the particles? When one end of a metal bar is
heated, the molecules at the hot end vibrate with higher amplitude (kinetic energy) and
transmit that heat energy from one particle to the next and so on. However the particles
remain in their mean positions of equilibrium. (This process of conduction is prominent in
the case of solids. The property of transmission of heat has been used in Davy’s safety
lamp. Materials having less conductivity e.g. granite, brick walls boiler etc. The space
between the two walls of a thermos flask is evacuated because vacuum is a poor
conductor of heat. The air enclosed in the woellen fabric helps in protecting us from cold
because air is a poor conductor of heat.
Convection: is the process in which heat is transmitted from one place to the other by the
actual movement of the heated particles. It is prominent in the case of liquids and gases.
Land and sea breezes, and trade winds are formed due to convection. Convection plays
an important part in ventilation; gas filled electric lamps and heating of buildings by hot
water circulation.
Radiation: is the process in which heat is transmitted from one place to the other directly
without the necessity of the intervening medium. We get heat radiations directly from the
sun without affecting the intervening medium. Heat radiation’s can pass through vacuum.
Their properties are similar to light radiations.
EXAMPLES:
1.Find the value of absolute zero of the Fahrenheit scale.
F - 32 = A - 273
180 100
Here A = 0
F - 32 = - 273
180 100
F = - 180 x 273 + 32
100
= - 459.40F
Hence 00 A = - 459.40F
2.There is a certain temperature which has the same reading on both centigrade and
Fahrenheit thermometers. Find the temperature.
F - 32 = A - 273
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180 100
Here F =C = x
 x - 32 = x
180 100
or x -32 = 9/5 x  x = -40
 - 400C = -400F
3.A faulty thermometer has its fixed points marked 5 and 95.What is he correct
temperature in centigrade when this thermometer records 59?
Let the reading on the centigrade thermometer be C
C = R - L.F.P.
100 P. –L.F.P.
C = 59 -5
100 95 -5
C = 54
100 90
C = 600C
4.A certain mass of gas exerts a pressure of 72 cm of mercury at 27 0C . It is heated at

constant volume and the pressure observed after some time is 90cm of mercury.
Calculate the temperature.
Here P1 = 72 cm of Hg P2 = 90cm of Hg
V1 = V V2 = V
T1 = 273 + 27 = 3000A T2 = ?
P2V2 = P1V1 or 90V = 72V
T2 T1 T2 300
T2 = 90 x 300 = 3750A = 1020 C
72
5.Calculate how much steam from water boiling at 100 0C will just melt 200gm of wax at
150C. (Melting point of wax = 550C , S.P. Latent heat of fusion of wax = 35 cal/gm)
Suppose mass of steam = m
Mass of wax = 200gm
Sp. Heat of wax = 0.7
Latent heat of wax = 35 cal/gm
Initial temperature of wax = 150C
Melting point of wax = 550C
Heat required to rise the temperature of wax from 15 0C to550C = 200 x 0.7 x (55 –15)
= 5600 cal
Heat required to melt wax at 550c = 200 x 35 = 7000 cal
Total heat gained by wax = 5600 + 7000
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= 12,600 cal
Heat lost by steam = m x 540 + m (100 – 55)
= 540m + 45m = 585m
Heat lost = Heat gained
585m = 12,600
m = 21.54gm
6.How much ice at 00C would a kilogram of steam at 100 0C melts, if the resulting water is
at 00C ? Latent heat of ice = 80cal/gm and latent heat of steam = 536 cal/gm.
Mass of ice = M gm
Mass of steam = 1 kg = 1000 gm
Temper of stem = 1000C
Final temp = 00C
Heat gained by ice = M x 80 cal
Heat lost by ice steam = 1000 x 536 + 1000 x 100
= 636000cal
Heat gained = Heat lost
80 M = 636000
M = 7950 gm
= 7.95kg
7. A piece of metal weighing 60 gm at 10 0C was immersed in a current of steam 100 0C .

Calculate the amount of steam condensed. Specific heat of the metal is 0.1cal/gm – 0C and
latent heat of steam is 540 cal/gm.
M = 60gm
S = 0.1 cal/gm -0C
T1 = 100C
T2 = 1000C
Heat taken by the metal = MS(T1 - T2)
= 60 x 0.1 (100 –10)
= 540 cal.
Suppose the mass of steam condensed = m grams
Latent heat of steam,
L = 540cal/gm
 Heat lost by steam,
mL = m x 540
Heat gained = Heat lost
540 = 540m
 m = 1 gm
(OR) Hence, the mass of steam condensed = 1gram.
8.An electric heater rod is dipped in a vessel containing water at 0 0C. The electric rod
produces heat at the rate of 3000J/s.The vessel with its contents is maintained at 0 0 C by
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adding ice at the rate of 9 g/s. Calculate the specific latent heat of fusion of ice . If the total
heat capacity of the water, the vessel and its contents is 12000j/K , at what rate does the
temperature start rising when the supply of ice is stopped.
(1) Here H = 3000J/s
m = 9 g/s = 9 x 10-3 kg/ s
H = mL
L = H/m
L = 3000
9 x 10-3
L = 3.33 x 105 J/Kg.
(2) When the supply of ice is stopped, let the rate of rise of temperature be 
K/s.
W = 12000J/Kg
H = 3000 J/s
H = W
 = H/W
 = 3000
12000
 = 0.25Kg/s.
9.It is found that 65,45,000 cal of heat are transmitted per minute across a sheet of
silver 10cm square and 1 mm thick, with a difference of temperature between its faces
1100C. Find the coefficient of thermal conductivity of silver.
Q = 65,45,000cal, t = 1 min = 60sec
Each side of the square = 10cm
 Area of cross-section
A = 1 mm = 1/10 cm, 1 - 2 = 1100C
Q = KA (1 -2) t
d
(OR) K = Q x d = 65,45,000 x 1
A (1 -2) t 10 x 100 x 110 x 60
= 0.99
10.Estimate the rate at which ice would melt in a wooden box 2cm thick and of inside
measurements 100 x 60 x 60 cm assuming that the external temperature, is 30 0C
and K for wood = 0.0004.
Thickness of the box = d = 2cm
1 = 300C ,
2 = 00C,
(1 -2) = 300C
Surface area of the box
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A = 2 x 100 x 60 + 2 x 60 x 60 + 2 x 100 x 60
= 31200 sq cm
Q = KA (1 -2) t
D
= 0.0004 x 31200 x 30 x 1
2
= 187.2 cal
Suppose the amount of ice melted = m grams
Q = 80m
80m = 187.2
m = 2.34 grams.
11. The height of Niagra falls is 50 meters. Calculate the difference between the
temperature of water at the top and the bottom of the falls. (J=4.2 x 107 ergs/cal)
h = 50meters = 5000 ergs
suppose difference of temperature = 0C =?
Mass of water = m
Work done (W) = mgh = m x 980 x 5000ergs
Heat produced (H) = mS = m x 1 x  calories
W = JH
m x 980 x 5000 = 4.2 x 107 x m x 
 = 980 x 5000 = 0.1170C
42 x 107
12. A 12kg mass falls through 23mm on to the ground and bounces to a height of
0.50 . Assuming that all the potential energy to is used in heating up the mass , calculate
the temperature rise. Take specific heat capacity of the material as 600 joules/kg 0C and
the force of gravity on 1kg = 10 Newton.
M = 12kg S = 600joules/kg –0C
h1 = 23mm;  = ?
h2 = 0.50 mm
g = 10 m/s2 (given)
Loss in potential energy
= Mg (h1 –- h2)
= 12 x 10(23 – 0.50)
= 2700joules
MS = 2700joules
 = 2700 = 0.3750C.
12 x 600
Eg.13. Convert 50C into Farenheit and 68 F into Centigrade. (MHT–1995)
Eg.14.Why is better to wear dark cloths in winter and bright cloths in summer,(HMT-1995)
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Eg.15.A man has a temperature of 99.8  F what will be the thermometer shows if it
measures temperature in degree Celsius? (HMT-1994)
Eg.16. A measuring unit of power (HMT-1994)
Eg.17.The velocity of light is (HMT-1994)

(a) 313 m/sec (b) 330 m/s (c). 303 m/s (d). non of these
LIGHT
Laws of Reflection:
When light is incident on any surface, part of the incident light is absorbed by the surface;
a portion may pass through it. The amount of each depends upon the nature of the
surface. The laws of reflection are known from a very remote period and they are`
H G
l
D
E F
EEEEEEE
B A
(i)the incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the surface lie in the same plane and
(ii)The angle of incidence and the angle of reflection are equal.
These laws have been found to be true both theoretically and experimentally. A highly
polished smooth surface will act as a mirror. If the reflecting surface is plane, it is called a
plane mirror. If it is spherical, it is called a spherical mirror.
Deviation by Reflection:
(1)At a single plane mirror surface. The incident ray AO makes an angle i with the
normal and reflected along OB.
the angle of deviating l = r
A
B
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BARODA.
O
C
D = Ð BOC = p - i - r = p - 2i
Also, angle D = 2,
where  is the glancing angle, and is equal to ( p/2 - i). Therefore gle of deviation
= p - 2i = 2 
(2) deviation of the reflected ray by rotating a mirror . Consider a ray AO incident on the
mirror M and reflected along OB. Suppose,  is the glancing angle.The angle of
deviation, ÐBOE = 2.
When the mirror is rotated through an angle  to a position M2, the ray gets reflected along
OC. The glancing angle in this position =  + a. . Therefore, the angle of deviation in
this position Ð COD = 2 (  + a ).
Thus, there reflected ray has been turned through an ÐBOC , when the mirror is rotated
through an angle a .
Ð BOC = Ð COL - Ð BEO = 2( + a) - 20
 b = 2a
N
N C
A M2
B
Thus, if the direction of the incident ray does not change, the angle of rotation of the
reflected ray is twice the angle of rotation of the mirror. This principle is used in an optical
lever and sextant.
Spherical Mirrors:
There are two common types of spherical mirrors.
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BARODA.
(i)Concave mirror
(ii)Convex mirror.
O F C
C F
1. Concave mirror
2. Convex mirror
In a concave mirror, a parallel beam of light after reflection actually converges to a point
called the focus. In a convex mirror, when a parallel beam of light is incident on a mirror,
the reflected rays appear to diverge from a point, called the focus. It is virtual.
Pole of the mirror. The center of the reflecting surface of the mirror is called the pole.
Center of Curvature. It is the center of that sphere of which the mirror forms a part.
Radius of Curvature. It is the radius of that sphere of which the mirror forms a part.
Principal Axis . The line joining the pole and the center of curvature is called the principle
axis of the mirror either actually converges to that point or appears to diverge from that
point.
Focus. It is the point where a parallel beam of light after reflection from the mirror either
actually converges to that point or appears to diverge from that point.
Focal Length. The distance between the pole and the focus of the mirror is called the
focal length.
For a concave mirror R and f are + ve and for a convex mirror R and f are -ve
Aperture. It is the angles subtended by the principal by the principal section of the mirror
at the center of curvature.
Laws of Refraction:
(1)The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence lie in the
same plane.
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BARODA.
(2)The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a
constant for any two given media. This holds goods whatever be the obliquity of the
incident ray.
Suppose there are two media a and b. The ray passes from the medium a and is
denoted as amb .
 sin i = constant
sin r
If the first medium is air, then the refractive index of the second medium is denoted as
i.e., m = sin i
sin r
A
N
Air Medium a
X Y
Glass Medium b
Example of Refraction:
(1) A stick ABC in water appears to be bent. Rays from the C of the stick after refraction at
the water-air interface bend away from the normal.
To the eye these refracted rays appear to start from C’. The portion BC of the stick appear
to start from C’. The portion BC of the stick appears in the position BC’ inside water.
Hence the stick appears bent at B.
EYE
water C’ B
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Total Reflecting Prisms:

Total reflecting prisms are on the principle of total internal reflection. With the help of these
prisms the direction of the incident ray can be changed as desired. The refractive index for
glass 1.50 and the critical angle for glass is 41.8 0 . When a ray of light makes an angle of
incident more than 41.80 within glass, the ray is totally internally reflected.
(a) To turn a ray through 90 0: ABC is a right angled prism. A ray 1 is incident
normally on the face AB of the prism and passes undeviated. At D it strikes the face AC.
The angle of incidence at D is 45 0. It is more than the critical angle for glass. Therefore it
is totally internally reflected along the path 2. Here the ray is turned through 90 0 . such
prisms are used in periscopes.
1 D
45 450
B C
2
(b) To turn a ray thorough 1800:

ABC is a right angled prism. The ray 1 get totally internally reflected at D because the
angle of incidence is 450 and it is more than the eremitical angle of glass. It goes along DE
. At E again it is totally internally reflected and goes along the path 3.
Here it is turned through 1800
D
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BARODA.
1
2 B
3 E
(c)Erecting Prism:
ABC is a right angled prism. The rays 1 and 2 coming from p and Q respectively strikes
the face AB of the prism at E and F. Here the two rays undergo refraction and stike the
base AC at G and H, the rays get totally internally reflected and travel along Gl and HK.
Finally they get refracted at L and K . The ray 1 and 2 are interchanged upside down.
Such prisms are used in prism binoculars.
B
F 9 L 1
2, Q R
E K 2
1, P S
A G H B
Rainbow:
Rainbows are formed by sunlight falling on raindrops. The observer’s back is toward the
sun and sometimes two rainbows are seen. The common rainbow known as the primary
rainbow is a colored band, having red on the outside and violet on the inner side. It is
formed due to two refractions and two reflections of the sunlight falling on the raindrops.
The other rainbow called the secondary rainbow is formed due to two refractions and two
reflections of the sunlight falling on the raindrops. The rainbows are visible only when the
altitude of the sun is less than 42 0 . No rainbow is seen in a flying aero plane at higher
altitudes.
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VIOLET
RED
RED
VIOLET
AXIS OF THE BOW 54.520 50.80 42.80 40.80
The primary rainbow is formed by light from the sun undergoing one internal reflection and
two refractions and emerging at minimum deviation. The inner violet edge subtends an
angle 42.80, the secondary rainbow is formed by light from the sun undergoing two internal
reflections two refractions and also emerging at minimum deviation. This rainbow is fainter
than the primary rainbow and inner edge subtends an angle of 50.82 0 and the outer violet
edge subtends an angle 50.8 0 and outer edge subtends an angle of 54.52 0, therefore the
colours in the secondary rainbow appear order compared to those of the primary rainbow.
All the spectral colours are present in order between violet and red.
Importance of Measuring Velocity of Light:-
The value of velocity of light in vacuum is of great importance in physics and the velocity of
light is represented by c. It is a universal constant.
c = (2.99774  .0004) x 108 meters / second
PROBLEMS:-
1.Two plane mirrors are inclined at an angle of 30 0 to each other. Find the number
of images formed when an object is placed between the mirrors.
Here  = 300
n = 360 = 12
30
As 12 is even, the number of images formed
= n –1 = 12 –1 = 11.
2.Two plane mirrors are inclined at an angle of 72 0 to the other. Find the number of
images formed when on object is placed between the mirror.
Here,  = 720
n = 360 = 5
72
As 5 is odd, the number of images formed = 5.
3.An object 1cm high is placed at a distance O = 10cm from a convex mirror of 5cm
length. Find the nature, position and size of the image.
Here the mirror is concave.
f = -5cm, u = 10cm
O = 1cm v = ?
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I = ?
I + I = 1
v u f
(OR)
I + I = 1
v 10 5
(OR) v = - 10 cm
3
-ve sign shows that the image is virtual and erect.
I = v
O u
I = 10/3
I = 0.33cm
Hence the image is virtual and erect and is formed at a
distance of 3.33 cm behind the mirror. The size of the image
= 0.33cm
4.An object is placed at a distance of 50cm in front of and normal to the principal oxis of a
convex mirror. A plane mirror is introduced between the object and the convex mirror. It is
moved in such a way that the images of the object formed in the plane mirror and in the
convex mirror coincide without parallax. If the distance of the object from the mirror is 40
cm , calculate the focal length of the convex mirror.
Here u = 50cm
Distance between the plane mirror and the object = 40cm
Distance between the image and the plane mirror = 50 – 40 = 10cm
Distance of the image from the convex mirror = 40 – 10 = 30cm
v = - 30cm
( -ve sign is taken because the image is virtual)
1 = 1 + 1
f v u
1 = -1 + 1
f 30 50
f = -75cm
5.A person with defective vision can see an object clearly when it is not beyond 40cm
from the eye. What is the focal length of lens needed to correct the eye for objects at
Infinity?
Defect is myopia
Here, v = -40 cm
u = a
1 + 1 = 1
v u f
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BARODA.
- 1 + 1 = 1
40 a f
f = - 40cm
( -ve sign shows that it is a concave lens.)
6.A person cannot see objects nearer than 75cm. What is the power and nature of the
lens that he would require to see clearly an object at 25cm?
Defect is nypermetropia.
Here, v = - 75 cm, u = 25 cm, f =?
1 + 1 = 1
v u f
- 1 + 1 = 1
75 25 f
f = + 37.5 cm
A convex lens, of 37.5 cm focal length should be used
P = 1
fm
P = ___1_____ = 100 = 2.67 diopters
37.5/100 37.5
7.A long sighed person cannot see objects clearly at a distance less than 50cm from
his eye. Find the nature, focal length and power of a lens needed to read book at 30
cm distance from the eye.
Defect is hypermetropia
Here, v = - 50 cm, u = + 30 cm, f = ?
1 + 1 = 1
v u f
- 1 + 1= 1
50 30 f
f = + 75 cm = 0.75 m
P = 1 = 1 = 1.33 diopters
fm 0.75
Therefore, a convex lens of focal length 75cm and power + 1.33 diopters should be
used.
Telescopes:-
Magnification = Focal length of the objective
Focal length of the eye-piece
(1) M = F0 when focused for infinity
Fe
(2) M = F0 (1 + Fe/ D)
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Fe
When focused for distinct vision.

