CBWT3103 Wireless Technology

Faculty of Science and Technology
CBWT3103
Wireless Technology
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

CBWT3103
WIRELESS
TECHNOLOGY

Project Directors: Prof Dato’ Dr Mansor Fadzil
Assoc Prof Dr Norlia T. Goolamally
Open University Malaysia
Developers: Ir Vera Chung

Dr Alfred Tan
Consultant
Dr H K Lau
OUHK
Coordinators: Dr H K Lau
Dr Wilson Chu
OUHK
Members: Dr Wilson Chu

Dr Paul Kwok
OUHK
External Course Assessor: Dr Francis Lau

Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Adapted for
Open University Malaysia by: Prof Dr Mohammed Yusoff
Faculty of Information Technology and
Multimedia Communication, OUM
Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Open University Malaysia
First Edition, September 2008

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), November 2010, CBWT3103
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).
Copyright © Open
Copyright Open University
University Malaysia
Malaysia (OUM)
(OUM)
Table of Contents
Course Guide ix - xvi
Unit 1: Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems and Services 1

Overview 2
The fundamentals of wireless communication systems 2
Elements in wireless digital systems 3
History of wireless communication systems 12
The birth of wireless technology 13
Voice over radio systems and mobile telephony 13
The birth of cellular mobile telephony 14
Development of cellular mobile telephony and beyond 14
The birth of wireless LAN and wireless PAN 16
Terrestrial telecommunication infrastructures 17
Paging systems 17
Trunked radio systems 20
Cellular radio systems 23
Wireless broadband communication systems 30
Satellite-based mobile communication systems 32
Wireless personal area data communication systems 37
Wireless communication systems around the world 43
International telecommunications co-operation 43
Wireless mobile radio systems in the US, Europe and Japan 46
Trends in wireless communication systems and services 48
Fourth-generation (4G) cellular radio systems 49
Smart antennas 49
Software radios 49
Summary 50
References 50
Feedback to activities 51
Suggested answers to self-tests 51
Glossary 53
Unit 2: Wireless Local Area Networks and Wireless Personal Area 56

Networks
Overview 57
Introduction to wireless networks 57
Classifying wireless networks 58
Advantages and disadvantages of wireless networks 62

iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Wireless local area networks (WLANs) 64

Local area networks (LANs) 64
IEEE 802 family 66
Physical layer of IEEE 802.11 69
IEEE 802.11 medium access control (MAC) sublayer 86
HIPERLAN 98
HIPERLAN/2 protocol structure 99
Wireless personal area networks (WPANs) 101
The evolution of WPANs 101
What is Bluetooth? 102
Bluetooth structure and elements 103
Bluetooth architecture 106
Radio specifications of Bluetooth 107
Infra-red technology in WPANs 115
Physical layer of IrDA 116
Security in wireless networks 121
Security issues in WLANs (IEEE 802.11) 121
Security resolutions for WLANs (IEEE 802.11) 122
Security issues in WPANs (Bluetooth) 125
Security resolutions for WPANs (Bluetooth) 126
Applications of WLANs and WPANs 126
Applications of WLANs 126
Applications of WPANs (Bluetooth) 129
Emerging markets and trends in wireless networks 134
Can Bluetooth and wireless LAN 802.11 coexist? 134
Future trends in WLANs and WPANs 135
Summary 138
References 139
Glossary 149
Appendices 152
Unit 3: Fixed Wireless Wide Area Networks 156

Overview 156
Introduction to fixed wireless wide area networks 157
Forces driving broadband services in the market 158
The fundamentals of wireless broadband networks 160
Wired-line or wireless broadband? 161
Private or public carriers? 162
Drawbacks of wireless broadband networks 162
Radio spectrum 163
Wireless broadband network types 164
Wireless broadband network applications 166

TABLE OF CONTENTS  v
Wireless broadband networks: fixed and mobile 166

Technologies for fixed wireless broadband services 167
Technologies for mobile wireless broadband services 171
Local multipoint distribution system (LMDS) 172
System design · architecture 173
Radio propagation in LMDS 180
System capacity of LMDS 181
Multipoint microwave distribution system/multichannel
multipoint distribution system (MMDS) 184
History of MMDS 185
System design · architecture 186
Propagation and transmission methods in MMDS 192
Applications and services on fixed wireless broadband networks 196
Applications and services of LMDS and MMDS 196
Comparison of wireless and wired broadband access
technologies 197
Future trends 199
Integration of wired-line and wireless broadband networks 200
Standardisation of wireless broadband networks 201
Summary 204
References 205
Feedback to activities 205
Glossary 210

COURSE GUIDE

ii X COURSE GUIDE

INTRODUCTION
Welcome to CBWT3103 Wireless Technology. This course is a one-semester,
three-credit, under-graduate-level course for OUM students seeking a Bachelor
Degree in Information Technology with Network Computing. Assignment and test
in this module will help you master the topics for a period of one semester.
PURPOSE OF THIS COURSE GUIDE

This course is offered at the third year level. You are required to have taken the
course of Introduction to Networking. You are also expected to have basic
knowledge on the study skills required for Open distance learning at OUM. It is
recommended, therefore, that you read this Course Guide thoroughly before
looking at the module.
This Course Guide tells you briefly what the course is about and how you can
work your way through the material. It suggests the amount of time you will need
to spend to complete the module, activities you need to carry out and exercises
you need to do and how best to allocate your time in mastering the contents of this
module. This module also gives you a general idea of when your tutor-marked
assignments are due.
Think of your study module as reading the lecture instead of hearing it from a
lecturer. Basically, in the open distance mode of education, the module replace
your live lecture notes. However, the module still require you to think for yourself
and to practice key skills. In the same way that a lecturer in a conventional full-
time mode of study might give you an in-class exercise, your study module will
have activities for you to do at appropriate points. You will also find self-test
questions in each unit. These activities and self-tests give you practice in the skills
that you need to achieve the objectives of the course and to complete assignments
and pass the final examination. You are also strongly advised to discuss with your
tutors, during the tutorial sessions, the difficult points or topics you may encounter
in the module.
COURSE AIMS
CBWT 3103 Introduction aims to develop your knowledge and understanding of
the basic principles and practice of wireless communications.

x  COURSE GUIDE
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing the course, you should be able to:
1 Describe the history and explain the current development of wireless

communication systems and services around the world and in Hong Kong.
2 Understand and explain the features of wireless personal area networks
(WPAN) and wireless local area networks (WLAN).
3 Understand and explain the features of fixed wireless wide area networks
(WWAN).
MODULE STRUCTURES
There three major units in this modules, they are:
Unit 1: Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems and Services

This unit gives you a general introduction to wireless communication systems
including their history. Various commonly adopted wireless communication
systems are then outlined. These include paging systems, trunked radio systems,
cellular radio systems, wireless broadband communication systems, satellite-based
mobile communication systems and wireless personal area data communication
systems. Wireless communication systems around the world are then discussed. In
particular we look at the systems of the United States, Europe and Japan. At the
end of the unit, there is a ‘Glossary’ that gives the full terms for all the
abbreviations and acronyms used in the unit. By the end of this unit, you should be
able to:
1 Describe the fundamentals of digital wireless communication systems.
2 Describe the history of wireless communication systems.
3 Outline different types of terrestrial telecommunication systems and their

respective services.
4 Outline different types of practical wireless personal data communication

systems and their respective services.
5 Review and assess possible emerging new wireless technologies.

COURSE GUIDE  xi
Unit 2: Wireless Local Area Networks and Wireless Personal Area Networks
This unit focuses on wireless networks for wireless local area networks (WLANs)
and wireless personal area networks (WPANs). We begin the unit with an
introduction to wireless networks in general. The main differences between
WLANs and WPANs are highlighted and we discuss various ways to categorise
wireless networks. The advantages and disadvantages of using wireless networks
are then explained. In the second section of the unit, we take a closer look at
WLANs. We first look at IEEE 802.11, and different physical layer variants,
namely those based on frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), direct
sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), infra-red (IR) and orthogonal frequency
division multiplexing (OFDM). The medium access control (MAC) of IEEE
802.11 will be briefly discussed in this unit. Another popular WLAN is
HIPERLAN1/2. A summary of the protocol structure of HIPERLAN/2 is also
given in this section. Apart from WLANs, WPANs are another area of interest.
The third section of the unit discusses WPANs, and we will explore the
architecture, radio specifications and baseband specifications of Bluetooth in
detail. No matter which kind of wireless network you are using, there is a risk that
authorised participants might ‘overhear’ and ‘tap’ the transmission in the network.
These security risks require various security resolutions, and in the fourth section
of the unit, we look at WLAN and WPAN security concerns and resolutions.
Finally, possible applications of the various discussed wireless networks will be

examined. We also look at market trends in WLANs and WPANs. By the end of
Unit 2, you should be able to:
1 Outline commonly adopted wireless networks on the market.

2 Describe the characteristics of wireless local area networks (WLANs) and
wireless personal area networks (WPANs).
3 Examine the different types of WLANs, especially HIPERLAN1/2 and the
IEEE 802.11 Standard.
4 Examine different types of WPANs, especially technologies of Bluetooth
and infra-red.
5 Analyse security concerns, issues and resolutions for different types of
wireless networks.
6 Describe common applications of wireless networks.
7 Survey the market and assess upcoming trends in wireless networks.

xii  COURSE GUIDE
Unit 3: Fixed Wireless Wide Area Networks

This unit introduces you to fixed wireless wide area networks. Wide area networks
(WANs) are generally used to deploy broadband services with high-speed data
transmission applications, such as multimedia services and video-on-demand
services. The demand for high-speed data transmission is a result of the popularity
of the Internet. In addition, the commercial acquisition and mergers in recent years
of telecommunications companies, software companies and entertainment
companies have also contributed to the growth in demand for high-speed data
transmission.The fundamental concepts of wireless broadband networks will be
elaborated in the first section of this unit; and then we describe the various
technologies employed in fixed wireless broadband networks and mobile wireless
broadband networks. The local multipoint distribution system (LMDS) and
multipoint microwave distribution system/multichannel multipoint distribution
system (MMDS) will then be focused on and explained, in terms of system
architecture, radio propagation and capacity. In addition, the respective
applications of these two types of systems will be described and analysed. Finally,
some possible future trends in wireless broadband networks will be discussed.
After completing this unit, you should be able to:
1 Describe the driving forces for broadband services.

2 Outline the fundamental concepts of wireless broadband networks.
3 Examine the differences between fixed wireless broadband networks and
mobile wireless broadband networks.
4 Explain and analyse the design principals, radio aspects and applications of
LMDS and MMDS.
5 Speculate on possible future trends for wireless broadband hybrid networks.
YOUR STUDY PLAN

As you by now aware three-credit course requires 120 learning hours the
breakdown of which is shown in the following Table 1.

COURSE GUIDE  xiii
Table 1: Study Plan
Activities Totals Hours

General understanding of module 5
Reading module (see guide in table 2) 60
Attending tutorial: 5 times of 2 hours each 10
Access OUM website 12
Work on assignment 15
Revision 18
Total 120
INDEPENDENT STUDY GUIDE

The following table gives a general guideline on the minimum total hours you
should spend on independent study.
Table 2: General Guideline
Unit No. of Hours Assessment Activities
Unit 1 15 Self-test 1.1, 1.2, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6

Self-test 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6,
Unit 2 25
2.7, 2.8,2.9, 2.10, 2.11
Unit 3 20 Self-test 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6
SUPPLEMENTARY COURSE MATERIALS

The following are important supplementary course materials to help you in this
course:
 Supplementary reading text as suggested in the module. You are advised to
read the text

xiv  COURSE GUIDE
COURSE ASSESSMENT
Formal assessment for the course is of two components:
1 Continuous Assessment, which comprises of the following components:

(a) Involvement in online discussion. 5%
(b) One assignment or two assigements 45%
2 Course examination, which contribute 50% of the total mark. Examination

comprises of the following components:
(a) Mid term examination which contributes 20% of the mark
(b) Final examination, which contributes 30% of the mark
ONLINE DISCUSSION
Online discussion with your tutors, on academic issues or problems related to your
study, namely in understanding the materials in the module or doing your self-
tests in the module and also online discussion with your fellow students represent
important components of teaching and learning activities at OUM. To help you to
go through your online discussion, OUM has developed a computer-based Virtual
Learning Environment, known as myINSPIRE. The system have a number of
functionalities which enable the students to access OUM’s digital library,
communicate with the tutors and their fellow students. We strongly advised you to
use this system.
ASSIGNMENT
For this course you are required to do one assignment. The objectives of the
assignment is:
1 To provide a mechanism for you to check your progress and make sure that
you have met certain learning objectives.
2 To provide you with the chance to demonstrate your understanding of the
materials in the module.
3 To provide an opportunity for you to apply what you have learned.

COURSE GUIDE  xv
HOW TO DO YOUR ASSIGNMENTS

Please carefully read through the assignment question to make sure you
understand what is required before attempting an assignment. If you do not
understand an assignment or the instructions, please contact your tutor. Once you
have completed each assignment, you must send it (together with your TMA
form) to your tutor. Please make sure that each assignment reaches your tutor on
or before the deadline (see assignment schedule below). You must be careful
when you are using other references in your assignments. Please do not commit
plagiarism, if you commit plagiarism, you will be penalised severely. Plagiarism is
theft of somebody else’s work or ideas. This applies just as much to using the
work of other students as it does to authors of books. However, you may include
parenthetical references to the works you cite, e.g. (Stott 2002, 38). You should
include a section at the end of your assignment called ‘References’ where the full
name, title, date and place of the publication of any references that you have used
appear. The way to cite a reference is:
Stott, V. (2002). Web server technology, 2nd edn., London: ABC Publishing.
ASSIGNMENT SCHEDULE
Assignment will be posted to myINSPIRE in Tutorial 1
Student can download this assigment during Tutorial 1
Student are required to submit the assignment together with TMA form during
Tutorial 4.
Student will get their assignment marks and TMA form from their tutors during
tutorial 5. Please make sure to ask for the mark and TMA form from your tutor
during this tutorial 5 and keep your TMA form for future reference
COURSE EXAMINATION
Comprises two sections:
Section 1 (short subjective questions/objective question) 20%
Section 2 (subjective questions) 30%

xvi  COURSE GUIDE
TUTORIALS
The course includes 5 tutorial meetings of two hours each — 10 contact hours in
total. The tutorials are conducted to provide an opportunity for you to meet your
tutors and discussed important points or difficult points or concepts in the module.
In addition, you have an opportunity to discuss self-test with your tutors or share
your study experiences and difficulties in your peer-to-peer group discussions.
Although the tutorials are not compulsory, you are encouraged to attend the
tutorial meetings as far as possible. It is strongly recommended that you attend all
tutorials, as they will provide considerable assistance in your study of this course.
Moreover, you will have the chance to meet with other distance learners who are
taking the same course.
GROUP PROJECT
Please do group project if it is specified in the course. The group project provides
you with the opportunity to show your ability to work in group, namely to do
group problem solving, sharing and communicate your ideas to group members.
You are required to use myINSPIRE in this group project, i.e to communicate and
share your ideas with the group members.

Unit  Introduction to
1 Wireless
Communication
Systems and
Services
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
1 Describe the fundamentals of digital wireless communication
systems;
2 Describe the history of wireless communication systems;
3 Outline different types of terrestrial telecommunication systems and
their respective services;
4 Outline different types of practical wireless personal data
communication systems and their respective services; and
5 Review and assess possible emerging new wireless technologies.

2  UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS AND SERVICES
Overview
Unit 1 starts by giving you a general introduction to wireless communication
systems including their history. Various commonly adopted wireless
communication systems are then outlined. These include paging systems, trunked
radio systems, cellular radio systems, wireless broadband communication
systems, satellite-based mobile communication systems and wireless personal
area data communication systems.
The fundamentals of wireless

communication systems
Modern wireless communication systems, such as mobile cellular systems and
satellite systems, depend mainly on digital communication techniques. The aim of
this section is to give you an overview of the fundamental elements of wireless
communication systems. We will explore each of the elements that are mentioned
in this section in much more detail in subsequent units.
Figure 1.1 illustrates the functional building blocks of a basic digital wireless
communication system. Take a moment to look at the various elements of the
system and to see how they interrelate with other elements.
Channel
Source Channel Multiplexer spreading/ Modulator
encoder encoder Multiple
access
Analogue Transmitter
input
Digital Channel
input encoder
Air
channel
Digital Channel
output decoder
Analogue
output Receiver
Channel
Source Channel Demultiplexer despreading/ Demodulator
decoder decoder Multiple
access
Figure 1.1 Block diagram of a basic digital wireless communication system

UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS AND SERVICES  3
In the following sections, we will briefly review each of the building blocks in
Figure 1.1. The basic purpose of each building block will be explained and
examples will be given so that you better understand the role of each.
Elements in wireless digital systems

Source encoding and source decoding
Source encoding is the process of converting source, either in analogue or digital
format, into a sequence of binary digits. Source decoding is the reverse process of
source encoding. In cellular radio systems, a very common type of source is
human speech, which is encoded into a digital format before being passed to the
next stage. Examples of source coding include:
• Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM)

• Redundancy reducing coding.
Channel coding and channel decoding

When information is sent from the transmitting end to the receiving end, the
information received might be lost or distorted due to various channel
impairments such as noise, fading and interference. Channel coding is a class of
signal transformation and its purpose is to improve communication performance
(e.g. the quality of the received signal) to remove these kinds of impairments.
Channel decoding is the reverse process and is used to retrieve the bit stream.
Channel coding can be classified into two categories waveform coding and
structured sequences:
• Examples of waveform coding

- M-ary signaling waveform coding
- orthogonal waveform coding (used in IS-95, a CDMA cellular system).
• Examples of structured sequences

- block coding (commonly used in satellite communication systems)
- convolutional coding (used in GSM)
- turbo coding (used in UMTS, a 3G system).