(3)Length of astronomical telescope = F0 + Fe
Length of Galileo’s telescope = F0 + Fe
Length of a terrestrial telescope = F0 + 4f + Fe
Where f is the focal length of the erecting lens.
FIZEAU’S METHODS:
c = 4 mnd
c = velocity of light
m = number of teeth or spaces
n = number of revolutions/second
d = distance between the toothed wheel and the mirror
Refractive index m = ca
cm
Where, ca velocity of light in air or vacuum
cm velocity light in the medium

LIGHT:
1. Name the scientist who gave the ‘wave theory of light’?
A. Hygens.
2. Name the scientist who developed the ‘theory of electromagnetic waves’?
A. Maxwell.
3. Name the scientist who propounded the ,quantum theory of radiation.?
A. Max Planck.
4. Name the scientist who mathematically found that ‘ the velocity of light is the same as
that of electromagnetic waves in vacuum’.
A. Maxwell
5. Are light waves longitudinal electromagnetic waves?
A. No, light waves are transverse electromagnetic waves.
6. What is the velocity of light in vacuum?
A. 3 x 108 m/s
7. What is the velocity of electromagnetic waves in vacuum?
A. 3 x 108 m/s
8. Name the scientist who proposed the dual nature of light.
A. Louis de Broglie.
9. What is a wave front? State the postulates of Huygens’ theory?
A. The continuous locus of the particles of the medium in the same vibrating phase is
called a wave font.
There are two postulates:
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BARODA.
(i) Every point on a given wave front acts as a source of a secondary wave
front, which travels in the medium with the velocity of the wave, provided the
medium remains the same.
(ii) Any surface tangential to a secondary wavelet gives the position and shape
of the new wave front.
10. Mention the shape of the wave front in each case:
(i) When a small piece of stone is dropped over a water surface.
(ii) When a wave originates from a point source and travels around in a
homogeneous medium.
A. (i) Circular,
(ii) Spherical, and
(iii) Plane.
11.What are rays?
A. The normal drawn on a wave front are called rays.
12. Define refractive index of a medium.
A. Refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of the velocity of light waves in
air (strictly in vacuum) to the velocity in the medium. It is represented by m (mu).
m = Velocity of light in air
Velocity of light in the medium
13. What is the unit of the refractive index of a medium?
A. It has no units, being the ratio of two similar quantities.
14. What is the refractive index of air for light waves?
A 1.0003.
15. Out of speed, frequency and wavelength, name the parameters (S), which remain (S)
the same on reflection.
A. Frequency, speed and wavelength.
16. Out of speed, frequency and wavelength, name the parameters(S) which remain (S)
the same on refraction.
A. Frequency.
17. What are the laws of reflection?
A. There are two laws of reflection.
(i) the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.
(ii) The incident ray, the normal , and the reflected ray at the point of incidents,
all lie in the same plane.
18. What are the laws of refraction?
A. There are two laws of refraction.
(i) The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of
refraction is a constant and is called the refractive index of the medium.
(ii) The incident ray, the normal and the refracted ray at the point of incidence,
all lie in the same plane.
19. What is Snell’s law of refraction?
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A. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is
a constant and is called the refractive index of the medium.
Sin I = 1m2
Sin r
Where 1m2 is the refractive index of medium 2 with respect to medium 1.
20. Why does not the frequency of a wave change on refraction?

A. If the source is in one medium and the observer in another (both media being at
rest), the time taken to travel from one to the other is fixed for all points of the wavefronts.
Thus two wave fronts separated by one time period are separated by the same time period
both at the source and at the observer. Therefore the frequency of a wave remains the
same as the wave travels from one medium to another.
Since v = , a change in speed implies a change in  as the wave travels from
one medium to another.
21. Out of glass and water, which has the greater refractive index?
A. Glass.
22. The refractive index of glass is 1.5 . What is the velocity of light waves in glass?
A. speed of light in vacuum = 1.5
Speed of light in glass
3 x 108m/s = speed of light in glass
1.5
Speed of light in glass = 2 x 108 m/s.
23. What do you understands by interference of light waves?
A. The phenomenon of superposition of two coherent waves while traveling along the
same direction in a medium and giving rise to redistribution of energy in the medium, is
called interference.
OPTICS:
1. Name some common sources of light.
A. Sun , electric bulb, electric are, fluoresent tube, etc.
2. What is the wavelength range of visible radiations?
A. 3900 a0 to 7600 A0
3. (i) Name the colours visible to the human eye.
A. VIBGYOR i.e Voilet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red.
(ii) Name the colours that are prominently seen.
A. Green and Yellow
4.Define luminous intensity. What its units.
A. Luminous intensity (I) is defined as the amount of light fall per second normally on a
surface of unit area held normal to the wave at a unit distance from the source .Its unit is
candela Cd.
5.Define luminous flux(). Name its units/
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A. It is defined as the rate of flow of visible radiation and equals the luminous energy
emitted, transmitted or received per second.
6.Define illuminance of a surface.Name its units.
A .illuminance (E) of a surface, on which light energy falls, is defined as the quantity of
light energy fallingnormally per unit time per unit area of the surface.
Its unit is lux(lx). 1 lux = 1 lumen/ sq.metre.
7.Whate is the velocity of light in Km/s?
A.3.0x105 km/s.
8.Whate is a light year?
A.It is the distance traveled by light in one year =3x10 8x24x60x60 =9.46x1015m.
9.Write three properties of a plane mirror.
SOUND
ORIGIN OF SOUND:
A vibrating body produces sound. When a going of a bell is struck with a hammer, sound
is produced. The bell is set into vibration and sound is propagated through air. These
vibrations reach the ear and the eardrum is set into vibration. The vibrations are
communicated to the brain. By touching the gong with the hand. One can feel the
vibration of the gong. Similarly the cycle bell produces sound due to the vibrations
produced by the gong. When the bell is induced with hand, the vibrations are stopped and
the bell does not produce sound. If a pith ball pendulum is held in contact with the edges
of a vibrating gong, the sound is produced.
A turning fork is set into vibrations by striking its prongs against a rubber pad. These
vibrations of the pronging the tuning fork can be see. Similarly, vibrating strings, air
columns, vibrating pates etc, produce sound.
MATERIAL MEDIUM IS A NECESSITY:
It can be proved by means of an experiment that a material medium is a necessity of the
propagation of sound waves. In the absence of a medium, no sound waves can travels.
WAVE MOTION:
It is a form of disturbance, which travels through the medium due to the repeated periodic
motion of the medium about their mean positions, the disturbance being handed over from
one particle to the next. When a stone is dropped into a pond containing water, waves are
produced at the point where the stone strikes the water in the pond. The waves travel
outward, the particles of water vibrate only up and down about their mean positions.
Water particles do not travel along with the wave. Similarly when a tuning of air vibrate
about their about their mean positions.
Characteristics of wave motion:
It is a disturbance produced in the medium by the repeated periodic motion of the
particles of the medium.
(1)Only the wave travels forward whereas the particles of the medium vibrate about their
mean positions.
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(2)There is a regular phase change between the various particles of the medium. The
particle ahead starts vibrating a later than a particle just preceding it.
The velocity of the wave is different from the velocity with which the particles of the
medium, are vibrating about their mean positions. The wave travels with a uniform
velocity whereas the velocity of the particles is different at different positions. It is
maximum at the mean position and zero at the extreme position of the particles .
TRANSVERSE WAVE MOTION:
In this type of wave motion, the particles of the medium vibrate at right angles to the
direction of propagation of the wave.
To understand the propagation of transverse waves in a medium consider nine particles of
the medium and the circle of reference. The particles are vibrating about their mean
positions, up and down and the wave is traveling from left to right. The disturbance takes
T/8 seconds to travel from one particle to the next.
(1)At t = 0 , all the particles are at their mean position.
(2)After T/8 second the particle 1 travels a certain distance upward and the disturbance
reaches particles 2.
(3)After 2T/8 seconds particle 1 has reached its extreme position and the disturbance has
reached particle 3.
(4)After 3T/8 seconds particle 1 has completed 3/8 of its vibration and the disturbance
has reached particle 4. The positions of particles 2 and 3 are also shown in the diagram.
(5)In this way after T/2 seconds, particle 1 has come back to its means position and
the particles 2,3 and 4 are as shows in the diagram. The disturbance has reached
particle5. In T seconds, the particles one, five and nine are at their mean positions of
the particles after 5T/8, 6T/8, 7T/8 and T seconds.
LONGITUDINAL WAVE MOTION:
In this type of wave motion, the particles of the medium vibrate along the direction of the
propagation of the wave.
Consider nine particles of the medium and the circle of reference.
The wave travels from left to right and the particles vibrate about their mean positions.
After T/8 seconds, the particle 1 goes to the right and completes 1/8 of its vibration. The
disturbance reaches the particle 2. After T/4 second the particle 1 has reached its
extreme right position and completes ¼ of its vibration and the particle 2 completers 1/8
of its vibration. The disturbance reaches the particle 3. The process continues.
After one complete time ;period, the positions of the various particles is as shown is the
diagram. The wave has reached particle 9. Here 1 and 9 are again in the same phase.
Here particles 1, 5 and 9 are at their mean positions. The particles 1 and 3 are close to
the particle 2. This is the position of condensation. Similarly particles j9 and 8 are
close to the particle 7. This is also the position of condensation or compression. On the
other hand particles 4 and 6 are far away from the particle 5. This is the position of
rarefaction. Hence in a longitudinal wave motion, condensation and rarefaction are
alternately formed.
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Wavelength: It is the distance traveled by the wave in the time in which the particle of the
medium completes one vibration. It is also defined as the distance between two nearest
particles in the same phase.
The distance AB is equal to the wavelength .
Frequency: It is the number of vibrations made by a particle in one second.
Amplitude: It is the maximum displacement of the particle from its mean position of rest.
Time period: It is the time taken by a particle to complete one vibration.
suppose frequency = n
Time taken to complete n vibrations = 1 second
Time taken to complete 1 vibration = 1/n second
From the definition of time period, time taken to complete on vibration is the time period (T)
 T = 1/n or n T = 1
 Frequency x time period = 1.
Vibration:- It is the to and fro motion of a particle from one extreme position to the other
and back again. It is also equal to the motion of a particle from the mean position to one
extreme position, then to the other extreme position and finally back to the mean position.
phase: It is defined as the ratio of the displacement of the vibrating particle at any instant
to the amplitude of the vibrating particle or it is defined as the fraction of the time interval
that has elapsed since the particle crossed the mean position of rest in the positive
direction or it is also equal to the angle swept by the radius vector since the vibrating
practical last crossed its mean position of rest.
Relation between Frequency and Wavelength :
Velocity of the wave is the distance travelled by the wave in one second.
velocity = distance
time
Wavelength () is the distance travelled by the wave in one time period (T).
Velocity = wavelength = 
Time period T 
But, frequency x time period = 1
n xT = 1
T = 1
n
v =  =  A B
T 1/n
v = n
LAWS OF TRANSVERSE VIBRATION OF STRINGS:
There are three laws of transverse vibration of strings:
(1)The fundamental frequency is inversely proportional to the length of the string.
n a 1/l
(2)The fundamental frequency is directly proportional to the square root of the stretching
force or tension.
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n a T
(3)The fundamental frequency is inversely proportional to the square root of the mass per
unit length.
n a 1/ m
Combining the above three laws,
n a 1/l  (T/m)
n = k/l (T/m ) (OR)
The value of the constant k =1/2
 n = 1  (T/m)
2l
Echo: The repetition of the sound produced due to reflection by a distant extended
surface like a cliff, hill, well, building etc. is called an echo. The effect of sound on the
human ear remains of 1/10 of a second. If the sound is reflected back in a time less than
1/10th of a second, no echo is heard. Suppose, a person produces sound and this sound
is reflected from an obstacle at a distance x. The time taken by the sound to travel to the
obstacle and back is t.
t = 2x ,
V
Here V = 340 meters/second
X = Vt = 340 x 0.1 = 17metres
2 2
In means that if the distance between the source of sound and the obstacle is less than 17
meters (56ft) no echo (repetition) is heard. But echo is heard if the distance is more
than 17 meters.
If a person is standing in between two hills and produces sound, the sound is reflected
again and again from the two hills and successive echoes are heard.
Eg.1. The distance between particles on string is 10 cm. Determine the phase difference in
terms of the phase angle of oscillations of these difference if the frequency of the wave
transmitted through the string is 400 Hz and the speed is 100 m/s.
V= 100 m/s. ,n=400 Hz.
 = v/n 100/400 = 0.25m, x = 10 cm, 0.1 m.
 = 2px/ = 2.. 0.1/0.25 = 0.8 p radians.
2.A body vibrating with a certain frequency sends wave 15 cm long through a medium A
and 20 cm long through a medium B. The velocity of waves in A is 1200 cm/s. Find the
velocity in B.
suppose the frequency = n.
In the first frequency = n.
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1 = 15 cm , v1= 1200m/s.
v1 = n1. .n =v1/ = 1200/15 = 80
the second case : n =80,
2= 20 cm , v2= ?.
v2 = n2. = 80 x 20 = 1600cm / s
3. A thunderclap was heard 5.5 s later than the accompanying light flash was seen. How far
away did the flash occur? Velocity of sound = 350 m/s.
v= 350 m/s. t= 5.5 s.
S= v x t = 350 x 5.5 = 1925 m.
4.The velocity of sound in air at 16 C is 340 m/s. Find the wavelengths in air of a note of
frequency 680 at 160C and 51 C.
(1). At 16C suppose the wave length = 1
V1 = 340 m/s. n= 680
V1 = n1
1 = V1/n = 340/680 = 0.5m
(2). At 51  C, suppose the wavelength = 2
t1 = 16 C V1 =340 m/s.
2 = 51 C V2 = ?.
V2 = 273+t2
V1 273+16
V2 = 360 m/s.
2 = V2/n = 360/380 = 0.53 m
5.The velocity of sound at normal temperature and pressure is 332 m./s . Find velocity of
sound at 819C.
t1 = 0 C V1 =332 m/s.
t2 = 819 C V2 = ?.
V2 = 273+819
V1 273
V2 = 664m/s.
6.The disc of a siren contains 64 holes and is made to rotate 240 times/s. Calculate the
Frequency of the note emitted.
Frequency = N,
Number of holes = h,
Number of rotations/s = n,
N= n x h.
240 x 64. = 15360.
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7.The disc of siren having a circle of 40 holes, rotates uniformly 500 times in 1 minutes 24
seconds. Find the frequency of the note emitted and its wavelength in air, if the velocity
sound in air is 34000 cm/s.
Frequency = N,
Number of holes = h =40.
Number of rotations/s = n = 500/84.
N= n x h.
40 x 540/84. = 15360.
But V =N
 = V/N = 34000/238.1 = 142.8 cm.
8. A note produces 4 beats/s with a tuning fork of frequency 512 and 6 beats/s with a
tuning fork of frequency 514. Find the frequency of the note.
In the first case:
Frequency of the tuning fork = 512
Beats/sec = 4
 Possible frequencies of the note are 512 + 6 = 516
or 512 - 4 = 508
In the second case:
Frequency of the tuning fork = 514
Beats/sec = 6
Possible frequencies of the note are 514 + 6 = 520
or 514 - 6 = 508
As the frequency of 508 is common in both, the only possible frequency of the4 note =
508.
9. A tuning fork and a siren produce 18 beats in 3s. The siren has 16 holes and is
making 960 revolutions per minute. If the speed of the siren is reduced, the two notes will
be in unison. Find the pitch of the tuning fork.
There are 18 beats in 3 seconds.
 Beats/sec = 18 = 6
3
Number of holes h = 16
Revolutions per minute = 960
 Revolutions per second n = 960 = 16
60
 Frequency of the sound produced by the siren = n x h = 16 x 16 = 256
 Frequency of the tuning fork is either
256 + 6 = 262 (or) 256 - 6 = 250
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BARODA.
10. The prongs of a tuning fork A, originally in unison with a tuning fork B, are find. Now
tuning forks on being sounded together produce 2 beats/sec. What is the frequency of A
after filling, if the frequency of b is 250 cycles/sec.
Frequency of A = 250
Frequency of B = 250
Beats after A is field =2
Science the frequency increases after filing, frequency of A after filing =2250 + 2
= 252 cycles/sec
11. Two tuning forks A and B when sounded together give 4 beats per second. A is then
loaded with a title wax and the number of beats/s that of B.
Frequency of A = 256
Beats/sec = 4
Frequency of B is either 256 + 4 = 260 (or) 256 - 4 = 252
MAGNETISM
The lode-stone is a natural magnet. Artificial magnets can be