Multiplexing and multiple access

Multiplexing and multiple access refer to the process of sharing a fixed
communication resources. With multiplexing, an individual user is assigned with
fixed resources. Resource allocation is determined and assigned in an a priori
manner, without considering other users or other users’ resources. With multiple
access, on the other hand, a dynamic assignment scheme is used. The basic ways
of distributing communication resources are:
• Frequency division — resources assigned according to specified subbands of
frequency
• Time division — resources assigned according to periodically recurring time
slots
• Code division — resources assigned according to a set of spread spectrum
codes.
The differences among Frequency-Division Multiple-Access (FDMA), Time-

Division Multiple-Access (TDMA) and Code-Division Multiple-Access (CDMA)
are discussed in the following paragraphs.
FDMA divides the given frequency spectrum into individual channels. Each radio
user, upon requesting resources, is allocated one channel for the entire duration of
the call transmission.
User 3
Frequency
Guard band
User 2
User 1
Time
Figure 1.2 FDMA scheme
Figure 1.2 illustrates a guard band between each adjacent frequency channel. This
guard band prevents out-of-band emission due to carrier frequency equipment
instability. In Figure 1.2, each of the users is allocated with different frequencies
(i.e. different channels). If the spectrum can only accommodate three channels,
the fourth user, who requests resources, will encounter either blocking (if the
system follows the ‘blocked calls cleared’ concept, i.e. Erlang B traffic) or
queuing (if the system follows the ‘blocked calls delayed’ concept, i.e. Erlang C

traffic). Blocking and queuing refer to different ways the communication system
handles a call request when there are no available resources. Blocking refers to the
situation when the communication system rejects a caller when there are no
resources available. The caller will then encounter a ‘busy’ tone. Queuing refers
to the situation when the communication system does not reject the caller but puts
the caller on a queue list until resources are freed. When the caller is waiting, the
call is regarded as delayed. The communication system will not allow the caller to
wait for an indefinite period for resources but will only assign a certain queuing or
waiting time. If this time expires and no resources are available, the caller will
receive a ‘busy’ tone and will be dropped from the queue list. If resources are
available before the expiry time, the caller will be served on a first-come-first-
served basis.
The FDMA scheme is widely adopted in analogue radio communication systems,

or generally first-generation (1G) systems, such as the Advanced Mobile Phone
System (AMPS) in the US and the Total Access Communication System (TACS)
in Europe. Each channel of such systems carries 25kHz bandwidth.
TDMA is widely seen as an enhancement of FDMA. It further sub-divides the

spectrum into channels in the time domain, thereby allowing more user to use the
same channel as resources, not at the same time, but ‘taking turns’ instead.
Guard time
Frequency
User 1
User 2
User 3
Time
Figure 1.3 TDMA scheme
In Figure 1.3, a single frequency channel or a frequency band is assigned to three

different users at three different portions in the time domain, so that the same
resources (i.e. the same frequency channel) can be allocated for multiple users.
Very often, such units of time are known as time frames. In order to avoid a
collision between different users assigned to the same resources at different units
of time frame, guard time is introduced so that there is sufficiently long buffering
in propagation delays between the two users.

Most second-generation (2G) cellular radio systems, such as GSM and D-AMPS
systems, employ TDMA together with FDMA. They surpass 1G systems in terms
of their increase in subscriber capacity as multiple users can use the same
frequency band, rather than a single user as in 1G systems.
Unlike FDMA and TDMA, CDMA transmission does not allocate channels for
each call, but instead make use of the entire frequency spectrum for transmission
in every call. In other words, all users use the same frequency spectrum for
transmission. Now, you may ask how can this be done without mixing up all these
users. In order to identify each user, each one of them is assigned a unique code
and this code is transmitted over the same frequency spectrum. This transmission
mode is known as spread spectrum transmission. Figure 1.4 illustrates two
spectrums, in which three users have transmission in each of the spectrums. An
example of a CDMA scheme cellular radio system is IS-95.
User 6 (using code 1)

Frequency

Time
Figure 1.4 CDMA scheme
In addition to multiple-access techniques, duplexing techniques are also used to

facilitate the sharing of channels in any communication system. However, there
are differences between them. Techniques that enable multiple users to access a
communication system are called multiple-access techniques, whereas the
exchange of information in both directions of a single user (or connection) is
referred as duplexing. The three modes of data transmission are simplex, half-
duplex or full-duplex, as illustrated in Figure 1.5.

Information
Transmitter Receiver
(a) Simplex
Information
Transmitter Receiver
OR
Information
Receiver Transmitter
(b) Half-duplex
Transmitter/ Information Receiver/

Receiver Transmitter
(c) Full-duplex
Figure 1.5 Different modes of transmission: simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex
In simplex systems, data transmission is possible in one direction only, i.e., from a
transmitter to a receiver. Paging systems are simplex systems because messages
are received but not acknowledged by a pager. Half-duplex systems use the same
frequency channel for both transmission and reception, which allows two-way
data transmission in a ‘push-to-talk’ and ‘release-to-listen’ basis (i.e., the station
can only transmit or receive at one time). Full-duplex systems, on the other hand,
allow simultaneous data transmission and reception between a transmitter and a
receiver, by providing two simultaneous but separate channels for communication
to and from the user. This is particularly essential in voice communication
systems. Similar to multiple-access techniques, duplexing may be done in the
frequency domain or time domain, leading to Frequency-Division Duplexing and
Time-Division Duplexing respectively.
Frequency-Division Duplexing (FDD)

Frequency-Division Duplexing (FDD) is a popular and commonly used duplexing
scheme for two-way radio communication systems. FDD provides two distinct
bands of frequency for every user — forward band and reverse band. The forward
band is used for the downlink, which provides traffic from the base station to the
mobile station, while the reverse band is used for uplink, which provides traffic
from the mobile station to the base station. The frequency allocation of an FDD
system is shown in Figure 1.6.

Carrier frequency spacing
Downlink
Uplink
Frequency
Bsys Bsys
Figure 1.6 Frequency allocation of an FDD system
Source: Based on Sampei, S (1997) Applications of Digital Wireless Technologies to Global

Wireless Communications, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, Figure 7.19, p. 309.
It should be noted that the frequency split between the forward and reverse
channels (i.e., the carrier frequency spacing shown in Figure 1.6) is constant
throughout the system, and regardless of the particular channel being used. In
addition, transmission and reception of signals are carried out through the same
antenna.
For a system using FDD, any duplex channel actually consists of two simplex
channels. A device called a duplexer is equipped inside each mobile station and
base station to allow simultaneous transmission and reception of signals on the
duplex channel pair, as illustrated in Figure 1.7.
Downlink
Uplink
Duplexer Duplexer
Data Modulator Modulator Data
Data Demodulator Demodulator Data
Base station Mobile station

Figure 1.7 Operation of an FDD system
Source: Based on Sampei, S (1997) Applications of Digital Wireless Technologies to
Global Wireless Communications, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall,
Figure 7.19, p. 309.

Time-Division Duplexing (TDD)

Time-Division Duplexing (TDD), on the other hand, uses time instead of
frequency to provide two-way communications. The frequency allocation in the
frequency domain and time domain for downlink and uplink is shown in Figure
1.8.
2Bsys
Frequency Frequency
domain Downlink
Downlink
Downlink
Uplink
Uplink
Uplink
Time Time
domain
Guard time
Figure 1.8 Frequency allocation for downlink and uplink

Global Wireless Communications, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, Figure 7.20, p.
310.
It can be seen that both the downlink and uplink signals are transmitted over the
same radio frequency channel but at different segments in time. If the time split
between the downlink and uplink time slot is small, the transmission and
reception of data appears simultaneous to the user.
A TDD system allows communications on a single channel (as opposed to two

simplex or dedicated channels required in FDD), which simplifies the subscriber
equipment because a duplexer is not required. An illustration of the operation of a
TDD system is shown in Figure 1.9.

Downlink
Uplink
Data Modulator Modulator Data
Data Demodulator Demodulator Data
Base station Mobile station
Figure 1.9 Operation of a TDD system

Global Wireless Communications, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, Figure 7.20, p.
310.
Although the total bandwidth for TDD is the same as that for FDD, the occupied
bandwidth of each link (either uplink or downlink) is twice as wide as that for
FDD. This is because each signal has to transmit data during half a period for
FDD systems. In addition, the TDD system requires guard space (also called
guard time) for time alignment purposes, is already shown in Figure 1.8.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
Identify examples of cellular systems that make use of FDMA,

TDMA and CDMA transmission respectively.
Channel spreading and despreading

Channel spreading or frequency spreading refers, as its name implies, to
techniques that allow the actual transmission bandwidth to be much greater than the
minimum bandwidth required to transmit the information. The motivation behind
the development of frequency-spreading techniques was their initial application to
military guidance and communication systems in World War II to achieve highly
jam-resistant communication systems.

Examples of frequency spreading techniques are:

• direct sequence (used in the IS-95 CDMA system)
• frequency hopping (used in GSM).
Frequency spreading and despreading techniques are now employed in

commercial wireless communication systems for improving not only jamming
performance but also as a mean to increase the capacity of the system.
Modulation and demodulation

Modulation is the process by which signal symbols are transformed into waveforms
that are compatible with the characteristics of the channel. For baseband
modulation, such waveforms are pulses, whereas in bandpass modulation, the
desired information signal is modulated by a carrier. For radio transmission, the
carrier is then converted into an electromagnetic (EM) field for propagation to the
desired destination. Bandpass transmission is necessary since transmission of the
EM field through space is accomplished with the help of antennas. In order to
couple the transmitted EM energy effectively through space, arbitrary dimensions
of antennas cannot yield desired results. The dimensions of the antenna aperture
should be at least as large as the wavelength being transmitted.
Examples of modulation techniques include (the ‘Glossary’ of this unit includes

some of these abbreviations and acronyms):
• Binary Phase-Shift Keying (BPSK) (used in IS-95)
• Quaternary Phase-Shift Keying (QPSK) (used in UMTS)
• Binary Frequency-Shift Keying (BFSK) (used in Bluetooth)
• Gaussian Minimum-Shift Keying (GMSK) (used in GSM)
• M-ary Phase-Shift Keying (MPSK) (8-PSK used in EDGE)
• M-ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (MQAM) (used in WLAN).
Equalisation
In a practical system, it is not possible for a receiver to be designed in such a way
that it can compensate at all times for the intersymbol interference (ISI) on the
frequency response of the channel. The process of correcting the channel-induced
distortion is known as equalisation. Examples of equalisation techniques include:
• linear equalisers
• non-linear equalisers

• adaptive equalisers
• blind equalisers.
Diversity
Diversity can be used to reduce the depth and duration of the fades experienced by
a receiver in a fading channel. Reducing the fading effects eventually improves
the quality of the received signals. The diversity gain is obtained by providing
multiple but uncorrelated copies of the message to the receiver. Examples of
diversity and signal combining/selection techniques include:
• space diversity
• polarisation diversity
• frequency diversity
• time diversity
• selection diversity
• maximal radio combining
• equal gain combining.
History of wireless communication systems

So far in this unit we have looked at the basics elements of wireless
communications. We now move on to look at how wireless systems have evolved.
We will see that the development of wireless systems started a century ago with
the birth of the wireless technology. We will then review various wireless
systems, which include:
• voice over radio systems and mobile telephony

• cellular mobile telephony
• Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs) and Wireless Personal Area
Networks (WPANs).
The following reading from your textbook gives you some background on the
evolution of mobile radio communications after the birth of wireless technology.
The reading also gives you a broad context for the more detailed descriptions of
the wireless systems given in this section. Refer to this reading now, and then
return to the notes below.

Reading
Sections 1.1 and 1.2, pp. 1–6 in Wireless Communications: Principles &
Practice, 2nd edn.
The birth of wireless technology

When Guglielmo Marconi was awarded the patent for his wireless telegraph in the
United Kingdom in the 1890s, the birth of the wireless technology was
announced. This patent also signaled a new era of communications technology.
However, it should not be forgotten that there were other scientists who also
played important roles and cleared paths that led to Marconi’s success. These
scientists and inventors include, to name a few:
• Michael Faraday (who discovered the principle of electro-magnetic induction)
• James Clerk Maxwell (who developed the theory on electro-magnetism and

predicted the existence of electrical waves in the aether)
• Graham Bell (who transmitted signals across the sea between England and the
Isle Wight by means of induction. This system of Wireless Telegraphy was not
developed on a large scale; the system is older than the system of aether-
waves.)
• Heinrich Rudolph Hertz (who discovered that the effect of electrical sparks are
based on a wave-phenomena in the aether. He confirmed the theory of
Maxwell, according to which these waves travel at the same speed as light.)
Despite various doubts about the feasibility of putting Marconi’s wireless

telegraph system into use, the success of transmitting signals across the Atlantic
Ocean using Marconi’s radio telegraph system in 1901 proved to the world that
the radio was something that was reliable and useful.
Voice over radio systems and mobile telephony

In the years after Marconi’s success, radios were put on ships and vessels for
sending and receiving telegraphs. There were experiments and trials to perform
voice transmission over radio systems. Finally in 1914, the first voice call was
successfully made over a radio system, marking the beginning of voice
communication over radio systems. During the first few decades, most of the

radio systems used the frequency modulation (FM) technique and end-users were
mostly from the police sectors. It was not until mid-1940s, that the first
interconnection between mobile radio users and a Public Switched Telephone
Network (PSTN) was made. Eventually a new class of service, ‘Mobile
Telephony’, was recognised. Telephony services were remarkably improved by
having full duplex and other functions such as auto-dial. This was another
milestone in the wireless communication era.
The birth of cellular mobile telephony

With more people using mobile telephony services but on fixed radio spectrum
resources, the service quality degraded and problems such as blocking occurred. It
also came to the point where the capacity of the radio systems could not support
the number of users, let alone potential users. It was in the late 1970s and early
1980s that another phase of wireless communication started. This was the era of
Cellular Mobile Telephony. During the first decade, analogue radio systems, such
as the Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) in the United States and the Total
Access Communication System (TACS) in Europe, were introduced, where the
only service provided was a voice service. These are widely regarded as first-
generation (1G) radio systems. They were designed to cater for more mobile radio
subscribers than mobile telephony radio systems.
Development of cellular mobile telephony and beyond

Within ten years of service, subscriber numbers globally grew significantly and
reached the capacity that 1G radio systems could support. Apart from capacity
issues, 1G radio systems also experienced a number of problems including
eavesdropping (1G radio systems run on FM); security issues (1G radio systems
do not support sophisticated authentication); and voice quality (1G radio systems
use analogue voice transmission). These underlying problems led to the evolution
of second-generation (2G) radio systems, which are characterised by their digital
technology.

Second-generation (2G) radio systems

Similar to 1G radio systems, standardisation of 2G radio technologies was carried
out independently in Europe and in the United States. Global System for Mobile
Communication or Groupe Spéciale Mobile (widely adopted as GSM), is the
European standard for the digital cellular system that operates in the 900 MHz
band, which is the same spectrum used by the TACS system. Introduction of
GSM into this band therefore led to migration of TACS technology to GSM,
rather than accommodating coexistence of both technologies. GSM1800 (initially
employed in Europe and operating in the 1800 MHz band) and GSM1900
(employed in the US and operating in the 1900 MHz band) were later introduced
primarily to handle the growing number of subscribers in the GSM 900 MHz
band.
In the United States, IS-136, which is an enhancement of IS-54, employed TDMA

technology that allows multiple users to occupy the same channel through the use
of time division. Apart from TDMA, CDMA technology was also adopted as 2G
radio technology in the United States by introducing IS-95 systems. Both IS-136
and IS-95 employ the same frequency spectrum as AMPS.
The primary purpose of introducing 2G radio technologies was to make

enhancements over 1G radio systems. In addition to voice services, one of the
new features that was created was the short messages service (SMS). This allow
users to send text messages over 2G networks. Fax and circuit-switched data
services over 2G radio systems are also popular applications. With the popularity
of the Internet and multimedia services over wired networks in recent years, there
has been increasing demand for data transfer over wireless media. As the
technology standardisation of GSM did not cater for such high-speed data
transfer, the existing circuit-switched data in GSM could not fulfil the data
transmission rate demanded. As a result, the next generation of radio technology,
2.5G and 3G, evolved.
2.5G and 3G radio systems

2.5G, or next generation transitional technology, includes technologies such as
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) and Enhanced Data Rates for Global
Evolution (EDGE). The term EDGE is also commonly known as Enhanced Data
Rates for GSM Evolution. These 2.5 technologies can be regarded as an interim
solution for existing GSM operators for supporting a higher data transmission rate
than GSM. 2.5G radio systems support voice, SMS and packet-switched data
services. However the maximum data rate that can be achieved is only 384 kbps
(kilo-bits per second), though this is still far beyond the demand of bandwidth

required to support Internet and multimedia services. With the introduction of 3G

technologies that include Wideband Code-Division Multiple-Access (WCDMA)
and CDMA2000, packet-switched data has been adopted for supporting data
transmission with a maximum data capacity of 2 Mbps. Voice, SMS, Multimedia
Messaging Services (MMS) and video conferencing services are supported as
well.
Whether 3G technology is able to effectively support high-speed data services

over cellular networks is still a question, as the acceleration of data rates over
wired networks and the pace of introducing respective services is exceeding the
deployment of new wireless technology. As this course material is being written,
the standardisation of fourth-generation (4G) technology is underway.
The birth of wireless LAN and wireless PAN

The development of Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs) can be traced back
to 1991 when the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) called its
first workshop on WLANs. The aim of this workshop was to increase
participants’ awareness of current and future directions of the WLAN industry
and to simulate interaction among researchers, leading industry developers and
end users. This workshop has been organised every five years and is still a
continuing event.
The driving force for continued WLAN development has been the accelerated
growth of Internet popularity, together with the advancement of computer
technologies. As end users become accustomed to a wired computer network, they
also become more interested in the possibility of including some sort of mobility
in the network.
The most widely adopted WLAN standard is the IEEE 802.11, which was
approved in 1997. The standard was then further extended with the aim of
increasing the data rate up to 54 Mbps per channel. As a counterpart to IEEE
802.11, HiperLAN was proposed as a European standard in 1996. This standard
was further extended and the most recent version supports point-to-point links
with a data rate up to 155 Mbps over a 150 m distance.
Handy electronic devices, such as Personal Data Assistants (PDAs) and notebook
computers have been well received and adopted in the market. As demand
increases to ‘link’ up such devices within a short range so that a person can set up
his/her own Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) and access information
and resources, vendors have developed technologies to cater for such wireless
communications.