prepared from an iron or steel bar by the following methods:
(1)By rubbing the iron bar with a magnet by (a) single touch (b) double touch and (c)
divided touch.
(2)By passing the current through a wire wound round an iron
piece.
Artificial magnets are used in dynamos, galvanometers, ammeters and voltmeters. The
magnets used are horseshoe or U- shaped because such magnets retain their magnetism
for a very long time.
Faraday showed that all substances are affected by a magnet. Substances like iron, nickel
and cobalt are strongly attracted by a magnet and are known as ferromagnetic substances.
Substances like manganese, platinum and oxygen show feeble attraction and are known
as paramagnetic substances. Substances like bismuth, antimony, phosphorus, zinc,
Mercury, lead, tin, water and copper are repelled by magnets and are known as
Diamagnetic substances.
N S
Coulomb’s law: Coulomb’s studied the force of attraction and repulsion between two
magnetic poles and found that:
34
BARODA.
(1)The force of attraction or repulsion between two magnetic ploes is directly proportional
to the product of their pole strengths.
(2)The force of attraction or repulsion between two magnetic poles is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them
(3)Similar poles repel each other whereas dissimilar attract each other.
f = m1m2
mr2
Magnetic Field and Magnetic Intensity:
The space around the magnet in which; its magnetic influence; extends is know as the
magnetic field. A magnetic field exists at a point if it can exert a force on a moving change.
If a unit north pole be placed in this magnetic field, then the force experienced by this unit
North Pole is known as magnetic intensity at that point. If a pole of strength m is placed
in a uniform field H, it experience a force mH . Moreover, the magnetic intensity at a
point at a distance r cm from a pole of strength m is equal to m/mr2 in CGS emu. The
unit of magnetic intensity or field is ‘oersted’ in CGS emu.
PROBLEMS:
1.Two poles one of which is 4 times as strong as the other a force equal to the weigth of
200 mg when placed 5 cm apart. Find the strength of each pole.
Suppose, m1 = m , m2 = 4m
d = 5cm
F = 200mg wt
= 200 gram wt
1000
= 200 x 980 dynes
1000
F = 196 dynes
f = m1 m2
d2
196 = m x 4m or 4m2 = 196 x 25
(5)2
m = 35units
m1 = 35units , m2 = 35 x 4 = 140 units
2.A bar magnet of pole strength 30 units and length 10cm is placed horizontally in the
earth is field. Find the couple leading to turn it in a horizontal plane if the angle between
the axis and the magnetic meridian is 300.
Here m = 30 , 2l = 10cm ,  = 300
H = 0.30 gauss
M = m x2l = 30 x 10 = 300
Sin 30 = ½
C = MH sin
35
BARODA.
= 300 x 0.30 x ½
= 45 C.G.S. Units
3.Find the intensity in the end-on position of a bar magnet of length 10cm and pole
strength 20 C.G.S. units at a distance of 15 cm from the center.
Position is end on
Hear 2l = 10cm , l = 5cm
m = 20units,
M = m x 2l = 20 x 10 = 200 units
d = 15cm
I = 3 Md = 2 x 200 x 15
(d2 - l2)2 [ (15)2 - (5)2]
= 0.15 oersted
4.A small bar magnet is placed in the magnetic meridian with its north pole pointing south.
There is found to be a neutral point on the prolongation of the axis of the magnet at a
distance of 20cm from its middle point . Calculate the moment of the magnet. H = 0.32
gauss.
Hear, d = 20cm , H = 0.32gauss
Position is send-on
for a small magnet,
H = 2M
d3
0.32 = 2M
(20)3
M = 1280 C.G.S Units
5.A short bar magnet of magnetic moment 1600 units is placed with its N-pole pointing
towards north. The neutral point is obtained at a distance of 20cm from the center of the
magnet. Find the value of the horizontal component of the intensity of the magnetic field
of earth.
Position: North pole towards north, broad-side on position
Hear, M = 1600 , d = 20cm , H = ?
For a small magnet,
M = H
2
d
H = 1600 = 1 = 0.2 oersted
3
(20)
6.Calculate the force on a magnetic pole of 40 units lying at a distance of 20cm in front of
a 10cm long magnet of pole strength 52 units.
m = 52units, 2l = 10cm, d = 20cm l = 5cm
Position is brad-side on,
36
BARODA.
formula:
I = M
(d + l2 ) 3/2
2
M = m x 2l x = 52 x 10 = 520
l = 520
[(20) + (5)2]3/2
2
= 520
425425
 Force on a pole of 40 units = 40 x I
= 40 x 520
425425
= 2. 374 dynes
7.A short magnet placed end on to the west of a compass needle at a distance of 50cm
from it and end on to it, deflects it through 45 0. Find approximately the magnetic moment
of the magnet. The value of the earth’s horizontal field = 0.18 gauses.
Hear,  = 450 , d = 50cm, H = 0.18 gauss, M =? F = H tan 
Position is end on,
F = 2M
d3
 2M = H tan 
3
d
2M = 0.81 x 1 (tan 45 = 1)
3
(50)
M = 11,250 units
8.A bar Magnet when placed in the end-on position produced a deflection of 45 0 in the
needle of the magnetometer. another magnet when placed in the end-on position at the
same place produces a deflection of 30 0 . Cumpare the magnetic moments of the two
magnets.
M1 = tan 1
M2 tan  2
Here, 1 = 450 , 2 = 300 , tan 45 = 1
tan 30 =1
3
M1 = 1 = 3 = 1.732
M2 1/3
9.A bar magnet when placed in the end on position produces a deflection o0f 45 0 in the
needle of the magnetometer if the distance between their centers is 40 cm find the magnet
of the magnet(H = 0.30)
F = H tan 
37
BARODA.
But F = 2 M
d3
 2 M = H tan 
d3
Here, H = 0.30,  = 450 , tan 45 = 1 , d = 40 cm
 2 M = 0.30 x 1
(40)3
M = 9600 units
Vibration Magnetometer:
t = 2p 1/Mh
Where i is the moment of mertia of the magnet.
For two similar magnets of the same mass, size and shape
M1 = t22
M2 t21
Where t 1 is the time period of the first magnet and t 2 is the time period of the second
magnet.
Sum and difference method.
M1 = t22 + t21
M2 t22 - t21
MAGNETISM:
1.Whate is the magnet?
A. A substance having magnetism is known as magnet.
2.Whate is the magnetism?
A. The property by virtue of which a substance attracts iron filings towards it, is called
magnetism.
3.What are the natural magnets?
A. Natural magnets are pieces of naturally occurring iron ore, e.g. lode stone or
magnetite or black iron oxide (Fe2 O3).
4. What are the basic properties of magnets?
A. Some of the basic properties of magnets are as follows:
(i) A magnet attracts pieces of iron.
(ii) Every magnet has two poles.
(iii) When a magnet is suspend or pivoted, it aligns itself in the
north-south direction.
(iv) Like poles repel and unlike poles attract each other.
(v) Poles always exist in pairs.
5.Name the scientist who discovered the earth’s magnetism.
A. William Gilbert.
6.What are the special features of natural magnets? What are their demerits?
A. Natural magnets have two basic properties:
(ii) Attractive property – they attract small iron pieces.
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BARODA.
(iii) Directive property -- When suspended freely, their ends point in the
geographical north-south directions.
They have two demerits:
(i) They are weak.
(ii) They have irregular shapes.
7. What is an artificial or permanent magnet?
A. Artificial (or permanent) magnets are made of hard steel or special alloys. The
substances of these magnets have many small ‘atomic’ magnets.
When these atomic magnets are randomly distributed, the substance is unmagnetized but
when all the atomic magnets point in the north-south direction (say in the presence of the
earth’s ), it becomes magnetized.
(i) Unmagnetized substance
(ii) Magnetized substance

8. Are the two poles of a magnet separable to make possible the existence of a single
magnetic pole? If not, why?
A. The two poles of a magnet cannot be separated from each other.
In a magnet, the atomic magnets are aligned in straight lines, giving rise to the two poles of
the magnet at its two ends.
when the magnet is broken into two halves,
poles of atomic magnets becom free at the
broken parts. New poles, therefore, appear
39
BARODA.
at the newly created ends. Each half two poles.
N S
The number of free poles of atomic magnets at the ends is the same for both ends. Thus
both the poles of a magnet are equally strong. It is for this reason that a magnet is also
called a magnetic dipole.
9. What is a magnetic dipole?

A. A magnet with two opposite poles of equal strength is called a magnetic dipole.
10. Define pole strength of a magnetic dipole.
A. The number of free poles in a magnetic pole is called the pole strength of the
magnetic dipole. It is donated by m.
11. State Coulomb’s law of force between two magnetic poles. Write the statement of the
law in vector form.
A. The force between two magnetic poles varies directly as the product of their pole
strengths and inversely as the square of the distance between them. It is a mutual force
and acts along the along the line joining them
F = m0{m1m2}
4p { r2 }
F = m0{m1m2} r
4p { r3 }
F = m0{m1m2} r
4p { r2 }
^
where r is a unit vector in the direction of F.
12. Define a unit pole.
A. A unit pole is one which, when placed in air at a distance of 1 m from a similar pole of the same
strength, will repel it with a force of 10-7 N.
F = m0 m1m2
40
BARODA.
4p r2
If m1 = m2 =  1 (+ for north pole and - for south pole)
And r = 1 m
Then, F = m0 x 1 x 1 = m0 = {4p x 10-7 } N
4p { 1 } 2 4p 4p
-7
=10 N
13. Define magnetic field.
A. The space around a magnetic pole or a magnetic dipole, in which its influence is
experienced by another magnetic pole or magnetic dipole, is called the magnetic field of
the first magnetic pole or magnetic dipole.
14. Define magnetic field intensity of a magnetic pole. Also give symbol, unit and direction.
A. The intensity of magnetic field of a magnetic pole at a point within the magnetic field
is defined as the force experienced by a unit north pole (test pole)when placed at that
point, provided the presence of the test pole does not affect the original field.
It is denoted by B.
It is vector quantity and its SI unit is tesla (symbol :T)
Another unit of B is weber/(metre)2 pr Wb m-2.
15. Define magnetic lines of force. Depict the magnetic lines of force
(i) due to the north pole,
(ii) due to the south pole, and
(iii) due to a bar magnet.
A. It is a line, straight or curved, such that the tangent to it at any point gives the
direction of the magnetic field at that point.
(ii) Magnetic field lines due to South

(i) Magnetic field lines due to North pole pole
(iii) Magnetic field lines of a bar magnet

41
BARODA.
15.Give some important properties of lines of force.

A. Some of the important properties of magnetic lines of force are given below:
(i) They start from the N-pole and terminate at the S-pole of a magnet.
(ii) They do not intersect each other.
(iii) They from a closed and continuous curve.
(iv) Lines of force are crowed where the magnetic field is strong near the poles
and widely separated were the magnetic field is weak.
16.What is a magnetic length? Is it the same as geometric length?
A. The length between the poles of a magnet or a magnetic dipole is called its
magnetic length. It is denoted by l. The
Geometric length is the actual length of a
magnet or a magnetic dipole.
I1 > l
Generally specking, I = 7 l1
8
17. What do you understands by ‘neutral point’?

A. A neutral point is that point in a magnetic field where the intensity of the magnetic
field of one magnetic dipole gets cancelled with the intensity of the magnetic field of
another. If we place a compass needle at this point, it will not be affected by the fields of
the two magnets.
18. What are South and North magnetic poles?
A. The magnetic pole of the earth’s magnetism near the geographical north (N) pole is
called the south magnetic pole. It attracts the north poles of suspended magnets.
The magnetic pole of earth’s magnetism near the geographical south (S) pole is
called the north magnetic pole. It attracts the south poles of suspended magnets.
19. What is geographical axis?
42
BARODA.
A. The straight line (NS) passing through the geographical poles of the earth is called
the geographical axis of the earth.
20. What is a magnetic axis?
A. The straight line passing through the magnetic poles of the earth is called the
magnetic axis of the earth. It inclined to the geographical axis (NS) at about 18 0.
21. What is a magnetic meridian?
A. The vertical plane passing through the magnetic axis of a freely suspended magnet
is called the magnetic meridian.
22. What is a geographical meridian?
A. The vertical plane passing through the place and the geographical axis is called
the geographic meridian.
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS:
1. The most suitable metal for making permanent magnets is

(a) iron (b) steel (c) copper (d) aluminium {b}
2. The SI unit of magnetic dipole moment is
(a) A (b) A m2 (c) T (d) T m A –1 {b}
3. Earth’s magnetism was discovered by
(a) gauss (b) oersted (c) ampere (d) gilbert {d}
4. The relative permeability of iron is of the order of
(a) 1 (b) zero (c) 104 (d) 10-4 {c}
5. The angle of dip at the magnetic poles is
(a) 00 (b) 450 (c) 900 (d) 1800 {c}
6. The angle of dip at the equator is
(a) 00 (b) 450 (c) 900 (d) 1800 {a}
7. The most suitable metal for making electromagnets, cores of transformers, and
armatures in machines is
(a) iron (b) copper (c) steel (d) silver {a}
8. When a magnetic dipole is placed in a uniform magnetic field, it will experience
(a) a force but no torque (b) a torque but no force
( c) a force as well as a torque (d) neither a force nor a torque {b}
43
BARODA.
ELECTRICITY
INTRODUCTION:
The electric current is a flow of electric charges (called electrons) in a conductor such as a
metal wire. The magnitude of electric current in a conductor is the amount of the
cunductor in one second. If charge of Q coulombs flows through a conductor in time t
seconds, then the magnitude I of the electric current flowing through it is given by:
Current, I = Q
t
The S.I. unit of electric current is ampere which is denoted by the letter A. Electric current
is a scalar quantity.
The above relation gives us the following definition of ampere : when 1 coulomb of
charge flows through any cross-section of a conductor in 1 second, the electric current
flowing through it is said to be 1 ampere. This is,
1 ampere = 1 coulomb
1 second
Sometimes, however, a smaller unit of current called “mill ampere” is also used, which is
denoted by mA
1 milliampere = 1  ampere
1000
(OR)
1 mA = 1 xA
1000
Current is measured by an instrument called ammeter.
Direction of electric current is from positive terminal of a cell (or battery) to the
negative through the outer circuit.
OHM’S LAW
Ohm’s law gives a relationship between current and potential difference. According to
Ohm’s law : At constant temperature, the current flowing through a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends. If I is the current
flowing through a conductor and V is the potential difference (or voltage) across its ends
then according to Omh’s law:
44
BARODA.
I  V
This can also be written as : V  I
V = R x I
Where R is a constant called “resistance” of the conductor. The value of this
constant depends on the nature, length, area of cross-section and temperature of the
conductor.
The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance. The unit of conductance is (ohm) -1 or
mho.
K= 1/R If  is electric conductivity and E is electric filed strength, than Ohm’s law also be
Expressed as J = E.
Resistance and Resistivity: The resistance of a conductor of length l , cross- sectional

area A is given by : R = .l/A.
The resistivity is reciprocal of conductivity  =1/
RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR :
The electric current is a flow of electrons through a conductor. When the electrons move form
one part of the conductor to the other part;, ;they ;collide with other electrons and with the
atoms and ions present in the body of the conductor. Due to these collisions, there is some
obstruction or opposition to the flow of electron current through the conductor. The property of
a conductor due to which it opposes the flow of current through it is called resistance. The
resistance e of a conductor is numerically equal to the ratio of potential difference across its
ends to the current flowing through it. That is
Resistance = Potential difference
Current
or R = V
I
The resistance of a conductor depends on length, thickness, nature of material and
temperature, of the conductor. A long wire (or conductor) has more resistance and a short wire
has less resistance. Again, a thick wire has less resistance whereas a thin wire has more
resistance. Rise in temperature of a wire (or conductor) increases its resistance.
The S.I. unlit of resistance is ohm, which is denoted by the symbol omega, .The unit of
resistance ohm, can be defined by; using the Ohm’s law as described below.
According to Ohm’s law:
Resistance = Potential difference (A constant)
Current
That is, R = V
I
So, Resistance, R = V
I
45
BARODA.
Now, if the potential difference V is I volt and the current I is 1 ampere, then resistance R
in the above equation becomes 1 ohm.
That is, 1 ohm = 1 volt
1ampere
This gives us the following definition for ohm: 1 ohm is the resistance of a conductor such that
when a potential difference of 1 volt is applied to its ends, a current of 1 ampere flows through
it. We can find out the resistance of a conductor by using Ohm’s law equation, V = R.
I
COMBINATION OF RESISTANCES (OR RESISTORS):
Apart from potential difference, current in a circuit depends on resistance of the circuit. So, in
the electrical circuits of radio, television and other similar things, it is usually necessary to
combine two or more resistances to get the required current in the circuit. We can combine the
resistance lengthwise (called series) or we can put the resistances parallel to one another.
Thus, the resistances can be combined in two ways:
(i)in series, and (ii) in parallel. If we want to increase the total resistance, then the individual
resistances are connected in series, and if we want to decries the resistance, then the
individual resistances are connected in parallel.
When two (or more) resistances are connected end to end consecutively, they are said to be
connected in series.
R1 R2
______/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\______/\/\/\/\/\_______
TWO RESISTANCES (R1 AND R2)
CONNECTED IN SERIES
R1
I1
A B
R2
I2
TWO RESISTANCES (R1 ABDR2)