SELF-CHECK 1.2
Describe the types of service that are provided by 1G, 2G, 2.5G and
3G mobile phone systems.
Terrestrial telecommunication
infrastructures
The previous section focused on the evolution of cellular radio systems after the
birth of wireless technology. Cellular radio systems are not the only type of
terrestrial wireless communication systems (‘terrestrial’ means of relating to earth
or its inhabitants).
Examples of terrestrial telecommunication infrastructures include but are not

limited to:
• paging systems (POCSAG, FLEX, etc.)
• trunked radio systems (analogue trunked radio system, iDEN, TETRA)
• cellular radio systems (AMPS, TACS, IS-95, GSM, EDGE, WCDMA,

CDMA2000, etc.);
• wireless broadband systems (LMDS, MMDS)
• satellite-based mobile communication systems (Iridium, Globalstar,

Teledesic).
In this section, we outline several kinds of terrestrial telecommunication systems

and look at the standard for each system.
Paging systems
The communication systems that we have looked at so far in this unit have been
two-way communication systems (i.e. half-duplex and full-duplex modes in which
messages can be sent between a sending side and a receiving side). However,
wireless communication systems also include one-way communications (i.e. the
simplex mode in which messages are sent from one side only). A very common

example is a paging system (although some advanced paging systems support two-
way communication).
What exactly are paging systems? What are they used for and how do they work?
The following textbook reading gives you a description of what a paging system
is and how it works. As you read, you should note the paging systems can vary in
complexity and the area of coverage.
Reading
Section 1.4.1, pp. 11–12 in Wireless Communications: Principles & Practice,
2nd edn.
Most paging systems provide simple one-way (i.e. simplex) radio communication
that sends brief messages to subscribers. These brief messages can be a numeric
message, an alphanumerical message or a voice message. The call set-up time (the
time required between putting up a call request and the call being successfully
established) for a typical pager is about one to three seconds.
There are two kinds of paging systems:
1 local area paging (mainly for private use) for in-house usage, such as in a
shopping mall, factory, office, hospital or hotel; and
2 wide area paging (mainly for public use), such as POCSAG (Post Office Code
Standardization Advisory Group), ERMES (European Radio Message
Service), and Motorola FLEX systems.
Since most local area paging systems are proprietary systems, we only focus on
wide area paging systems.
Wide area paging systems

When a caller picks up a telephone and calls the paging control center, an operator
will answer the call and enter the message of the caller to the paging server. Once
the message is entered to the server, it will be sent via landline links, satellite links
or microwave links to each of the paging towers that simultaneously broadcast a
page from each base station transmitter. This kind of transmission is known as
simulcast.

There are several standards in wide area paging. We will briefly look at some of
them:
• POCSAG’s frequencies are in the VHF and UHF (25 MHz–512 MHz) band for
wide-area (country-wide) digital pagers. POCSAG supports only simplex
communication (i.e. simplex transmission).
• ERMES uses a network of terrestrial base stations transmitting on 16 channels

between 169 MHz and 170 MHz. The channel bandwidth is 25 kHz. The
modulation method is frequency-shift keying (FSK). The pager only needs to
listen to one channel at a time.
• The FLEX family consists of FLEX one-way, ReFLEX two-way and

InFLEXion voice protocol. The FLEX protocol is a standard for high-speed,
one-way, alphanumeric paging which coexists with the POCSAG system.
Transmission rates are from 1600 bps to 6400 bps. ReFLEX is the world’s
first two-way alphanumeric paging protocol. The InFLEXion protocol enables
the transmission and storage of voice messages, offering the benefits of
privacy, details and expression, as well as ease of use.
The following table summarises the details of the paging standards we have
discussed.
Table 1.1 Major paging standards
Date of Multiple Frequency Channel

Standard Modulation
introduction access band bandwidth
POCSAG 1970s - Several FSK 12.5 kHz
ERMES 1993 FDMA Several 4-FSK 25 kHz
FLEX 1993 - Several 4-FSK 15 kHz
With the popularity of cellular networks and more importantly the decrease in
capital investment for cellular systems per subscriber (as a result of the higher
capacity supported by 2G radio systems and beyond), paging systems are losing
importance in the wireless telecommunication arena. This is especially obvious in
economically well developed areas where cellular radio coverage can be
effectively provided. For suburban areas and remote areas, radio paging services
still play a significant role.

Having discussed one-way terrestrial telecommunication infrastructures, let us

explore two-way terrestrial telecommunication infrastructures. We will start with
trunked radio systems.
Trunked radio systems

Trunked radio systems are less known to the public than paging radio systems and
cellular radio systems. Trunked radio systems are usually employed by private
organisations (for their private use) or by operators who provide trunked radio
services to small organisations (usually for dispatching their fleets). Trunked radio
systems provide two-way radio communication: either full-duplex or half-duplex.
The key differences between trunked radio communications and cellular radio
communications are:
• trunked radio systems provide a one-to-many communication mode whereas

cellular radio systems provide a one-to-one mode of communication (as
illustrated in Figure 1.10 on the next page);
• the call set-up time for trunked radio systems (usually within 0.5 seconds) is
much shorter than the cellular radio systems (usually 5 to 6 seconds); and
• trunked radio systems, particularly digital trunked radio platforms, usually

provide higher spectrum efficiency than cellular radio systems.

Central switching
equipment
Figure 1.10 Basic network architecture of a trunked radio system
When one radio makes a one-to-many call (usually known as a group call), as
indicated in the upwards arrow from the bus to the transmitter at top left-hand
corner of Figure 1.10, all the mobile stations that are within the same group will
receive the call. Unlike a paging system, which is a simulcast system, a trunked
radio system will only allow transmission to respective group members of the
caller. This is made feasible by the central switching equipment that governs
mobility management of all the mobile stations in the trunked radio network. The
switching equipment keeps track of the location of all the mobile stations and
controls the respective base stations to send and receive communication
transmissions to and from the respective mobile stations. It should be noted that if
there is more than one mobile station of the same group within the coverage of
one transmitter radio and a radio group call is made to these mobile stations, only
one frequency channel is needed for all the radios within range of the same base
station. This adds an additional benefit of serving more users with the same
resources.
Like cellular radio systems, trunked radio systems have also gone through a
technological evolution from 1G, which was solely devoted to analogue systems,
to 2G, where a digital technology platform was introduced. The driving force for
this evolution has been the limited capacity to accommodate the increasing
demand for trunked radio communication services. In addition, the popularity of
cellular radio communication services has also led to a demand for data services
over trunked radio systems.
Unlike 1G radio systems in cellular networks, standardisation did not take place
early on in 1G trunked radio systems. Each trunked radio system manufacturer
had a proprietary platform for deploying the infrastructure. It was not until the
mid-1990s that there was a move to standardise digital trunked radio systems. We
now look at the major trunked radio standards that emerged.
Major trunked radio standards

iDEN, which stands for Integrated Digital Enhanced Network, is Motorola’s
integrated radio system. Both of them are specialised mobile radio services that
integrate voice, dispatching functions, cellular phone service, messaging and data
transmission capabilities into the same wireless network. To a certain extent,
iDEN is being treated as a proprietary standard.
TETRA, which stands for TErrestrial Trunked RAdio, is the first open
standard for digital trunked radio system. The standard was formulated by the
European Telecommunication Standardisation Institution (ETSI). Several
manufacturers participated in the standardisation formulation, with the ultimate
goal being to establish an open standard for trunked radio systems, similar to what
has been achieved in GSM. Unlike GSM, a Home Location Register (HLR) is
embedded in the central switching equipment (details of the HLR in GSM will be
discussed in a later unit). Standardisation of TETRA is almost complete for
Release I; while standardisation of TETRA Release II has just started. In Release
II, the main purpose is to cater for high-speed data transmission.
The following table summarises the details of the trunked radio standards that we
have discussed.