CONNECTED IN PARALLEL.
Two resistances R1 and R2 which are connected in series. On the other hand, when two (or
more) resistance are connected between the same two points, they are side to be connected
in parallel (because they become parallel to one another). The two resistances R1 and R2
are connected in parallel arrangement between the same two points A and B. In the above
examples, we have shown only two resistances connected in series and parallel combination.
We can, however, connect any number of resistors in these two arrangements.
1.RESULTANT RESISTANCE OF TWO RESISTANCES CONNECTED IN SERIES:
46
BARODA.
R1 R2
V1 V2
A B
+ _
We will now derive a formula for calculating the combined resistance of two resistances
connected in series. R1 and R2 connected in series, A battery of V volts has been applied
to the ends of this series combination. Now suppose the potential difference across the
resistance R1 is V1 and the potential difference across the resistance R 2 is V2 . We
have applied a battery of voltage V, so the total potential difference across the two
resistances should be quail to the voltage of the battery.
This is : V =V1 + V2 ........(1)
We have just seen that the total potential difference due to batter is V. Now, suppose the
total resistance of the combination be R, and the current flowing through the whole circuit
be I. So, applying Ohm’s law to the whole circuit, we get:
V = R
I
or v = I x R ................ (2)
Since the same current I flow through both the resistances R 1 and R2 connected in
series, so by applying Ohm’s law to both the resistances separately, we will get:
V1 = I x R1 ................. (3)
V2 = I x R2 ................... (4)
Now, putting the values of V, V 1 and V2 from equations (2), (3) and (4) in equation (1),
we get :
I x R = I x R1 + I x R2
I x R = I(R1 + R2 )
Canceling I from both sides, we get :
Resultant resistance (combined resistance or equivalent resistance),
R = R 1 + R2
2.RESULTANT RESITANCE OF THREE RESISTANCES CONNECTED IN
SERIES:
47
BARODA.
R1 R2 R3
V1 V2 V3
A B C
+ _
Shows three resistances R1 , R2 , and R3 connected in series. A battery of V volts has

been applied to; the ends of this series combination of resistances. Now, suppose the
potential difference across the resistance R 1 is V1, the potential difference across the
resistance R2 is 2 and that across resistance R 3 is V3 . We have applied a battery of
voltage V, so the total potential difference across the three resistances should be equal to
the voltage of the ;battery applied. That is, equal to the voltage of the battery applied.
That is,
V =V1 + V2 + V3 ....................... (1)
We have just seen that the total potential difference due to battery is V. Now, let the total
resistance of the combination be R. The current flowing through the whole circuit is I. So,
applying Ohm’s law to the whole circuit, we get:
V = I x R ............... (2)
Science the same current I flows through all the resistance R 1 , R2 and R3 in series, so by
applying Ohm’s law to each resistance separately, we will get :
V1 = I x R1 ................. (3)
V2 = I x R2 .................. (4)
V3 = I x R3 ................... (5)
Putting these values of V, V1 , V2 and V3 in equation (1) , we get:
I x R = I x R1 + I x R 2 + I x R 3
OR
I x R = I ( R 1 + R2 + R3 )
Canceling I from both sides, we get :
R = R1 + R2 + R3
Thus, if three resistors R1, R2, and R3 are connected in series then three total resistance R
is given by the formula:
R = R1 + R2 + R3
Similarly, if there are four resistors R1, R2, R3, and R4 connected in series, then their resultant
resistance R is given by the formula:
R = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 and so on.
48
BARODA.
LAW OF COMBINATION OF RESISTANCES IN PARLLEL:

According to the law of combination of resistances in parallel : the reciprocal of the
combined resistance of a number of resistances connected in parallel is equal to the sum
of the reciprocals of all the individual resistance. For example, if a number of resistances,
R1, R2, R3, ..... etc, are connected in parallel, then their resultant resistance R is given by the
formula:
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + + + 1
R R R R Rn
1.COMBINED RESISTANCE OF TWO RESISTANCES CONNECTED IN PARALLEL:
R1
I1
A B
R2
I2
We will now derive a formula for calculating the combined resistance of two resistors
connected in parallel. In two resistances R 1 and R2 are connected parallel to one another
between the same two points A and B. A battery of V volts has been applied across the
ends of this combination. In this case the potential difference across the ends of both the
resistances will be the same. And it will be equal to the voltage of the battery used. The
current flowing through the two resistances in parallel is, however, not the same.
EX:- The total current flowing in the circuit is I, then the current passing through
resistance R1 will be I1 and the current passing through the resistance R 2 will be I2 . It is
obvious that:
Total current, I = I1 + I2 ............(1)
The resultant resistance of this parallel combination is R. Then by applying Ohm’s law to
the whole circuit, we get: I = V .............. (2)
R1
The potential difference V across both the resistances R 1, R2 parallel, is the same, so by
applying Ohm’s law to each resistance separately, we get:
I1 = V and I2 = V
R1 R2 ............... (3), (4)
49
BARODA.
Now, putting the values of I , I1 and I2 from equations (2), (3) ,(4) in equation (1), we get
:
V = V + V
R R1 R2
OR
V [I/R] = V[1/R1 + 1/R2]
Dividing both sides by V, we get :
1 = 1 + 1
R R1 R2
Thus, is two resistances R1 and R2 are connected in parallel, then their resultant
resistance R is given by the formula?
1 = 1 + 1
R R1 R2
ELECTRIC POWER:
When an electric current flows through a conductor, electrical energy is used up and we
say that the current is doing work. We know that the rate of doing work is called power, so
electrical power is the electrical work done per unit time. That is,
Power = Work done
Time taken
OR
P = W
t
Unit of Power:
We have calculated the power by; dividing work done by time taken. Now, the unit of work
is “joule” and that of time is “second”. So, the unit of power is “joules per second”. This
unit of power is called watt. Thus, the S.I. unit of electric power is watt which is denoted
by; the letter W. The power of 1 watt is a rate of working of 1 joule per second. Thus is,
1 watt = 1 joule
1 second.
Resistance wire. Thus, the role of ‘resistance’ in electrical circuits is similar to the role of
‘friction’ in mechanics. We will now derive a formula for calculating the heat produced
when as electric current flows through a resistance wire.
Since a conductor, say a resistance wire, offers resistance to the flow of current, so work
must be done by the current continuously to keep itself flowing. We will calculate the work
done by a current I when it flows through a resistance R for time t. Now, when an electric
charge Q moves against a potential difference V, the amount of work done is given by:
W = Q x V .......... (1)
From the definition of current we know that:
current, I = Q
t
So, Q = I x t ........ (2)
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And form Ohm’s law, we have: V = R

I
OR Potential difference, V = I x R ........ (3)
Now, putting Q = I x t and V = I x R in equation (1), we get:
W = Ix t xI x R
So, work done , W = I2 x R x t
Assuming that all the electrical work done or all the electrical energy consumed is
converted into heat energy, we can write ‘Heat produced’ in place of ‘work done’ in the
above equation, Thus,
Heat produced, H =I2 x R x t joules.
Alternating current: The alternating current is one which changes in magnitude and
direction both.
Primary cells: Those the cells are not rechargeable after completion chemical action.
Secondary cells : Those the cells are rechargeable after completion of chemical action.
(eg.: Lead acis cell.)
VOLTAIC CELL:
It consists of a glass vessel containing dilute sulphuric acid two electrodes of copper and
zinc are immerse in the electrolyte. The copper rod is the positive electrode and the zinc
rod is the Negative electrode. -
Action: When a zinc rod is dipped in sulphuric acid, the Zinc +
atoms go into solution formatting zinc sulphate and two atoms
Hydrogen carrying two units of positive charge. The more mobile C Z
Electrons cling to the zinc rod, which make it negatively charged.
When the rods are connected by a wire, the hydrogen atoms Mobile
Electrons cling to the zinc rod, which make it negatively charged. When the rods are
connected by a wire, the hydrogen atoms carrying the positive the charge travel towards
the copper rod. The charge transferred to the copper rod. The charge transferred to the
copper rod. The electrons travel from zinc copper in the external circuit, thus trying to
equalize the difference of potential between the rods. The conventional direction of
current taken as the flow of positive charge from copper to zinc.
The EMF of the cell is maintained by fresh zinc ions going into solution.The reaction inside
the cell can be represented as
Zn + H2So4 ZnSo4 + H2.
When the terminals of the cell are connected by a wire, the negative charge (electrons)
flows from zinc to copper in the external circuit. When the connecting wire is removed, the
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chemical reaction inside as cell takes place till a potential difference of 1.08 volts is: up
between the electrodes.
DENIELL CELL:
A daniell cell consists of a copper vessel containing copper sulphate solution. The copper
vessel itself acts as the positive electrode. A porous pot P containing dilute sulphuric acid
is immersed in the copper vessel. An amalgamated zinc rod Zn, dipping in sulphuric acid
serves as the negative electrode. A perforated shelf at the copper sulphate soa S to keep
the concentration of the copper sulphate
S P S
Cu
H2so4 Cuso4.
Solution same. Soluphuric acid is the exciting fluid and copper sulphate solution is the
depolariser.
Action : In the porous pot:
Zn+H2SO4 ZnSO4 + 2H + + 2 electrons
The hydrogen ions carrying the positive charge permeate through the porous of the porous
pot and react with the molecules of copper sulphate according to the equation
2H+ + CiSO4 H2SO4 + Cu ++
The copper ion carrying two units of positive charge travels to the positive electrode
(copper vessel )and gives its charge to it. This makes the copper vessel positively
charged. When the copper vessel and the zinc rod are connected by an external wire, the
copper vessels neutralization of the charge takes place. The use of amalagamated zinc
rod avoid local action and the use of depolariser prevents polarization. As the strength of
copper sulphate solution is maintained constant the EMF of the cell remain constant.
Leclanche cell:
A leclanche cell consists of a glass bottle G containing a strong solution of ammonium
chloride. The negative is an amalgamated Zinc Zn dipping in ammonium chloride. The
positive electrode is a carbon rod C placed inside a porous pot P and the space in the
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porous pot filled with manganese dioxide and charcoal pewder. Ammonium chloride is the
existing fluid and manganese dioxide is the depolariser charcoal power merely helps to
make the manganese dioxide electrically conducting.
Action: Zn+2NH4Cl 2NH3 + ZnCl2 + 2H + + 2 electrons

The ammonium gas liberated escapes out and the G
hydrogen ions carrying the positive permeate through pores
of the porous pot and react with manganese dioxide
according to the equation 2h + 2MnO
Mn2O3+H2O+2units
of positive charge. NH 4Cl
The positive charge is transferred to the carbon rod
through the charcoal powder and the hydrogen is converted
to water. The EMF of a Leclanche cell is 1.45 volts.
Porous pot
The chemical reaction inside the porous pot is the rather slow due to the use of solid
depolariser. If the cell is used for a long time, there will accumulation of hydrogen. This will
amount to partial polorisation and, therefore, the EMF of the cell falls. If the extenal circuit
is cut for sometime, the accumulated hydrogen is disposal off and the cell regain its
original EMF.
Dry cell: Shell seal H

A dry cell is a portable form of Leclanche cell. It consist of zinc
vessel Zn containing a paste of saw-dust saturated with a
solution of ammonium chloride .Zinc vessel is the negative
electrode and ammonium chloride is the exiciting fluid.
Zn
Saw Dust
NH4Cl
The positive terminal of the cell is a carbon rod C surrounded by Mno2 CHARCOAL, PASTER
OF PARIA
a closely packed mixture of charcoal, manganese dioxide
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and plaster of paris in a muslin bag. A small hole H is provided

at the top for the escape of ammonia gas and the vessel is sealed at top with shellac or
pitch. The zinc vessel itself serves as the container. The EMF of a dry cell is 1.5 V. And
falls down use. The internal resistance is low about 0.1 Ohm.
1.NH 4 cl , 2.Brass Cap 3.muslin Bags. 4.Mno2 Charcoal, Paster of paries.
MAGNETIC EFFECT OF CURRENT (ELECTROMAGNETISM):

The term ‘magnetic effect of current’ means that ‘a current flowing in a wire produces a
magnetic field round it’. The magnetic effect of current was discovered by Orsted in
1820. Oersted found that a wire carrying a current was able to deflect a magnetic needle.
Now, a magnetic needles, it was concluded that a current flowing in a wire always gives
rise to a magnetic field round it. The importance of magnetic effect of current lies in the
fact that it gives rise to mechanical forces. The electric motor, dynamo, telephone and
radio, all utilize the magnetic effect of current. The magnetic effect of current is also called
electromagnetism which means electricity produces magnetism.
Ex.1 Calculate the specific resistance of the material of a wire 1.1 mete long, 0.4 mm in
diameter and having a total resistance of 4.2 ohms.
R= 4.2 , L= 1.1 meter = 110 meter,
d= 0.4 meter , Crass-Sectional area = pd2/4 = 88/70000 sq.cm.
R =  L/A or  = RA/L = 48x10-6 -cm.
2. Two conductors are connected in series hava a resistance of 18 ohm and parallel 4
ohms. Find the separate resistances.
R1 =12 ohms.R2=6 ohms.
3.In a factory 200 bulbs are connected in parallel each of them takes a current of 0.1
ampere at 220 volts. Calculate the combined resistance of all the lamps and the current in
the leads.
E = 220 V. I =01.A, Resistance of each bulb R= 220/0.1 = 2200 ohms.
The bulbs are joined in parallel. The total current in the leads = 200 x 0.1 = 20A.
Combined resistance R= 11 ohms.
4 An AC supply of 200V is connected across a resistor of 400 ohms. Calculate

(1) . the current and (2).Power drawn from the source.
(1). Ev = 200V. R =400 ohms. I = 200/400 = 0.5A, (2).p = VxI = 200x0.5 =100 W.
5.A dynamo develops a 10 Amperes at 220 volts. What is the power in kilowatts.
Power = Ex I
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=220x10 .
= 2200 watt.
6.Power. Rate of doing work is called power. In electric circuit, it is the energy transformed
per second.
Power = ExI. Where E= p.d and I = the current,
Power is measured in watts .
Work done : ExIxt , work done in joules, t in seconds.
Energy consumed = ExIxt/1000 kilowatt-hours.
KWh = warrsxHour/1000
Joul's Law: W = JH Or
Heat Produced = W/J, J = 4.2 Jouls/cal,
H = ExIxt/4.2 = I2Rt/4.2 Calories.
7.A heater connected to a 220 volts D.C.supply is used for heating 500 g of water by 50 
C in 10 minutes. What is the resistance of the heater wire ?
mass of water = 500g.
Rise in temperature = 50 C.
Total Heat Produced
H = 500 x 1 x 50 = 2500 cal.
E = 220 volts.
R = 220 volts.
t =10minutes, 600 sec.
H = E x I x t/4.2
R =2765.7 
8. An electric kettle takes 4 amperes when put on a circuit of 250 volts. Calculate the time
required to prepare two cups of tea with 350 g of water to be heated from 20 C to 100  C.
Also calculate the cost at the rate of 20 p per unit.
mass of water = 450g.
Rise in temperature = (100-20) C.
Total Heat Produced H = 450 x 1 x (100-20) = 36000 cal.
E = 250 volts. I = 4 A, t = ?
H = E x I x t/4.2
t = 151.2/3600 hrs.
Energy consumed = Ex I x t /1000 kwh.
250 x 4 x 151.2/ 1000 x 3600 = 0.042 kwh.
Rate 20 P per unit.
Cost = 0.042 x 20 = 0.84 p.
9.Faraday's Laws of Electrolysis.