Table 1.2 Major trunked radio standards
Date of Multiple Channel

Standard Frequency band Modulation
introduction access bandwidth
A variety of
analogue
trunked 806 MHz to 869
1970s FDMA FM 25 kHz
radio MHz
(non-
standard)
iDEN 1995 TDMA Several 16-QAM 25 kHz
380 MHz to 400
MHz, 410 MHz to
TETRA 1990s TDMA π/4-DQPSK 25 kHz
430 MHz, 806 MHz
to 689 MHz
Similar to the enhancement of cellular radio systems at 2G, 2G trunked radio

systems brought improvements in capacity, voice quality and security. In addition,
data transmission was introduced to digital trunked radio platforms, which allows
even packet data transmission over trunked radio systems.
Cellular radio systems

We’ve looked at trunked radio systems that offer two-way communication services
(both full-duplex and half-dulpex), so now we move on to talk about cellular
radio systems that support full-duplex (two-way) communication services.
Compared to trunked radio systems, cellular radio systems are much more widely
known to the public because their target end-users are the general public, rather
than private organisations.
Reading
Section 1.4.3, pp. 13–18 in Wireless Communications: Principles & Practice,
2nd edn.
A cellular radio system provides wireless communications for its radio users to
PSTN as long as the radio user is within the radio coverage of the cellular radio
system. In 2G cellular radio systems, more elements are incorporated in the
architecture. Figure 1.11 below illustrates typical network architecture for 2G and
beyond cellular radio systems.

Home other
Location networks
Register
(HLR)
Base Station Mobile

Controller Switching
(BSC) Centre (MSC)
Base Station
Controller
(BSC)
Figure 1.11 Basic network architecture of cellular radio system

Source: Smith, C (2002) 3G Wireless Networks, McGraw-Hill, Figure 1.6, p. 14.
As we can see from Figure 1.11, base stations (fixed stations where transceivers
perform radio communication with mobile stations) are usually grouped,
according to their geographical locations, and connected to a different Base
Station Controller (BSC). As its name implies, a BSC controls base stations. It
manages the handoff of calls from one base station to its neigbouring base station
as the radio subscriber moves from one cell to the other. Several BSCs will be
connected to a Mobile Switching Centre (MSC).
A MSC is the switching office that manages the setup and teardown of calls to
and from the radio subscribers. When you compare the basic network architecture
of a trunked radio system and a 1G cellular radio system, you will find that they
are both one-tier systems that consist of a number of base stations together with a
central switching center. However, when you look at the network architecture of a
2G cellular radio system, you will find a two-tier system that consists of several
bunches of base stations connected to BSCs, while being further connected to an
MSC. The reason for such a two-tier system is for off-loading the traffic within
central switching equipment.

As mentioned in the above paragraphs, MSC performs all the main switching
functions of a GSM network and it also manages all information needed for call
processing and mobility management through database. On the other hand, a BSC
manages radio resources, radio call processing, traffic concentration between
MSC and BSC etc. Unlike 1G cellular radio systems where all the call processes
will be taken care by the MSC, the role of the MSC in a 2G cellular radio system
can be enhanced to incorporate more features and functions found in a standard
PSTN switch.
Apart from interfaces to a number of BSCs, the MSC is also interfaced to one or
more Home Location Registers (HLRs). A HLR contains subscriber-specific data.
It is actually a subscriber database and plays a crucial role in mobility
management. Mobility management refers to tracking where the radio subscribers
have moved to.
Cellular radio system standards

We now look at some of the cellular system standards.
Reading
Section 11.1.1, pp. 534–35, Section 11.1.4, pp. 540–41, Section 11.2, pp. 541–
42, Section 11.3, p. 549, Section 11.4, p. 567 in Wireless Communications:
Principles & Practice, 2nd edn.

Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS)

AMPS employs the Frequency Modulation (FM) with Frequency-Division Duplex
(FDD) radio transmission. FDD enables users to simultaneously talk and listen on
the mobile phone. The frequency range of transmission from mobile stations to
base stations (uplink or reverse link) is 824 MHz to 849 MHz whereas the
frequency range of transmission from base stations to mobile stations (downlink
or forward link) is 869 MHz to 894 MHz. Therefore, the uplink and downlink
bandwidth will also be 25 MHz. Since the channel bandwidth is 30 kHz for
AMPS, there will be 832-paired channels. Each channel may be assigned to be a
control channel or a traffic channel. Each traffic channel can handle voice call
traffic.
Narrowband Advanced Mobile Phone System (N-AMPS)

N-AMPS is widely regarded as an enhancement of AMPS. As the capacity of
AMPS could not satisfy the subscriber demand in early 1990, Motorola developed
N-AMPS (Narrowband AMPS) in 1991 to increase the capacity of the mobile
phone system. However, the N-AMPS did not become as widespread as 2G
cellular radio standards in the United States. The reason for this was that N-AMPS
employed analogue FM technology for transmission. Analogue FM technology
cannot be regarded as digital technology. Each N-AMPS channel provides three
times the capacity of an AMPS system.
Total Access Communication System (TACS)

TACS was a European standard that used FM with FDD for radio transmission.
The forward frequency band of TACS is 935 MHz to
960 MHz and the reverse link is in 890 MHz and 915 MHz. TACS has always
been regarded as the counterpart of AMPS in 1G cellular radio systems.
United State Digital Cellular — TDMA (IS-54 and IS-136)

The 1G analogue AMPS system was not designed to support the huge demand of
subscribers in large cities. Cellular systems that use digital modulation techniques
can offer a large improvement in capacity and system performance, and reduce
problems such as crosstalk (which exists in FM modulation systems but not in
digital modulation cellular systems).
The United State Digital Cellular (USDC) is a Time-Division Multiple-Access

(TDMA) system, which provides three full-rate users or six half-rate users for each
AMPS channel. In order to have a dual mode compatible system, the USDC standard
uses the same forward and reverse frequency band as AMPS. The dual mode
USDC/AMPS system was standardised as an Interim Standard as IS-54 and it was

eventually upgraded to IS-136. This standard is also known as Digital AMPS

(DAMPS).
IS-95
CDMA (IS-95) was created to support increased subscriber demand capacity. It is
designed to operate in the same frequency spectrum of AMPS so that it is more
economical for vendors to produce dual band (AMPS/CDMA) mobile phones and
base station equipment. IS-95 is a Direct-Sequence Spread-Spectrum (DSSS)
CDMA system. It eliminates frequency planning requirements for every cell in a
FDMA/TDMA system. The frequency bandwidth of each IS-95 carrier is 1.25
MHz.
Unlike other cellular standards, user data rate changed in a real time fashion depends
on voice activity and requirements in the network. It also uses different modulation
and spreading techniques for forward and reverse links.
Global System for Mobile Communication or Groupe Spéciale Mobile (GSM)

GSM is a 2G cellular radio system standard that was originally developed and
employed in Europe. It therefore resolved the mobility problem in analogue
systems where mobility management was not intensively specified. It is the first
cellular system that employed digital modulation techniques and is the world’s
most popular 2G standard.
GSM is a multi-service system and has to manage mobility, security and radio
resources. The GSM system supports voice communication; data such as text and
pictures; facsimiles; computer files and messages, and short message services.
The GSM spectrum was originally assigned at around 900 MHz but it has
extended to 1800 MHz and 1900MHz to meet the ever-increasing demand of
radio subscribers. GSMs operating at 1800 MHz and 1900MHz are called PCSs or
GSM1800 and GSM1900, respectively.
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)

One of the drawbacks of a 2G-cellular radio system is its data transmission rate
limitation. It is only capable of carrying circuit switched data services, and is
therefore incapable of providing efficient transmission of packet-switched data.
The 2.5G platforms are meant to serve as a bridge between existing 2G systems
and those envisioned for 3G. GPRS is one of the 2.5G platforms. In theory, GPRS
can support a data rate of up to 171 kbps over the air interface. In practical cases,
it can support a maximum data rate of a little over 100 kbps at a stationary

position, and 40 kbps to 53 kbps with speed. Such speeds are already far beyond
the maximum speed of 9.6 kbps attained by standard GSM.
Enhanced Data Rates for Global Evolution (or previously ‘Enhanced Data
Rates for GSM Evolution’, EDGE)
The basic purpose with EDGE is to enhance the data throughout capabilities of
the GSM/GPRS network. This is primarily achieved through changing the air
interface modulation scheme from Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK) in
GSM to 8 Phase Shift Keying (8-PSK). In theory, EDGE can support a maximum
data rate of 384 kbps, which is more advanced than GPRS. As a result, some
people have referred to EDGE as a ‘2.75G’ technology. However, in this module,
we will regard it as 2.5G technology for simplicity sake.
More explanation of EDGE technology will be given in Unit 10.
CDMA2000 (1xRTT)
CDMA2000 1xRTT is the first phase of CDMA2000, which is the ultimate 3G
platform in the United States. It is fully backward compatible with the IS-95
infrastructure and radio subscriber units. It supports voice, circuit-switched data,
short messages services, over the air provision and activation. In addition,
CDMA2000 1xRTT supports handoffs with IS-95 systems.
Universal Mobile Telecommunications Services (UMTS)

UMTS, Universal Mobile Telecommunications services, represents an evolution
of GSM to support 3G capabilities. Direct Sequence Wideband CDMA (DS-
CDMA) adopts an air interface. From a system architectural point of view, UMTS
borrows very much from that of GSM. In fact many of the network elements used
in GSM can be reused, with some enhancements, in the UMTS network. Such
network elements include MSCs, HLRs, Serving GPRS Support Nodes (SGSNs),
and Gateway GPRS Support Nodes (GGSNs) which can be upgraded to support
both UMTS and GSM. UMTS could help existing GSM network operators reduce
their capital investments in deploying 3G services.
CDMA2000 x3
CDMA2000 is unique among other 3G access platforms, because although it
supports 3G services and bandwidth requirements, it caters for a logical migration
from the existing 2G platforms to 3G without forklifting the existing system.
Since CDMA2000 is backward-compatible with existing cdmaOne, or IS-95
networks, upgrades or changes to the network can be done in stages.

Table 1.3 summarises the details of various cellular radio standards.
Table 1.3 Cellular radio standards
Year of Multiple Channel

824 MHz to 894
AMPS 1983 FDMA FM 30 kHz
MHz
TACS 1985 FDMA 900 MHz FM 25 kHz
824 MHz to 894
N-AMPS 1992 FDMA FM 10 kHz
MHz
824 MHz to
TDMA/ 894MHz
IS-136 1993 π/4DQPSK 30 kHz
FDMA 1.8 GHz to 2.0
GHz
824 MHz to
894MHz
IS-95 1993 CDMA QPSK/BPSK 1.25 MHz
1.8 GHz to 2.0
GHz
890 MHz to 960
GSM 1990 TDMA GMSK 200 kHz
MHz
1.71 GHz to 1.88
DCS-1800 1993 TDMA GMSK 200 kHz
GHz
1.85 GHz to 1.99
DCS-1900 1994 TDMA GMSK 200 kHz
GHz
890 MHz to 960
GPRS 2000 TDMA GMSK 200 kHz
MHz
890 MHz to
EDGE 2002 TDMA 8-PSK 200 kHz
960MHz
Forward
link: BPSK +
824 MHz to QPSK
CDMA20
894MHz (spreading)
00 2000 CDMA 1.25 MHz
1.8 GHz to 2.0 Reversed
1XRTT
GHz link: BPSK +
HPSK
(spreading)
1.92 GHz to 2.17
UMTS 2002 WCDMA QPSK 5 MHz
GHz

Year of Multiple Channel

824 MHz to 894 Forward
CDMA20 MHz link: QPSK
2003 CDMA 3.75 MHz
00 3xRTT 1.8 GHz to 2.0 Reversed
GHz link: HPS
SELF-CHECK 1.3
Describe the main differences between radio paging, trunked radio and
cellular radio communication systems. In your comparison, refer to the
following:
• each system’s modes of communication (whether they are one-way

or two-way communication systems)
• the key elements in each system’s architecture (and whether they

have any common system elements)
• their popularity in the market (which of them is the best known

and used in the market)
• their call setup time (the time required between putting up a call
request and the call being successfully established).
Wireless broadband communication systems

We have so far discussed wireless cellular radio systems that provide sufficient
mobility to mobile radio subscribers in such a way that they can move freely
within one network or even roam from one network to another provided that the
HLR of one cellular radio system of that roamed mobile station is connected to
another cellular radio system. Although packet-switched data transmission over
cellular radio systems is feasible, the maximum data rate in the currently most
advanced 3G cellular radio technique is still limited (up to 2 Mbps for a stationary
mobile station). Wireless broadband networks, on the other hand, provide high
data rate services to the radio subscriber within a local area so that the Internet
and multimedia services can be provided.

With the explosion of the Internet, there has been an ever-increasing demand for
bandwidth requirements in communications and computer technologies. The
convergence of these two technologies has given birth to the wireless broadband
networks industry.
In traditional communication networks, this ‘last mile’ connection (i.e., the local
loop) is provided by copper wire. However, deployment costs for copper wire
communication systems are high. Therefore, fixed wireless networks are suitable
for the rapid deployment of broadband connections and these approaches are
becoming more popular for providing the ‘last mile’ of communication systems.
Besides their rapid deployment and low deployment costs, fixed wireless systems
also have the advantage of having a well-defined and time invariant propagation
channel between fixed transmitters and fixed receivers. Since these wireless fixed
communication technologies employ higher band frequencies, more bandwidth
can be used for data transmission.
The following reading concerns fixed wireless systems, including the Wireless
Local Loop (WLL), the Local Multipoint Distribution Service (LMDS) and the
Multipoint Microwave Distribution System (MMDS).
Reading
Section 2.3, pp. 40–45 in Wireless Communications: Principles & Practice,
2nd edn.
Let’s now look in more detail at these three broadband wireless systems:
• WLL
• LMDS
• MMDS.

Wireless Local Loop (WLL)

As briefly explained in the previous section, a local loop can be thought of as the
‘last mile’ of the telecommunication network. Therefore, Wireless Local Loop
(WLL) is the microwave link that acts as the ‘last mile’ between the central office
and the individual homes and businesses for providing the services of telephone,
the Internet etc.
Local Multipoint Distribution Service (LMDS)

LMDS, Local Multipoint Distribution Service, is a broadband wireless point-to-
multipoint communication system that offers reliable digital two-way voice, data,
and Internet services. LMDS operates at a frequency above the 10 GHz range. In
the United States, LMDS operates at around 28 GHz and 31 GHz bands. The total
frequency spectrum allocated by FCC is 1150 MHz, with two blocks at 28 GHz
(namely
27.5 GHz to 28.35 GHz and 29.1 GHz to 29.25 GHz) and one block at
32 GHz (31.075 GHz to 31.225 GHz). In Hong Kong, the LMDS spectrum is
assigned to 24.45 GHz to 28.35 GHz, 29.1 GHz to 29.25 GHz and 31 GHz to
31.3 GHz. The maximum designed transfer rate attained is 155 Mbps.
Multipoint Microwave Distribution System (MMDS)

MMDS, Multipoint Microwave Distribution System, also known as Multi-channel
Multipoint Distribution System, is also a broadband wireless communication
service that operates at lower frequencies, below the 10 GHz range. The MMDS
channel runs on 6 MHz chunks and runs on licenced or unlicenced channels. Each
channel can attain a transfer rate of 27 Mbps (over unlicensed channels, 99 MHz,
2.4GHz and 5.7 GHz to 5.8 GHz) or as high as 1 Gbps (over licensed channels).
In Hong Kong, the MMDS spectrum is assigned to 18.14 GHz to 18.74475 GHz
and 18.82 GHz to 18.87 GHz.
Wireless broadband access makes use of high frequency microwave signals for
sending and receiving data between hubs located in the center of Local Multipoint
Distribution Service (LMDS).
Satellite-based mobile communication systems

Satellite communications started in 1957, when the Soviets launched the satellite
Sputnik I. Since then, many satellite communication systems have been
developed. Now, satellite communications provide various services, such as

broadcast services, satellite TV, satellite long distance telephone services, Global
Positioning Systems (GPS) and so on. Recently, Low-Earth Orbit (LEO) satellite
systems have been developed by several companies, such as Iridium, Globalstar,
and Teledesic. Iridium launched 66 LEO satellites to provide worldwide wireless
communication services in 1 November 1998. The company closed down in
March 2000 and Iridium services were not available again until early 2001. The
Globalstar system consists of 48 LEO satellites and provides communications
services by utilising CDMA transmission techniques. Teledesic is also developing
288 LEO satellite systems to provide worldwide wireless multimedia
communication in 2005. In this section, we will compare satellite-based cellular
systems with terrestial cellular systems and then briefly study how satellite
systems work. We then look at some satellite communications systems.
How are satellite-based mobile communication systems different

from terrestrial cellular systems?
When compared to terrestrial cellular systems, satellite-based mobile
communication systems have the following features:
• wider area of coverage of a country, region, or continent

• wider available bandwidth
• independence from terrestrial infrastructure
• rapid installation of ground network
• low cost per added site
• uniform service characteristics
• total service from a single provider
• mobile/wireless communication, independent of location.
Satellite-based mobile communication systems can cover larger areas over

mountains, rural areas and ocean, and provide worldwide wireless
communications (paging, broadcast and emergency services), but they require
more transmitting power and larger antennas. Terrestrial cellular radio systems, on
the other hand, can support indoor, high-density area wireless services at a low
cost.
How do satellite communications systems work?