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1.The mass of a substance (ion) liberated in electrolysis is directly proportional to the

quantity of electricity passes through the electrolyte.
W a Q or W= ZQ = Zit
Where w = mass of the substance liberated or deposite.
Z= electro-chemical equivalent of the substance
I = current , t = time.
Units . W in grams, I in amperes, t in seconds , Z is g/coul.
(2). When the same quantity of electricity is passes through different electricity is passed
through different electrolytes, the masses of the various substances (ions) liberated at
various electrodes are in the ratio of their chemical equivalents.
W1 = Z1
W2 Z2
10. Calculate the value of the current required to deposit 0.972 g of chromium in 3 hours if
ECE of chromium is 0.00018 g/coul.
W= 0.972 g. Z = 0.00018g/coul.
t = 3 hours = 3x 3600 = 10800 s.I= ? W= ZIt
I = W/Zt = 0.972/0.00018 x 10800 = 0.5 A.
CURRENT ELECTRY :
1.Define electric current and name its unit .
A. Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of electric charge. The unit of electric
current is ampere (a).
Electric current = electric charge
time
2.Is electric current is scalar or vector ?
A. Electric current is scalar.
3.Whate is direction of flow current ?
A. The conventional direction of electric current is taken as the direction of flow of
positive charge (i.e. opposite to the direction of flow of electrons).
4.whate is needed to cause an electric current?
A. An electric current flows between two points only when there is a potential
difference between them. The greater the potential difference, the greater is the electric
current, i.e.,
Current  potential difference or I  V
5.define an electric circuit.
A. It is the path along which an electric current flows. The current flows on when the
circuit is closed.
6.Name the quantity of a circuit that effects electric current.
A. Resistance (symbol R) of the circuit.
Current  1
Resistance
7.How can the current be kept continuous?
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A. Current between any two points can be kept continuous by maintaining a constant
potential difference between them. This is done by connecting an electric cell or a battery
between the two points. The cell or the battery acts as a change pump.
8.define an E.M.F of a cell or a battery
A. Emf of a cell is defined as the total energy per unit charge when the cell is in the
open circuit, i.e. when no current is drawn from it.
The emf of a cell may also be defined as the work done in moving a unit positive (test)
charge from its negative to positive terminal inside. Its symbol is E or 
9.Whate is the SI unit of e.m.f.
A. Volt (symbol V)
10.Define Ohms law.
A. Electric current I flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference V across its ends, provided other physical conditions like temperature remain
constant. Mathematically V a I or V = IR.
11.Define the resistance of a conductor?
A. It is defined as its ability to resist the flow of charge through it .
12.What is the conductor?
A. Conductance is the reciprocal resistance. Conductance of a conductor is defined
as its ability to allow the flow of charge through it.
13.Whate is the SI units for resistance?
A. Ohm (symbol )
14.What are the various units for conductance?
A. Mho. -1 , siemen (symbol S)
15.Define one Ohm.
A. The resistance of a conductor is said to be 1  if a current of 1 A flows through it
when the potential difference across its ends is 1 V.
16.Define resistivity of metal.
A. Resistivity is the property of a current carrying material which depends only upon
the material.
17.What are the SI units of resistivity?
A. Ohm-meter ( m)
18.Name the factors on which the resistance of a metal depends.
A. (i) length, and (ii) area of cross-section.
Resistance ( R ) =  l
A
Where ‘l’ is the length and ‘A’ the area of cross-section of the conductor.
 is the resistivity, which is a constant of proportionality and depends upon the material of
the wire.
19.How does the resistance of a (i) metal, and (ii) semiconductor, vary with temperature?
A. (i) The resistance of a metal increases with increase in temperature.
(ii) The resistance of a semi-conductor decreases with increase in temperature.
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20.Is the resistivity of a metal resistivity?

A. Resistivity () is independent of the length and area of cross-section of the wire; it
depends only on the material of the wire. It is a characteristic of the material, and varies
with temperature {   1 }
Temp.
21.Do metals have higher or low resistivity?
A. Metals have low resistivity.
22. Which has greater resistivity, copper or rubber?
A. Rubber.
23.Why does the resistance of a metal increase which increase in temperature?
A. With rise in temperature, atoms vibrate with greater amplitudes. The collision
frequency between electrons and atoms increases and the relaxation time (T) decreases.
Since resistivity is inversely proportional to relaxation time, resitivity increases with rise in
temperature.
24.Define temperature coefficient of resistance  . What are its units?

A. The temperature coefficient of resistivity is given by
 = 1 d
 dT
and is defined as the fractional charge in respectivity (d/) per unit change in
temperature (dT). The value of  also varies with temperature. It is expressed in /0C or /K
25.State whether  is positive or negative for:
(i) copper,(ii) silicon, (iii) so;ver,(iv)germanium, and (v) carbon.
A. (i) positive, (ii) Negative, (iii) Positive, (iv) Negative, and (v) Negative.
26.Distinguish between a primary cell (dry cell) and an accumulator.
A 1. Primary cell is not chargeable as the chemical reactions are irreversible.
It has a small size and portable.
It is used in gadgets, torches, tape recorders, watches, etc. Where as less current is
needed
2. Accumulator : It is chargeable as the chemical reactions are reversible.
It has large size and is not portable.
It is used in cars, amplifier systems, etc. where large current is needed.
27.Whate is the voltage of care battery
A. 12V.
28.Whate is Joul’s laws of heating.
A. The heating of a conductor when electric current flows through the it is called Joul’s
heating.
29.Define electric power. Whate are the units of electric power.
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A. It is defined as the ratio of consumption of electric energy, i.e the rate at which
electric energy is being converted into some other form.It is expressed in watts.
30.Whate is the value of Joul’s constant
A. 4.2J/cal.
31.Whate is the electrolysis?
A. The processes by which a substance is decomposed by the passing of an electric
current is called electrolysis.
32.Whate is an electrolyte?
A. During processes of electrolysis, the substance that conducts electricity and
undergoes decomposition is called an electrolyte.
33.Whate is an electrochemical cell?
A. An electrochemical cells involves the transformation of chemical energy into electric
energy.
34.Whate are primary cell and secondary cells?
A. Primery cells are those which produce emf as a irreversible chemical reaction, while
secondary cells or storage cells or accumulators produce emf as a result of a reversible
chemical reaction.
35.The emf of dry cell.
A. 1.5V.
36.Faraday’s constant, F equals.
A. 96,500 C mol-1
37. 1 kwh is commonly know as
A. 1 unit.
38.The SI unit of electrical energy is the
A. Joule
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HYDROSTATICS
Thrust and pressure:

Consider a liquid in a beaker upto a height h. The area of cross section of the beaker is A
and density of the liquid is d at the beaker, the weight of the liquid acts on the base.
The total weight of liquid = (a h)dg = A h.dg
This total force acting on the base of the beaker is called thrust. Therefore thrust of a liquid
is defined as the total force acting on a surface of a solid with which the liquid is in contact
thrust had same units as force.
Thrust per unit area is called pressure of a liquid at.

That point h1
Pressure at p = Total thrust / total area h
= A h dg / A = h dg.
P1
To find pressure at p1 consider a area round the point p1 and find the total weight of the
liquid column on this unit area.
Pressure as p1 = 1 X h1 X dg/1 = h1 dg.
Therfore in general pressure at a point within a liquid = h.dg. Here h is the height of the
liquid above the point, d the denity of the density and g accelerating due to gravity.
Units: In CGS units, _________ dynes/cm2

In rationalized MKS units ______ newtons/m2
In FPS units ________ pounds/ft2
At N.T.P one atmospheric pressure is 760 mm of Hg = 1.013 X 10 5 n/m2
The pressure and thrust of liquid at rest is always perpendicular to the surface in contact
with it.
Surface Tension: :
Surface tension is the property of a liquid by which the free surface of a
liquid behaves like a stretched membrane. Suppose a line AB drawn on
the free surface of a liquid. The molecules laying on one side tend to
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pull always from the molecules lying on the other side of the line in
order to decrease the surface area. Hence surface tension is also
defined as the force per unit length acting on either side of imaginary
line drawn on the liquid surface at rest. The direction of the force is
tangential to the surface and perpendicular to the line.
Surface tension = force / length, units dynes per cm.

Density and Relative density: The density of a substance is defined on the substance to
that of water at 40C i.e.
Relative density = Density of the substance/density of water at 4 0C .

= Mass of any volume of substance/mass of equal volume of water at 4 0C.
Boyl’s law : It state that the volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to
the pressure of the gas a constant temperature i.e. V  1/P for given mass of gas at
constant temperature.
PV = Constant.
Eg.1.Whate is the unit of density?
A. kg/m3 .
Eg.2.pressure is defined as ?
A.Force per unit area.
Eg.3.whate is the specific gravity of water?
A.1.0
Eg.4.whate is the specific gravity of kerosene?
A.0.8
Eg.5.Find specific gravity of kerosene, when the density of kerosene is 800 kg/m 3.
A. Specific gravity of kerosene = density of kerosene/density of water
= 600/1000 = 0.8
Eg.6.Define term Buoyancy and center of Buoyancy.
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CHEMISTRY
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METALS
Chemistry: Is the branch of science, which is concerned with the description and
classification of matter and the transformations, or chemical reactions, which the matter
undergoes.
Atom: It is made up of extremely small particles and it can’t cut.
Nuclei : Every atom has a positively charged nucleus which contains over 99.9% of the
total mass of the atom.
Every nucleus may be described as being made up of two kinds of particles. These two
kinds of particle called nucleons are proton and neutron. Proton is positive charged and
neutron is no charge.
The atoms of all isotopes of any one element have the same number of protons. This
number is called the atomic number, Z , and is a characteristic of the element.
The total number of nucleons, A. is called mass number.
Number of neutrons = A- Z,
Matter: Matter has been defined as anything that has mass and occupies space.
Matters are mainly three forms namely solid, liquid, gas.
A solid has a definite volume and shape.
A liquid has a definite volume but no shape,
A gas has neither definite volume nor shape.
Substance: Substance is a particular kind of matter that has fixed composition and fixed
properties.
Element: Element is a substance which cannot be decomposed into other similar
substance ex. Copper, silver, gold, carbon, phosphrous.
To avoid difficult and tediousness for study of large number of elements and their
compounds in the absence of a systematic classification, the known elements were
grouped into metals and non-metals.
In 1866 Newlands made a significant contribution thought his law of Octaves which state
that “ when element are arranged in the order of their atomic weight the eight element
resembled the first one just like the first note of music resembles the eight note”. This more
so in the absence of Zero groups which was not discovered by that time and it applies only
to elements from lithium to calcium
In 1869 Mendeleeff stated that the properties of elements and their compounds are a
function of their atomic weights. This statement is called periodic law.
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In the Bohr’s long form of the periodic table, there are seven horizontal rows of elements
called periods and eighteen vertical columns called groups or families.
It states that the physical and chemical properties of all elements are periodic function of
their atomic number.
Compound: Compound is a substance that may be regarded as having been formed by

the chemical combination of two or more elements, ex. Water, sodium chloride etc.
Mixture: Mixture is made up of two or more substance present in different proportions ex.
Iron and salt shaken together from mixture.
Solution: Solution is homogeneous mixture of two or more substance, when sugar
dissolved in water is called homogeneous mixture.
A particular portion of the given matter that is uniform throughout in respect of composition
and properties called a phase. A system consisting on only one phase is called
homogenous, while one consisting of more than one distinct phase is called
heterogeneous.
Characteristics of Metals:
109 elements are knows\n at present. Oxygen is the most abundant element in the earth
crust. About 80% of the known elements are metals, with the following important
characteristic:
(1)All metals, except mercury (which is liquid) are solids at room temperature.
(2)They exhibit brilliant metallic lustre when freshly cut or polished. Some non-metals,
like graphite, diamond, iodine also have luster.
(3)They are malleable as well as ductile. Malleability is the property of metals to be
fabricated into sheets or foils, while ductility is the property ;of metals to be drawn into
wires. These properties are related to the fact that the outer or valence elements of metal
atoms are loosely held and they can be easily removed or ionised. It is also easy to
remove or ionise a valency electron from a metal atom than from a non-metal atom.
(4)They are usually hard, except alkali metals, which are soft enough to be cut with a
knife.
(5)They are very good conductors of heat and electricity.
(6)Metals possess high electrical and thermal conductivities. The electrical conductivity of
metals is even greater than that of electrolytes.
(7)Normally metals possess relatively high densities, except a few metals, such as Li, Na,
K, etc. which are exceptionally light.
(8)Metals have a tendency to lose electrons, thereby acquiring the positive charge. Such
elements have low ionisation potential as well as low electro negativity and electron
affinity.
Energy is always required to remove one or more electrons from a neutral atom. Lesser
the energy required for a metal atom to lose its valency electrons, the more reactive the
metal will be and the more metallic character it will have. Because energy needed for
removing the valence electrons from a metal atom varies considerably, the chemical
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reactivity of the metals also varies greatly. For example, sodium reacts very rapidly and
violently with water, while copper and nickel do not react with water.
(9)Because of their tendency to lose electrons, they are good reducing agents.
(10)Metal have high melting and boiling points. Alkali metals have low melting points,
while mercury has low boiling point. Heavy metals, such as Cu, Zn, Al, Fe etc.
possess relatively high m.p. and b.p.
(11)They generally have 1 to 4 electrons in the outermost shells of their atoms. They
readily lose valency electrons in chemical reactions.
(12)Some metals may react with acids to liberates H 2 gas. A good number of metal
oxid4es dissolve in water to form bases.
(13)They generally form basic oxides. Cr and Mn form acidic oxides as well basic oxides.
Sn, Al, Zn form amphoteric oxides.
(14)Some metals, such as Na, Ca, etc. form unstable hydrides.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METAL:
Metals possess some distinct physical properties by virtue of with they are used for
particular work in industrial processes. In other words, the choice of a metal for a
particular work is mostly governed by these properties. Important properties of metals are
given below:
1.Specific heat is the amount of heat in calories required to raise the temperature of one
gm of the substance by 10 C. The specific heats of different substances are different.
2.Specific gravity is the relative mass of a certain volume of the substance compared to
the mass of the some volume of water.
3.Weldability is the ability of the substance to be welded together when heat and/or
pressure is applied.
4.Elasticity is the property because of which a material is capable of regaining the initial
or original shape, when the load producing the deformation is moved.
5.Plasticity is the inability of the material to regain the original shape when the load
producing the deformation is moved and hence plasticity is the reverse of elasticity.
6.Stiffness is the property because of which a substance resists deflection by externally
applied force.
7.Porosity is the ratio of volume occupied by pores to the volume of a material.
8.Fusibility is the ease with which a material is fused or melted by applying heat.
9.Fluidity is the ease with which material flows in a mould.
10.Ductility is the property of the metal which allow it to be drawn into wire. The most
ductile of all the metals is silver.
11.Malleability is the property of the metal which allows it to be beaten into thin sheets.
Gold is the most malleable of all the metals.
12.Hardness enables a material to resist penetration or abrasion or scratching by other
materials. Diamond is the hardest known material.
13.Toughness of a material indicates the capacity of it to with stand bending or torsion
without fracture.
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14.Brittleness is the property of a material which does not allow permanent deformation
without breakage and is reverse of toughness.
15.Machinability is the property by virtue of which a material can be easily cut, by
cutting tools in order to get a particular shape and surface finish on it.
16.Tensile strength is the property that a material possesses and enables the metal to
withstand a force acting upon it with a tendency to break it by tearing.
17.Refractoriness is the property of material because of which a material is capable of
withstanding high temperature without fusing.
18Shear strength is the property by which a material is capable of withstanding a force
acting upon it with a tendency to distort its shape.
19.Impact resistance is the property, which enables a material to withstand heavy
shocks.
20.Fatigue resistance is the property, which enable a overcome fatigue, caused by
repeated stresses. This property ;of metal can be increased by annealing.
21.Creep resistance. Continuous deformation of machine parts by the action of loads
under high temperature is generally known as creep. Materials having low value of
continuous deformation under load at high temperature are said to possess high creep
resistance and hence such a mater4ial can be used at elevated temperatures.
22.Resilience is the capacity of a material to return to the original form, when the
stretching force, bending or compressing force is removed.
23.Magnetic property Materials are called magnetic, if they are attracted by magnets.
Examples are Ni, Fe, Co, Cr, Mn, etc. Materials which are not attached by magnets are
called non-paramagnetic. Materials which are feebly repelled by a magnet are called
diamagnetic. Examples are Cu, Zn, Pb, Sb, Bi, etc.
Aide: An acid is regarded as substance which gives off a proton[H+] in solution this always
soluted i.e combined with one or more molecules of the solvent.
Base: A base is a substance which gives hydroxyl ions (OH-) in a solution which combine
with the hydrogen ions furnish by acid serves the purpose only in aqueous solutions.
OXIDATION-REDUCTION(“REDOX”)POTENTIAL:
Metals ions acts as oxidising or reducing agent as a result of ability to gain or to lose
electrons froming ions of lower or higher velency which represent different stages of
oxidation. An atom of iron, for example may lose two electrons to from the ferrous ion or
three electrons to form the ferric ion.
Fe =Fe2+ =2e-
Fe =F3+ =3e-
A ferric ion acts an oxidising agent because it can gain one electron and be converted to
the lower state of oxidation, i.e ferrous ion:
Fe3+ +e = Fe2+
Similarly the ferrous ion acts as a reducing agent because it can lose one electron to be
converted to the ferric ion:
Fe 2+ -e = Fe3+
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However if we take a mixed solution of ferric and ferrous ions, the solution will possess
reducing or oxidising properties according as whether it can lose or gain electron. If a
platinum plate be immerse in such a solution and the solution tends to oxides the plate,
electron will remove from the plate which will acquire a positive charge, If on the other
hand, the solution tends to reduce the plate, it will give up electrons to it and the plate will
aquiver a negative charge .The magnitude and the sign of the charge give to the plate,
therefore, measures the oxidizing or the reducing power of the solution.
SOURES OF ELEMENTS: Of the 90 elements found in nature, six (N 2, O2, Ne, Ar, Kr,
Xe) occur in elementary form in the atmosphere. Four others (Na, Mg, Cl 2
and Br2) can be extracted from the oceans or salt brines, where they are
present as monatomic ions (Na +, Mg2+, Cl-, Br-) . Nearly all the remaining 80
elements are obtained from mineral deposits on or beneath are surface of the
earth. The relatively few minerals from which elements can be extracted
profitably are known as ores.
(i) Metals which are sufficiently un reactive to occur uncombined (i.e. in elementary form)
are present in group VIII B and I B of the 2 nd and 3rd transition series (e.g. Pt, Au, Ag ;
free Ag is also found in nature.
(ii)Metalloids (e.g. Ge, As, Sb) and neighboring metals, all of which have relatively large
ionisation energies, generally occur as sulphides.
(iii)The more strongly metallic elements that form positive ions readily are found as oxides
(transition metals), carbonates (II A metals) or chlorides (I A metals).
(iv)Three noble metals (Cu, Ag, Au) , Hg and six platinum metals (Ru, Os, Rh, Ir, Pd
and Pt) occur in nature in free state . All other metals are found in combined state in the
nature.
(v)The composition of earth’s crust is : O (49.1%), Si(26%), Al (7.5%), Fe(4.2%),
Ca(3.2%), Na (2.4%), Mg (2.3%) and H (1.0%) by weight.
(vi)In combined state metals are found as (a) Oxides - Mg, Cu, Zn, Al, Mn, Fe etc. (b)
Carbonates - Na, Cu, Mg, Ca, Ba, Zn, Pb, Fe etc. (c) Sulphates - Na,, Mg, Ca, Ba, Cr,
Pb, etc, (d) Halides - Na, Ca, Al, K, Ag, Mg, Pb etc. (e) Phosphates - Ca, Pb, Fe,
etc. (f) Silicates - Li, Cu, Zn, Al, Mn. Ni. etc. and (g) Sulphides - Fe, Cu, Pb, Hg etc.
OCCURRENCE OF METALS:
Metals occur in nature sometimes in free or native state, but most of these occur in
nature in the form of chemical combination, i.e. in the form of their stable compounds
which are associated with, gangue or matrix. The earthy impurities such as sand, clay,
rocks etc. associated with ore are collectively known as gangue or matrix. Thus a large
number of metals in nature occur in the combined form along-with other elements, but
some metals, such as Ag, Au , Pt etc. occur in the native form (metallic state) in some
regions. Ag occurs in native (or free) as well as in the form of compounds. Thus
natural material in which the metal or their compounds occur in the earth is knows as
mineral. Thus a mineral or in combined state. A mineral may be a single compound or
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a complex mixture of various compounds. In spite of the fact that minerals contain
metals, all minerals are not suitable for the extraction of metals commercially. When a
mineral contains sufficient amount of a metal in combined state, from which it can be
readily and profitably separated on commercial scale, then the mineral is said to be an ore
of the metal. Thus all ores are minerals but all minerals are not ores. A mineral from
which a metal can be profitably extracted is called an ore.. For example , clay (Al 2 O3 .
2SiO2. 2H2 0) and bauxite (Al2 O3. 2H2 O) are two minerals of aluminium, but aluminium,
cab be profitably extracted only from bauxite and not from the clay. Hence bauxite is an
ore of aluminium, while clay is a mineral. The biggest source of metal is the earth’s
crust and the process of taking out the ores from the earth crust is called mining. Ores
obtained from earth crust are always associated with impurities like sand, clay, rocks etc.
These unwanted impurtieies associated with the ores are known as gangues or matrix.
 According to latest information 109 elements are known. The elements with Z = 104,
105 , 106, 107, 108 and 109 are unnilquadium, Unnilhexium ,Unnilseptium,
Unniloctium and Unnilennium.
 Of the 106 known elements, approximately 81 can be classified as metsl.
 There are 17 elements which are ordinarily classified as non-metals. Roughly 75% of
the known elements are metals.
 Out of 90 elements found in nature, six (N2, O2, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe) occur in elementry
form in the atmosphere.
 Sodium, magnesium, chlorine and bromine are present as monatomic ions (Na+,
Mg2+,Cl-, Br)in oceans or salt brines.
 Three metals have melting point just slightly above normal room temperature and re
liquids on
the particular warm day . These are ceasium (m.p. 28.40C) , francium (m.p. 27 0C) ,
and gallium (m.p. 29.80C).
 Galloium readily supercools, that is remains liquid even at temperatures several
degrees below its melting point.The most metallic elements in the periodic table are
ceasium, Cs(z =55) and Francium, Fr(Z= 87).
 Lithium is the least dense of all metals, with a density roughly half that of water.
 Radium was the first radioactive element isolated from pitch blende in 1898 by
Marie and Pierre Curie.
 The first, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh most abundant elements
inthe earth crust are oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron, calcium, sodium, and potassium
respectively.
 Boron (B), silicon (Si), arsenic (As) and tellurium (Te) are called metalloids or
semimetals.
 Mercury is the only liquid metal element at room temperature.
 Bromine is the only non-metallic elements which is liquid at room temperature.
 Both liquid and vapour bromine are diatomic.
 All the elements of the periodic table form halides ,except He, Ne and Ar.
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 Tungsten is more deuctile than even gold. Tungsten has the lowest vapour
pressure and the highest melting point of all the metal.
 The moist non-metallic element is flourin.
 The most abundant metal in the earth crust is aluminium.
 The second most abundant metal in the earth crust is iron.
Metals are found at the far left and at the bottom of the periodic table.
ALLOYS:
WHAT ARE ALLOYS: -
When two or more elements are fused together and the resulting liquid is allowed
to solidify, we get an alloy. An alloy is homogeneous mixture of two or more elements with
metallic properties. Metals have a wonderful property of forming alloys. If one of the
constituent metals of an alloy is mercury, then the alloy is called an amalgam. For
example, when a piece of copper is added to mercury, the copper metal dissolves in
mercury to form Cu-Hg amalgam. Chemically, alloys are solid solutions and possess more
desirable properties than the component metals. So they are usually preferred to metals.
Alloys are generaly harder, less malleable and have lower melting points than their
component metals. They resist corrosion and the action of acids and also have low
electrical conductivity.
The properties of alloys are not necessarily intermediate between those of constituent
metals. Alloys are usually prepared to develop certain desirable which are not possessed
by the constituent elements. Thus the properties of metals can be altered according to the
requirements. For example, gold and silver are soft metals. Thus they are alloyed with
copper to make them hard enough to be used in the preparation of Jewelry. The Wood
metal is an alloy of Bi, Pb, Sn and Cd and melts at 60.5 0C, which is far below the m.p. of
any of these constituent metals. Fuse wire has a low m.p. and so it is used in electrical
connections. Iron forms rust when exposed to air, but when alloyed with carbon and
chromium, we get stainless steel which resists corrosion.
The dull coloured metals are improved by alloying with metals. For example, copper and
aluminium have dull colures, but aluminium bronze ( alloy of Cu and Al ) has beautiful
golden colour. The chemical activity of metals may also be increased or decreased by
alloying. For example, Na-Hg (sodium amalgam) is less reactive than Na metal, but Al-
Hg (aluminium amalgam) is more reactive than Al metal.
Some metals are soft or brittle and expand on solidification, but their alloys with other
metals are fusible, hard and expand on solidification giving good casting. In general,
formation of alloy:
(1)Increases the hardness, good casting and intensity of colour.
(2) Decreases the melting point, conductivity and corrosion.
TYPE OF ALLOYS:
Alloys are of three types:
1.Ferrous Alloys: Alloys which contain iron as one of the components are called ferrous
alloys. Examples, stainless steel (Fe + C + Cr) , Ferro chrome (Fe + Cr), Invar is
also a ferrous alloys and contains 36% Ni . Clock pendulum are made of invar.
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2.Non-Ferrous Alloys: Alloys, which do not contain iron as one of the components.
Examples, brass (Zn + Cu), bronze (Cu + Sn), german (cu, Zn, Ni) etc.
3.Amalgams :- Alloys containing mercury as one of the components. Examples are Zn-
Hg, Cu-Hg, Au-Hg, Na-Hg etc.
Some important alloys and their compositions are given in below.
ALLOYS, THEIR COMPOSITION AND USES:
1) Alnico -It is an alloy of copper, nickle and cobalt steel. It is used in making permanent
magnets.
2) Aluminium Bronze: - It is an alloy of 90% copper and 10% aluminum. It is used
in making coins, trays and picture frames.
3) Alclad : It is an alloy of aluminum and used in making sea planes.
4) Brass: It is an alloy of 70% copper and 30% zinc. It is used in making utensils.
5) Bronzes: These are mostly the alloys of copper and tin the contain 75 -90% Cu
abd 25 -10% and aluminium bronze do not even contain tin. Tin increases
strength, ductility and hardness of alloy. These bronzes are mainly used for making
coins, statues and special type of utentils.
Aluminum bronze contains 90% Cu and 10% Al. Phosphor bronze consisting of
94% Cu, 5% Sn and 1% P is hard , elastic and used for pump rods, valves, axle
bearings and certain other equipments. These are malleable, corrosion resistant and
suitable and special type of utensils.
Silicon bronze contains up 4% Si and upto 1 Fe, Mn, Zn and Al , but does not contain
Sn . They have strength like mild steel, excellent corrosion resistance and also have good
welding properties.
6) Bell Metal: It is an alloy of Cu and Sn in the percentage of 80% Cu and 20% Sn.
It is hard, brittle and sonorous. It is used for fabricating machines paarts and bells, gongs
etc. A particular class of this alloy is known as KANSA which is extensively used in making
utensils in W. Bengal. The alloy containing 78% Cu and 22% Sn is called Bharan and
is used for making cups and tumblers.
7) Babbit Metal :It is an alloy of Sn (88 - 90%), Sb (7.4%) and Cu (3.7%) , Hard
babbit composition is (a) Sn = 91% , Pb = 4.5% and Sb = 4.5% (b) Sn = 83
% . It is used as bearing metal.
8) Britania Metal or Pewter :
It is an alloy of Sn (85 – 95%) , Sb (6 – 10% and Cu (1 -3%) . It is used for making cups,
mugs, and other utensils.
9) Constantan: It is an alloy of nickel (40%), copper (60%) . It is used in electrical
work such as for making resistance boxes and thermocouples, etc.
10) Duralumin: It is an alloy of Al (95.5%), Cu ( 4%), Mg (0.5%) and Mn (0.5%). It
is used in making aero plane parts.
11) Delta Metal: It is an alloy of Cu (55%), Zn (41%) and Fe (4%). It is used in
making ships, bearings and propellers.
12) Dutch Metal: It is an alloy of copper and zinc and is used in gold coverings.
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13) Electorn : It is an alloy of Mg and Zn with small amounts of Al, Cu and Mn. It is
a hard metal alloy used for making propellers of engines and air crafts.
14) Ferror Alloys-Ferro-molybdenum: is an alloy of Mo. Usually the percentage of
Mo is less than 1% , But about 1.5 - 2% Mo has also been used for high speed steel
and 5% Mo in resisting steel. 6% -10% Mo is also used for preparing special steel. The
average composition of ferrosilicon is Si =90 -95%, C = 0.15%, S = 0.01% and P
= 0.05%. Ferro titanium composition of Ti 38 -45% , C = 0.1 –6%, Si = 15 –25% and
Al = 9 =10%. Ferro tungsten is hard and strong and contains W = 14 - 20%. It is
used in the manufacture of high speed tools. Ferro manganese or spiegeleisen has the
average composition Mn = 78 - 82% , C = 7.5%, P = 0.35%, S = 1.25%. Ferro
nickel contains Ni= 2.5 –5% . It is hard , though and restless. It is used in the manufacture
of cables propeller shaft, armor plates etc. Ferro-vanadium has the composition V = 30 –
40%, C =3.5%, P = 0.25% , S = 0.4%, Si = 13% and Al = 1.5%. It has high tensile
strength and is used for making high speed tools.
15) German Silver Or Nickel Silver: These are Cu – Zn – Ni alloys containing about
50% Cu, 25% zn and 25% Ni. Nickel is used for fancy articles, forks, spoons, cigarette
cases etc. The corrosion resistance increases with an incre4ase in the percentage of
nickel. It is found in various varieties, of which a and b- varieties are common.
a.Alpha variety: Cu = 55 – 65%, Zn 13 – 27% and Ni = 10 –38%
b. Beta variety : Cu = 45%, Zn 45% and Ni 10%
c. Alpha Variety is however, much used, German silver is mostly used in making cutlery,
table wares, jewellery etc.
16) Gun Metal: The gun metal is an alloy of Cu, Sn, Zn. It contains 88% Cu, 10% Sn
and 2% Zn . It is used making guns, gears and bearings.
17)Monel Metal: It is an alloy of 30% Cu, 67% Ni and 3% Mn or Fe. It is used for the
construction of house hold sinks and containers and alkali resisting equipments, because it
is resistant to corrosion by alkalies. It is also acid proof.
18)Magnalium: It is an alloy of 90% Al and 10% Mg . It is used in making balance
beams.
19)Nichrome: It is an alloy of Ni 60%, Cr 15% and Fe 25% and is used in making
electrical resistance.
20)Nickle Coinage Alloy: For coinage purpose, an alloy of Ni 25% and Cu 75% is used.
Another coinage alloy is silver coinage which contains 5% nickle.
21) Pewter: It is an alloy of 24% Pb and 76% Sn and used for making utensils.
22) Rose Metal: It is an alloy of Bi 50% , Pb 25% and Sn 25%. It is used in making
stereo metal in printing and safety plugs in boilers.
23)Solder: It is an alloy of 67% Sn and 33% Pb. It is used in soldering. Soft solder
contains 3-80% Pb and 97 –20% Sn. This tin-lead alloy is used for joining metal parts
because of its low melting point. General purpose solder contains 40 – 50% Sn and rest
Pb.
24)Stellit: It is an alloy of chromium, tungsten and nickel and is used for the manufacture
of high speed tools and cutlery. This is also used for making surgical instruments.
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25) Stainless Steel: It contains Cr (about 11%) and Ni (about 7%) . It is used in making
utensils and surgical instruments. Co, W and Cr are added to carbon steel to give
permanent magnet material. Cobalt steel is also used to permanent magnet. Alnico and
Cunico are the other two magnetic alloys which contain permanent magnetic material.
The alnico contains Al, Ni, Co and Fe, while cunico contains Cu, Ni, Co and Fe . Nickel is
very important alloying material with steel. It imparts hardness to steel and thus nickel
steel which contains about 2.5% -5% nickel is characterized by its great toughness,
electricity and can withstand alternaing stresses remarkably. High nickel alloys are used to
withstand very high temperature. Molybdenum steel is resistant to acids. Invar is another
special type of nickel iron alloy (ferro alloy) containing about 35% Ni and small amounts of
manganese and carbon. It has very low coefficient of expansion due to which it has
unique property of neither expanding nor contracting with ordinary changes in temperature
and so it is extensively used for the manufacture of clock pendulums, balance wheels,
clocks and high class tapes.
26)Type Metal: It is an alloy of 82% of Pb , 15% of Sb and 3% of Sn and is used for
making type for printing.
27)Tiscorn: It contains maximu8m 0.3% carbon, Mn 0.5% , Cr 1.00% , Ca 025 –0.6% , Si
1.3% (maximum) , P 0.05% and S 0.05% (maximum).
28)Tiscor:- It contains maximum 0.1% carbon, Mn 0.1% -0.4% (maximum), Cr 0.7% -
1.1%, Cu 0.3% - 0.5% , Si 0.5 – 1.0%, P 0.1 -0.2% and S 0.05%.
These two alloys (Tiscorn and Tiscor) are high strength engineering steels
presented by Tata Iron and Steel Company in India.
29) Wood Metal: It is an alloyt of Pb 25%, Sn 12.5% , Cd 12.5% and Bi 50%. It is used
an automatic sprinkles. It melts in hot water as its m.p. is 68 0C.
TYPES OF IRON:
On the basic of carbon content iron is classified into three types:
(1)Pig Iron or Cast Iron: It is the least pure variety of iron. It is least ductile and hardest
variety of iron because it contains 2.5%-4.5% carbon. It is brittle. It can neither be
tempered not magnetized. It has low m.p. It is used for moulding or casting.
(2)Wrought Iron: It is the purest form of iron. It contains least percentage of carbon (less
than 0.5% carbon). It is soft, malleable as well as ductile. It can not be tempered. It is
passive towards conc.HNO3 and other oxidizing agents. Iron obtained from blast furnace
is known as wrought iron.
(3)Steel : It is an alloy of iron and carbon and contains 0.5% to 1.5% carbon. It is neither
too soft not too brittle. It can be tempered as well as magnetized. Its carbon contents are
between the rough iron and cast iron. It is the most useful form of iron.
HEAT TREATMENT:
Heat treating operations are carried out to accomplish one or more of the following
purposes depending on the particular requirements.
 To increase the hardness of material.
 To soften material.
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 To relive various stress and thus allow parts to be further machined without
distortion or warpage.
 To alter the structure of the material and improve machinability.
 To improve other physical properties of the material.
Heat-treatment:
An operation or a combination of operations involving the heating and colling of a material
of an alloy in the solid state for the purpose of obtaining certain desirable properties or
conditions.
Various Types of Heat-Treatments:
Annealing: Heating and slow cooling operation, such as cooling inside the furnace.
The annealing temperature is about 50C above Ac3 for hypoeutectoid steels and
between Ac1 and Acm for hypereutectoid steels.
Normalizing: Heating an iron base alloy to a temperature approximately 50C above
critical range and cooling in air,
Hardening: Heating an iron base alloy to above the critical temperature range, holding at
the temperature for a sufficient length of time to heat the object uniformly and cooling at a
rate faster than the critical cooling velocity so as to produce martensite.
Tempering: or drawing is the process of reheating the hardend steel to some temperature
below the lower critical rage, for the purpose of reliving internal stress induced during
quenching and improving toughness and ductility of the hardened article.
Speroiding: A process of heating and cooling steel to produce rounded or granular
cementite. Speroidizing is usually done by prolonged heating at a temperature just below
the lower critical temperature followed by relatively slow cooling. Plain carbon steels are
speroidizing hy heating to temperature of between 600C to 700 C holding at the
temperature between 1 to 4 hours and cooling slowly.
Martempering :
An interupted quenching procedure for Produce for poducing fully martensitc structure with
a minimum of internal stress, distrotion or micro-cracks. The steel is quenched from the
approprite heating temperature at a rate greater than the critical cooling velocity into
molten salt or lead bath kept at a temperature slightly lower than the temperature where
austenite begins to transform into martensite upon continuous cooling.
Eg:
1.What is an amalgam? Name two metals that do not form amalgams.
Ans: Alloys of mercury with other metals are know as amalgams. Fe and Pt do
not form amalgams.
1. Name two volatile metals? ( Zn and Cd)Zinc and Cadmium.
2. What is gangue? (Unwanted impurities associated with ores are csalled
gangue)
3. The metal with highest electrical conductivity is? ( Silver)
4. The metal ions that are required for contraction of muscles in human beings and
animals are? ( Na+ ions)
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5. The heaviest naturally occurring element is? ( Uranium)

6. Which metal is an important component of transistors? ( Ge)
7. In known element has maximum number of isotopes ? ( Sn (Ten))
8. The lightest radioactive element is? (tritium ( 31H)
9. The most abundant element in human body is? (Oxygen)
10. The alkali element needed for the growth of plant is ? (Potassium)
11. The metal used in Grignard reagent is? ( Mg)
12. Which element of matter best conveys that there is life on earth? (Carbon)
13. The least reactive alkaline earth metal is ? (Be)
14. The most abundant element in air is? (Nitrogen)
15. The most abudant inert gas in the atmosphere is? (Ar)
16. The metal present in vitamin B12 is? (Co)
17. The metal present in chlorophyll is? (Mg)
18. The metal present in hemoglobin is? (Fe)
19. the lightest metal is? (Lithium)
20. The lightest element is? (Hydrogen)
21. The metal consumed in element form is ? (Silver)
22. The metal extracted from sea water is? (Mg)
23. Name a metal which can not liberate h2 from HCl? ( Cu)
24. Element that can be toxic to plants growing in highly acidic soils is? (Al)
25. The first and second most abundant metals in the earth’s crust are? (Al and
Fe respectively)
26. Name a metal is not oxidized by dil Hcl? (Cu)
27. Radioactive element among alkali metals is? (Fr (Francium))
28. The metal used in silver paints is ? (Al)
29. The metal with least density is? (Lithium)
30. Name some metals which are commonly used, as metal foils for food and
cigarette wrappings? (Li and Zn)
31. Car bumpers have a shiny, protective metallic layer or coating that is made of ?
(Cr (chromium))
32. Most tanacious metal is ? (Platinum)
33. Metals are always? (Electropositive)
34. Which metal is least corroded by the action of sea water in coastal towns? ( Cd
(cadmium))
35. Name a metal which forms heteropoly acids? (Mo (Molybdenum))
36. Name a metal which give sparks on scratching? (Sb (antimony))
37. A metal used for making compounds used in photography? (Ag (silver))
38. Name metal which do not form amalgams? (Fe)
39. Metals generally do not exhibit allotropy. Name a metal which exhibits allotropy?
(Sn (Tin))
40. Name a metal having highest melting point? (Tungsten)
41. Name a meta that can not be properly plated with silver ? (Fe)
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42. Alloys of this metal are light and strong and so used in the manufacture of
airplanes and their parts. The metal is ? (Mg (Magnesium))
43. A solid solution of Cu in Ag is called? (sterling Silver)
44. Name there elements which exist in liquid state? ( Fr, Hg, Br (francium, Mercury,
Bromine)
45. Name a non-metal which sublimes of heating? (Iodine)
46. Stranger gas element is? (Xe (Xenon)
47. Which element has only one isotope? (Phosphours)
48. Boiling points of metals are generally high. Name two metals having low
boi8ling points? (Hg, Na)
49. Most malleable metal is? ( Gold )
50. Metals are generally malleable and ductile. Name three metals which are
neither malleable non ductile? (As, Bi, Sb (Arsenic, Bismuth, Antimony))
51. Which element is used as thermometric liquid? ( Gallium)
52. Gold paint is made from? (Copper)
53. Non-metals are generally bad conductor of electricity. Name two non metallic
substances which are good conductors of electricity? (Graphite and Gas
carbon)
54. Proteins, the building blocks of our body contain about 16%? (Nitrogen)
55. The metal having highest electron affinity is ? (Gold (Au)
56. The first and second most electronegative elements are respectively? ( F and
O (Fluorine and Oxygen))
57. The metal which is important component is all bronzes? (Cu)
58. King of metals is ? (Au (Gold))
59. Name a metal which is used in making boats because it has resistance is
corrosion by sea water? (Titanium)
60. Name five elements present in milk? ( Ca, P , K , S, Na(coliseum,
prosperous, potassium, sulpher, sodium)
61. Name the element present to the extent of 2% in the body? (Ca)
62. Name three metals which are liquid at about 30 0C? (Hg, Cs, Ga)
63. Name the radioactive metal which exists in liquid state? (Francium (Fr))
64. How many elements are essential in human body? (At least 29 elements.
These are Ca, Na, Mg, K, are macro elements and Ca, Na, K, Zn, Fe, Mg and
Co are essential elements)
MULTIPL CHOICE QUESTIONS;-
2. Which of the following metals is extracted by reduction process?
A) Cu B) Al C) Fe D) Mg { C}
3. Silver metal is obtained by?
A) Parke’s process
B) Froath floatation process
C) Carbon redacting process
D) Magnetic separation. {A}
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4. When metal is extracted from its ore which is associated to silica then
A) We need an acidic flux
B) We need a basic flux
C) We need both acidic and basic flux
D) None is required {A}
5. An example of oxide are is ?
A) Bauxite B) Melachite
C) Zinc blende D) Feldspar {A}
6. Iron ore is concentrated by?
A) Froath floatation B) Electrolysis
C) Roasting D) Magnetic treatment {D}
7. The common metal present in brass, bronze and German silver alloys is?
A) Zn B) Mg C) Cu D) Al {C}
7. Which of the following methods is not used in making steel?
A) Duplex method B) Bersem and Thmoson
C) Open Hearth D) Ostwald
{D}
8. High purity copper metal is obtained by?
A) carbon reduction B) Hydrogen reduction
C) Electrolytic reduction D) Thermit process {C}
9. How metal is an alloy of ?
A) Mg + Zn B) Mg + Al + Zn
C) Cu + Zn D) Al + Zn {B}
10. What is the process of nitriding used in the treatment of steel ?
A) Heating steel in a atmosphere of ammonia
B) Heating steel to a bright redness and then cool
C) Heating steel to bright redness and then cool by plunging in air
D) None {A}
11. Which one of the following metal is found free in nature ?
A) Au B) Ba C) Na D) Ca {D}
11. A mineral is known as an ore of a metal if the metal ?
A) Can not be produced from it
B) Can be produced from it
C) Is very costly
D) Can be produced from it profitably {D}
12. Cupellation is used for purification of
A) Na B) Ag C) Pb D) Al
{B}
13. Refractory materials are generally used in furnaces because ?
a. They are chemically inert
b. They possess great structural strength
c. They can withstand high temperature
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d. They do not require replacement {C}

14. Suggest a purification method for obtaining highly pure silicon used as
semiconductor material from the following.
A) Electrochemical refining method
B) Reduction method
C) Zone refining method
D) Oxidation method {B}
15. Iron is rendered passive when treated with ?
A) HNO3 B) HCl C) H3PO4 D) H2SO4 {A}
16. Rusting of iron needs ?
A) Dry air B) Air and water
C) Distilled water and carbon dioxide
D) Oxygen and carbon dioxide {B}
17.16. Which of the following is not an iron ore?
A) Zinc blende B) Zincite
B) Cassiterite D) Magnetite {C}
18.17. The main constituent of steel in India is ?]
A) Ni and Mg B) V and Co
C) Al and Zn D) Mn and Cr
77
BARODA.
MTHIMITICS
GEOMETRY
TRIGONOMETRY
ARITHMETICS
ALGEBRA
78
BARODA.
GEOMETRY
TRIAGNLES
1. Any portion of a plane surface bounded by one or more lines is called a plane figure.
The sum of the bounding lines is called the perimeter of the figure.
The amount of surface enclosed by the perimeter is called the area.
2. Rectilinear figures are those, which are bounded by straight lines.
3. A triangle a plane figure bounded by three straight lines.
4. A quadrilateral is a plane figure bounded by four straight lines.
5. A polygon is a plane figure bounded by more than four straight lines.
6. A rectilinear figure is said to be equilateral, when all its sides are equal; equiangular,
When all its angles are equal; regular, when it is both equilateral and equiangular.
7. Triangles are thus classified with regard to their sides: A triangle is said to
Equilateral, when all its sides are equal;
Isosceles, when two of its sides are equal;
Scalene, when its sides are all unequal.
ISOSCELES TRIANGLE EQUAILATERAL SCALENE TRIANGLE

TRIANGLE
A
In a triangle ABC, the letters A, B, C offen denote the magnitude

of the several angles(as measured in degrees); and the letters c b
a,b,c the lengths of the opposite sides (as measured in inches,
Centimeters, or some other unit of length).
B a c
One of the angular points of a triangle may be regarded as its vertex; and the
opposite side is then called the base.
In an isosceles triangle the term vertex is usually applied to the point at which the
equal sides intersect; and the vertical angle is the angle included by them.
79
BARODA.
8. Triangles are thus classified with regard to their angles: A triangle is said to
Right-angled, when one of its angles is a right angle;
Obtuse-angle, when one of its angles is obtuse;
Acute-angled, when all three of its angles are acute.
(It will be seen hereafter that every triangle must have at least two acute angles.)
RIGHT-ANGLE TRIANGLE. OUTSET-ANGLE ACUTE-ANGLE TRIANGLE

TRIANGLE
9. In a right-angle triangle the side opposite to the right angle is called the hypotenuse.
In any triangle the straight line joining a vertex to the middle point of the opposite side
is called a median.
THE COMPARISION OF TWO TRIANGLES

I.) The three sides and three angles of a triangle are called its six parts. A triangle may
also be considered with regard of its area.
II.) Two triangles are said to be equal in all respects, when one may be so placed upon the
other as to exactly coincide with it; in which case each part of the first triangles is equal to
the corresponding part (namely that with which it coincides) of other; and the triangles are
equal in area.
In two such triangles corresponding sides are opposite to equal angles, and
corresponding angles are opposite to equal sides.
Triangles which may thus be made to coincide by superposition and said to be
identically equal or congruent.
CIRCLE:
1. A circle is a plane figure contained by a line traced out by a point which moves so;
that its distance from a certain fixed point is always the same
 The fixed point is called the center, and the bounding line is called the circumference.
NOTE: According to the definition the term circle strictly applies to the figure
contained by the circumference; it is often used however for the circumference itself
when no confusion is likely to arise. .
2. A radius of a circle is a straight line drawn from the center to the circumference. It
follows that all radii of a circle are equal.
80
BARODA.
3. A diameter of a circle is a straight line drawn through the centre and terminated both
ways by; the circumference.
4. A semi-circle is the figure bounded by a diameter of a circle and the part of the
circumference cut off by the diameter.
5. Circles that have the same center are said to be concentric. From these definitions
we draw the following inferences:
I.) A circle is a closed curve; so that if the circumference is crossed by a straight line, this
line if produced will cross the circumference at a second point.
II.) The distance of a point from the center of a circle is greater of less than the radius
according as the point is without or within the circumference.
III.) A point is outside or inside a circle according as its distance form the center is greater
or less than the radius.
IV.) Circles of equal radii are identically equal. For by superposition of one center on the
other the circumferences must coincide at every point.
V.)Concentric circles of unequal radii cannot intersect, for the distance from the centre of
every point on the smaller circle is less than the radius of the larger.
VI.) If the circumferences of two circles have a common point they cannot have the same
center, unless they coincide altogether.
6.An are of a circle is any part of the circumference.
7.A chord of a circle is a straight line joining any two points on the circumferences.
NOTE: From these definitions it may be seen that a chord of a circle which does not pass
through the center, divides the circumference into two unequal arcs; of these, the greater is
called the major are, and the less the minor arc. Thus the major arc is greater, and the
minor arc less than the semi-circumferences.
The major and minor arcs, into which a circumference is divided by; a chord are said to be
conjugate to one another.
PARALLELOGRAMS
1.A quadrilateral is a plane figure bounded by four straight lines.

The straight line which joins opposite angular points in a
Quadrilateral is called a diagonal.
2.A parallelogram is a quadrilateral whose opposite sides are parallel.
3. A rectangle is a parallelogram, which has one of its angles a right.

angle.
4. A square is a rectangle, which has two adjacent sides equal.
5. A rhombus is a quadrilateral which has all its sides equal, but its
81
BARODA.
angles.
6.A trapezium is a quadrilateral, which has one pair of parallel sides.
THE CONSTRUCTION OF QUARDILATERALS:

It has been shown that the shape and size of a triangle are completely determined when
the lengths of its three sides are given. A quadrilateral, however, is not completely
determined by; the lengths of its four sides. From what follows it will appear that five
independent data are required, in general, to construct a convex quadrilateral, i.e. a figure
having no reflex angle. For a non-convex quadrilateral six independent data are generally
required.
THE GEOMETRICAL EQUIVALENTS OF CERTAIN ALGEBRAICAL FOURMALE
A B
1. A rectangle ABCD is said to be contained by two adjacent sides, AB,AD; for these
sides fix its size and shape.
A rectangle whose adjacent sides are AB, AD is denoted by; the rect. AB,AD; this
equivalent to the product AB, AD.
Similarly a square drawn on the side AB is denoted by the sq. On AB, or AB 2.
A x B
2.If a point X is taken in a straight line AB, or in AB produced, then X is

said to ;divide AB into the two segments AX, XB; the segments being
in either case the distances of the dividing point X from the extremities of A x B
the given line AB.
In Fig.1, AB is said to be divided internally at X.
In Fig. 2, AB ..........divided externally at X.
Obs. In internal division the given line AB is the difference of the segments AX, ,B.
In external division the given line AB is difference of the segments AX, XB.
Eg.1. Drawn a right angled triangle ABC given that AB=4 cm, BC =3 cm and angle ABC
=90 ° Circumscribe a circle
About it and measure its radius. ( HMT 1994)
82
BARODA.
Eg.2. Angles opposite to the equal sides of an isosceles triangle are _______ (HMT 1995)
Eg.3. Construct a trapezium ABCD given that AB= 6.8 CM, BC =4.9 CM, CD = 4.5. CMS.
AD =4 CM, and AB// CD. ------------------ ( HMT 1995)
Eg.4..Construct a triangle ABC with AB = 6.4 CMS. LA = 70 ° and Lc =60°. Measure the
LB and other sides. -------- (HMT -1998)
Eg.5. If Two angles of a triangle are equal and the third one is less than each of the them
by60 degree, than they must be ---------- ( HMT----1998)
83
BARODA.
TRIGONOMETRY
In the revolving line take any point P and draw PM perpendicular to the initial line OA.
O A
M
In the right angle PMO, OP is the hypotenuse, and for /o PM is the perpendicular, and
OM is the base.
The trigonometrically ratios, or functions, of the angle /AOP are defined as follows:
MP , i.e. Perp. , is called is Sine of the angle AOP
OP Hyp.
OM , i.e. Base , is called is Cosine of the angle AOP
OP Hyp.
MP , i.e. Perp. , is called is Tangent of the angle AOP
OM Base
OM , i.e. Base , is called is Cotangent of the angle AOP
MP Perp
OP , i.e. Hype. , is called is Secant of the angle AOP
OM Base
OP , i.e.Hype. , is called is Cosecant of the angle AOP
MP Base
The quantity by which the cosine falls short of unity, i.e. 1 -cosAOP, called the Versed
Sine of AOP; also the quantity 1 - sin AOP, by which the sine falls short of unit, is
called the Co versed Sine of AOP.
It will be noted that the trigonometrically ratios are all numbers.
84
BARODA.
sin AOP, cos AOP, tan AOP, cot AOP, cosec AOP, sec AOP, vers AOP, and
covers AOP respectively. The two latter ratios are seldom used.
It will be noticed, from the definitions, that the cosecant is the reciprocal of the sine, so
that
cosec AOP = 1
sin AOP
So the secant is the reciprocal of the cosine. i.e.,

sec AOP = 1
cos AOP
and the cotangent is the reciprocal of the tangent, i.e.,
cot AOP = 1
tan AOP
To show that the trignometrical ratios are always the same for the same angle.
P’
p
M”
O P” M M’ A
We have to show that, if in the revolving line OP any other point P’ be taken and P’M’ be
drawn perpendicular to OA, the ratios derived from the triangle OP’M’ are the same as
those derived from the triangle OPM.
In the two triangles, the angle at O is common, and the angles at M and M’ are both right
angles and therefore equal.
Hence the two triangles are equiangular and therefore, by Geometry, we have
MP = M’P’
OP OP’
i.e. the sine of the angle AOP is the same whatever point we take on the revolving line.
Since, by the same proposition, we have
OM = OM’ and MP = M’P’
85
BARODA.
OP OP’ OM OM’
it follows that the cosine and tangent are the same whatever point be taken on the
revolving line. Similarly for the other ratios.
Fundamental relations between the trigonometriacal ratios of an angle-
We shall find that if one of trigonometrically ratios of an angle be known, the numerical
magnitude of each of the others is known also.
Let the angle AOP be denoted by  (pronounced “theta”)
In the right-angle triangle MOP we have
MP2 + OM2 = OP2.............(1)
Hence, dividing by OP2 , we have
(MP/OP)2 + (OM/OP)2 = 1
(sin )2 + (cos )2 = 1
The quantity (sin )2 is always written sine2 , and so for the other ratios.
Hence this relation is
sine2  + cos2  ................(2)
Again, dividing both sides of equation (1) by OM 2, awe have
(MP/OM)2 + 1 = (OP/OM)2
(tan ) + 1 + (sec)2
2
sec2 + tan2.............(3)
Again , dividing equation (1) by MP2 , we have
1 + (OM/MP)2 = (OP/MP)2
1 + (cot  )2 = (cosec )2
cose2  = 1 + cot2  .........(4)
Also, since sine  = MP/OP  OM/OP = MP/OM = tan
Hence tan  = sin 
cos 
Similarly cot  = cos 
sin 
In the following table is given the result of expressing each trigonometrical ratio in terms of each of the others:
sin  cos  Tan  cot  sec  cosec 
tan 1  ( sec2 - 1) 1

Sin  Sin   (1- cos )2
 (1 + tan2 ) ( 1 + cot2 ) sec  Cosec 
1 cot  1 (Cosec 2 )
Cos  (1- sin2) cos   (1+ tan2)  (1 + cot2) sec cosec 
tan  Sin   (1 - cos2 ) 1 1
 (1 - sin2 ) cos  Tan  cot   (ec 2  -1)  (Cosec2 )
cot   (1 - sin2 ) cos  1 1
sin   (1 - cos2 ) tan  cot   (ec  - 1)
2 (cosec2  -1)
sec  1 1  (1 + cot2 ) cosec 
(1 + tan )
2
sec 
86
BARODA.
 (1 - sin2 ) cos  cot   ( cosec2 – 1)

Cose  1 1  (1 + tan2 )  (1+ cot2 ) sec 
sin   (1 -cos2) tan   (sec2  - 1) cosec 
I) Circumference of a circle = 2pr

p = 3.14159 [Approximations are 22/7 and 355/113]
0
A Radian = 57 17’ 44.8” nearly
Two right angles = 1800 = 200g = p radians.
Angles are = arc x Radian.
Radius
II) Sin2 + Cos2 = 1
Sec 
2
= Tan2 + 1
Cosec 
2
= Cot2 + 1
III) Sin 00 = 0 ; Cos 00 = 0

Sin 300 = ½ ; Cos 300 = 3/2
Sin 450 = 1/2 ; Cos 450 = 1/2
Sin 600 = 3/2 ; Cos 600 = ½
Sin 900 = 1 ; Cos 900 = 0
Sin 450 = 3 -1 ; Cos 450 = 3 + 1

22 22
Sin 180 = 5

- 1; Cos 360 = 5 + 1
4 4
IV) Sin (-) = -Sin  : Co s(-) = cos 
Sin ( 90 - )
0
= Cos  ; Cos ( 900 - ) = Sin 
Sin ( 900 + ) = Cos  ; Cos ( 900 + ) = -Sin 
Sin ( 1800 - ) = Sin  ; Cos ( 1800 - ) = -Cos 
Sin ( 180 + ) = -Sin 
0
; Cos ( 1800 + ) = - Cos 
V) If Sin  = Sin a, then  = np + (-1) na

If Cos  = Cos a, then  = 2 np ± a
If Tan  = Tan a, then  = np + a
VI) Sin (A + B) = Sin A Cos B + Cos A Sin B

Cos(A + B) = Cos A Cos B - Sin A Sin B
Sin (A - B) = Sin A Cos B - Cos A Sin B
Cos (A - B) = Cos A Cos B + Sin A Sin B
Sin C + Sin D = 2 Sin C + D Cos C - D _
87
BARODA.
2 2
Sin C - Sin D = 2 Cos C + D Sin C - D _
2 2
Cos C + Cos D = 2 Cos C + D Cos C - D _

2 2
Cos C - Cos D = 2 Sin C + D Sin D - C _
2 2
2 Sin A Cos B = Sin (A +B ) + Sin (A - B)

2 Cos A Sin B = Sin (A +B ) - Sin (A - B)
2 Cos A Cos B = Cos (A +B ) + Cos (A - B)
2 Sin A Sin B = Cos (A -B ) - Cos (A + B)
Tan (A + B) = tan A + tan B

1-tan A tan B
Tan (A - B) = tan A - tan B
1-tan A tan B
Sin 2 A = 2 sin A cos A
Cos 2 A = Cos2A - Sin2 A = 1 –2 Sin2 A = 2 Cos2 A -1
Sin 2A = 2 tan A ; Cos 2A = 1 - tan2 A

1 + tan2 A 1 + tan2 A
tan 2A = 2 tan A
1- tan2 A
Sin 3 A = 3 sin A - 4 sin3 A
Cos 3 A = 4 cos3 A - 3 cos A
tan 2A = 3 tan A - tan3 A
1- 3 tan2 A
sin A/ 2 = ± 1 - cos A
2
cos A/ 2 = ± 1 + cos A
2
2 sin A/2 =  1 + sin A  1 - sin A

88
BARODA.
2 cos A/2 =  1 + sin A + 1 - sin A
tan ( A1 + A2 + ..................+ An ) = s1 - s 3 + s5 - .....

1 - s 2 + s4 - ......
VII) loga (mn) = loga m + loga n

loga (m/n) = loga m - loga n
loga mn = n loga m
loga m = loga m x loga b
VIII) sinA = sin B = sin C

a b c
cos A = b2 + c2 - a 2 , .........
2bc
sin A/2 = (s -b) (s -c) , ..........

bc
cos A/2 = (s -b) (s -c) , ..........

bc
tan A/2 = (s -b) (s -c) , ..........

s(s - a )
sin A = 2/bc s (s - a ) (s - b) ( s -c),...........
a = b cos C + c cos B,......
tan B -C = b - c cot A
2 b + c 2
S = s(s -a) (s - b) (s - c) = ½ bc sin A = ½ ca sin B = ½ sin C
X) R = a = b = c = abc
89
BARODA.
2 sin A 2 sin B 2 sin C 4S
r = S = (s -a ) tan A = ..... = .......

s 2
r1 = S = s tan A
s -a 2
Area of a quadrilateral inscribe circle
= (s - a) (s - b) (s - c) (s - d)
X) sin  = 1 , when  is very small.


Area of a circles of radius r = pr2
Measurement of Angles:-
1.In Geometry angles are measured in terms of a right angle. This, however, is an
inconvenient unit of measurement on account of its size.
2. In the sexagesimal system of measurement a right angle is divided into 90 equal parts
called Degrees. Each degree is divided into 60 equal parts called Minutes, and each
minute into 60 equal parts called Seconds.
The symbols 1 0 , 1’ , and 1” are used to denote a Degree, a Minute ,and a Second
respectively.
Thus 60 Seconds (60”) make One Minute (1’)
Minutes (60’) make One Degree (10)
90 Degrees (900) make One Right Angle.
This system is well established and is always used in the practical applications of
Trigonometry. It is not however very convenient on account of the; multiplies 60 and 90.
3.onthis account another system of measurement called the Centesimal, or French,
system has been proposed. In this system the right angle is divided into 10 equal parts,
called Grades; each minute into 100 Seconds.
The symbols 1g,1’, and 1” are used to denote a Grade, a Minute, and a Second
respectively.
Thus 100 Seconds (100”) makes One Minute (1’)
100 Minutes (100’) makes One Grade (1g)
100 Grades (100g) makes One Right Angle
4. This system would be much more convenient to use than the ordinary Sexagesimal
system.
As a preliminary, however, to its practical adoption, a large number of tables would have to
be recalculated. For this reasons the system has in practice never been used?
5.To convert Sexagesimal into Centesimal Measure, and vice versa.
Trigonometrical ratios for angles less than a right angle:-
Here we shall only consider angles, which are less than a right angle.
90
BARODA.
Let a revolving line OP start from OA and revolve into the position OP, thus tracing out the
angle AOP.
Simple Problems in heights and Distances:

ONE of the objects of Trigonometry is to find the distances between points, or the heights
of objects, without actually measuring these distances or these heights.
Suppose O and P to be two points, P being at a higher level than O.
Let OM be a horizontal line drawn through O to meet in M the vertical line drawn through
P
N P
O M
The angle MOP is called the Angle of Elevation of the point P as seen from O.
Draw PN parallel to Mo, so that PN is the horizontal line passing through P. The angle
NPO is the Angle of Depression of the point O as seen from P.
Two of the instruments used in particle work are the Theodolite and the Sextant.
The Theodolite is used to measured angles in a vertical plane.
In it simple form it consists of a telescope attached to a flat piece of wood. This piece of
wood is supported by three legs and can be arranged so as to be accurately horizontal.
This table being at O and horizontal, and the telescope being initially pointing in the
direction OM, the latter can be made to rotate in a vertical plane until point accurately
towards P. Graduates scale shows the horizontal, i.e. gives us the angle of elevation
MOP.
Similarly, if the instrument were at P, the angle NPO through which the telescope would
have to be turned, downward from the horizontal, would give us the angle NPO.
The instrument can also be used to measure angles in a horizontal plane.
The Sextant is used to find the angle subtended by any two points D and E at a third point
F. It is an instrument much used on board ships.
91
BARODA.
Its construction and application are too complicated to be here considered.

Eg. 1. A man wish to find the height of clip of a church spire which stand on the a
horizontal plane at a point on this plan he finds the angle of elevation of the top of the
spire to be 45°; on walking 30 meters towards the tower he finds the corresponding angle
of elevation to be 60° ; deduce the height of the tower and also his distance from the foot
of the spire.
Eg.2. From the top of cliff, 60 meters height, the angles of depression of the top bottom of
tower are observed to be 30° and 60° : find height of tower.
Eg.3. From the top of a 300 meters high hill, the angle of depression and and bottom of TV
tower are observed to be 30 ° and 60° respectively. Find height of tower. (HMT 1998)
Eg.4. Prove that :

Tan A + Sec A-1 = 1+Sin A (HMT 1998)
Tan A -Sec A +1 CosA
Eg.5.Find the value of (HMT 1995)

Sin30° -cos 60 °+ tan45°
Cos0 °-tan45° +sin90°
Eg.6. Form the top of a tower 100 meter high the angle of depression of the top and
bottom of a mast are 30° and 45° respectively. Find height of the tower. (HMT 1994)
Eg.7. if sin ø = cos ø than ø = ? (HMT 1995)
Eg.8 Prove that sin 2A/1+cos2A = tan A.
Eg.9. Prove that 1-cos2A/1+cos2A = tan2A.
Eg.10.If sinø = 3/5 then tan ø = ? (HMT 1995)
Eg.11. If cos equal 3/5, find the values of the other ratios.
Eg.12.prove cotA +tanB = cot A tan B

Cot B +tanA
92
BARODA.

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1

FACULTY OF WEAPON TECHNOLOGY, EME SCHOOL

UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS

NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION:

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY:

Eg.5 Physical quantities, formulas and units.

Sr.No Physical quantity Formula Units

(1) How many joules of work has he done.

Eg.8. The value of “g” is maximum at ( HMT 1993)

Eg.10.One HP is equal to_____________ watts (HMT-1993)

Eg.11. Length, mass, time, are _______________ (HMT-1993)

(iv)Thermo-electric thermometers. These are based on the principle of thermo-electricity,

(c)The liquid can boil at a lower temperature under reduced pressure.

4.A certain mass of gas exerts a pressure of 72 cm of mercury at 27 0C . It is heated at

7. A piece of metal weighing 60 gm at 10 0C was immersed in a current of steam 100 0C .

Eg.16. A measuring unit of power (HMT-1994)

Eg.17.The velocity of light is (HMT-1994)

Total Reflecting Prisms:

(b) To turn a ray thorough 1800:

AXIS OF THE BOW 54.520 50.80 42.80 40.80

When focused for distinct vision.

cm velocity light in the medium

20. Why does not the frequency of a wave change on refraction?

The lode-stone is a natural magnet. Artificial magnets can be

(i) Unmagnetized substance

(ii) Magnetized substance

at the newly created ends. Each half two poles.

9. What is a magnetic dipole?

(ii) Magnetic field lines due to South

(iii) Magnetic field lines of a bar magnet

15.Give some important properties of lines of force.

17. What do you understands by ‘neutral point’?

1. The most suitable metal for making permanent magnets is

Resistance and Resistivity: The resistance of a conductor of length l , cross- sectional

TWO RESISTANCES (R1 ABDR2)

Shows three resistances R1 , R2 , and R3 connected in series. A battery of V volts has

LAW OF COMBINATION OF RESISTANCES IN PARLLEL:

applying Ohm’s law to each resistance separately, we get:

And form Ohm’s law, we have: V = R

2H+ + CiSO4 H2SO4 + Cu ++

Action: Zn+2NH4Cl 2NH3 + ZnCl2 + 2H + + 2 electrons

Dry cell: Shell seal H

and plaster of paris in a muslin bag. A small hole H is provided

1.NH 4 cl , 2.Brass Cap 3.muslin Bags. 4.Mno2 Charcoal, Paster of paries.

MAGNETIC EFFECT OF CURRENT (ELECTROMAGNETISM):

4 An AC supply of 200V is connected across a resistor of 400 ohms. Calculate

9.Faraday's Laws of Electrolysis.

1.The mass of a substance (ion) liberated in electrolysis is directly proportional to the

20.Is the resistivity of a metal resistivity?

24.Define temperature coefficient of resistance  . What are its units?

Thrust and pressure:

Thrust per unit area is called pressure of a liquid at.

Units: In CGS units, _________ dynes/cm2

Surface tension = force / length, units dynes per cm.

Relative density = Density of the substance/density of water at 4 0C .

Compound: Compound is a substance that may be regarded as having been formed by

5. The heaviest naturally occurring element is? ( Uranium)