Satellites can be placed in orbit at any height above the earth. A satellite moving
in a circle around the earth is attracted towards the centre of the earth by gravity.
There is, however, also a tangential force on the satellite due to its speed. At any
particular height there is a speed where the two forces balance and the satellite
stays in orbit.
There are three types of orbits for communication satellites and each orbit offers a
different level of coverage and supports different systems:
1 GEO (Geostationary-Earth Orbits): A GEO satellite is positioned precisely

22238 miles (35800 km) above the earth’s equator. This allows it to maintain
an orbit that takes exactly 24 hours to rotate around the earth. Since GEO
satellites move at the same speed as the earth, GEO satellites appear
stationary. A GEO satellite can cover nearly one-third of the earth’s surface.
2 MEO (Medium-Earth Orbit): A MEO’s altitude is about 10000 km. More

satellites are needed with MEO to achieve GEO-level coverage.
3 LEO (Low-Earth Orbit): A LEO’s altitude is about 1000 km. Since satellites
move in relation to the surface of the earth, a full complement of satellites
(called a constellation) must be operating to provide continuous, unbroken
service.
Practical satellite-based mobile communication systems

There are many satellite systems to provide paging services, Global Positioning
System (GPS) services, satellite phone services, satellite TV services, etc. Most of
them use GEO. Currently, LEO satellite communication is the hottest topic in the
satellite communication area. Here, Iridium, as an example of LEO satellite
systems, is briefly introduced. We will also look at Globalstar and Teledesic.
Details of other mobile satellite systems are described in Unit 10.
Iridium
The Iridium satellite communication system, a venture company partially funded
by Motorola, is a satellite-based, digital, worldwide cellular personal
communications system. It can provide voice, paging, fax or data services to any
point on earth. The system consists of 66 small satellites in Low-Earth Orbits
(LEO). There are six polar orbital planes with eleven satellites in each, as shown
in Figure 1.12. It offers 100% coverage of the earth.

3
31.6º 31.6º 4
2
31.6º
31.6º 5
31.6º
22º
6 N 6
2
4
3
Figure 1.12 66-LEO satellite constellation
Source: Roddy, D (1995) Satellite Communications, 2nd edn, McGraw-Hill.
The Iridium system employs a combination of Frequency-Division Multiple-

Access and Time-Division Multiple-Access (FDMA/TDMA) signal multiplexing
to make the most efficient use of a limited spectrum. The L-Band (1616 MHz to
1626.5 MHz) serves as the link between the satellite and the Iridium subscriber
equipment. The Ka-Band (19.4 GHz to 19.6 GHz for downlinks; 29.1 GHz to 29.3
GHz for uplinks) serves as the link between the satellite and the gateways and
earth terminals.
Iridium satellites, weighing approximately 689 kg with an altitude of 780 km

above the earth’s surface, can communicate directly with handheld Iridium
phones and pagers. These satellites can switch and route calls in space. The
satellites have three basic communication functions:
1 Main mission communication — Telemetry and control antennas are used to

control the speed, position, and orientation of the satellite. There are two
telemetry and control antennas on each iridium satellite which are second in
size only to the main solar panels.
2 Crosslink communication — In order to provide cellular communication

capability for Iridium hand-held units on the ground, or inside the cellular
‘shell’ described above, the satellites must interwork with each other. This is
achieved by using four crosslink antennas located around the base of each
satellite.

3 Gateway communication — Finally, each satellite has four antennas to

facilitate communication with earth gateway stations. These gateways use
high-gain antennas to link with the satellite network. Initially, twenty
gateways will use standard cellular switches to interface with local Public
Switched Telephone Networks (PSTN) and accounts offices. The
Internetworking between satellites allows for flexibility in choosing locations
for earth gateway stations.
The Iridium phone is the primary means by which callers communicate directly
through the Iridium network. Its multi-mode capability allows the telephone to
work as a terrestrial wireless telephone (in areas where a compatible cellular
service exists) and as a satellite telephone. For Iridium subscribers, this means a
single handheld phone for both cellular and satellite access. Motorola and
Kyocera are manufacturing Iridium phone models.
Pocket-sized Iridium pagers are capable of receiving alphanumeric messages. For

worldwide applicability, the message display will feature an international
character set. An off-the-shelf disposable battery will provide an average lifetime
of one month.
Solar-powered phone booths are one of many specialised Iridium products

designed to provide public access to Iridium services in remote areas that are
underserved by existing telecommunications infrastructures. The portable, re-
deployable and free-standing booth is able to operate by solar or commercial
power.
ACTIVITY 1.1
Visit the official homepage of Iridium at <http://www.iridium.com>
and try to figure out two services they offer.
In addition to Iridium, there are two other popular mobile satellite systems,
Globalstar and Teledesic.
Globalstar and Teledesic

The Globalstar system is a satellite-based wireless telecommunications system
designed to provide voice, data, fax and other telecommunications services to
users worldwide. Globalstar consists of 52 satellites placed into Low-Earth Orbit,
of which 48 are operational, with four on-orbit spares. Globalstar will provide
continuous communications services by utilising CDMA transmission technology.
The operating frequency is shown below:

L-band user link and S-band user link:
• 1610 MHz to 1626.5 MHz (user-to-satellite)

• 2483.5 MHz to 2500 MHz (satellite-to-user).
C-band feeder links:
• 5091 MHz to 5250 MHz (gateway-to-satellite)

• 6875 MHz to 7055 MHz (satellite-to-gateway).
Globalstar services were available from 1999.
Teledesic, on the other hand, is building a global, broadband ‘Internet-in-the-sky’.

Using a constellation of 288 LEO satellites, Teledesic said they will create the
world’s first network to provide affordable, worldwide, ‘fibre-like’ access to
telecommunications services such as broadband Internet access,
videoconferencing, high-quality voice and other digital data needs. Teledesic
proposes to provide services from 2005.
SELF-CHECK 1.4
What are the advantages and disadvantages of terrestrial cellular

radio systems and satellite-based mobile communication systems?
Which system could support a larger number of users for a given
frequency allocation?
Wireless personal area data communication systems

Computer and microelectronic devices, such as notebook computers and Personal
Data Assistant (PDA) devices, have become increasingly popular in recent years
and many technologies have been developed to enable these devices to access
information and resources over any distance. Wireless Personal Area Networks
(WPANs) have played an important role in the popularity of PDA devices because
they are user-friendly, inexpensive and allow easy implementation of personal
networks to access information and resources.
There are many wireless personal area data communication systems. The most
common type is the Wireless Local Area Network (Wireless LAN or WLAN). In
simple terms, Wireless LANs implement a LAN’s functionality by using wireless

data transfer. This replaces the corresponding cabled solution on the same
network level.
In this section, we will look at:

• Wireless LANs (and WLAN IEEE 802.11x standards)
• High-Performance Radio Local Area Networks (HiperLANs)
• Personal area networks such as Bluetooth, HomeRF and IrDA.
Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs)

Computer network technologies and radio communications were brought together
under a research project at the University of Hawaii in 1971. The project was
called ALOHANET, which enabled computer networks at seven campuses spread
out over four islands to communicate with a central computer using expensive
phone lines. In the 1980s, amateur radio hobbyists (‘hams’) designed a Terminal
Node Controller (TNC) to interface the computer and ham radio, as depicted in
Figure 1.13.
Radio waves
packet data
transmission
Antenna
RS-232 Terminal Audio UHF/VHF
Node
Digital Controller Analogue Ham Radio
PC Signal Signal
Figure 1.13 Ham radio

Source: Geier, J (2002) Wireless LANs, 2nd edn, Indianapolis, IN: SAMS,
Figure 1.8, p. 31.
The TNC acts like a telephone modem, which converts the computer digital signal
into analogue signals for the ham radio to modulate and transmit over the air using
packet switching techniques.
In 1985, the Federal Communication Commission (FCC) of the United States

assigned a frequency spectrum to Industrial Scientific and Medical (ISM) bands
for commercial deployment of Wireless LANs. These frequencies reside between
902 MHz and 5.82 GHz. The ISM band is very attractive to equipment vendors
because the equipment is in the public ISM band, so that end users do not need to
have any license to operate this equipment.

In 1997, the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) finalised the
initial standard for Wireless LANs: IEEE 802.11. This standard specifies that
WLAN operates at a 2.4 GHz frequency band with 1 Mbps and 2 Mbps. The
spread spectrum modulation schemes employed are Frequency Hopping (FHSS)
and Direct Sequence (DSSS).
In late 1999, IEEE extended the 802.11 standard to 802.11b and 802.11a where
802.11b has 11 Mbps and 802.11a has the 54 Mbps. 802.11b uses the DSSS
method at the 2.4 GHz ISM band for implementation of WLAN. It is also the
most popular standard now. The 802.11a employs the orthogonal frequency-
division multiplexing (OFDM) modulation technique in 5 GHz frequency
spectrum.
A new IEEE standard on WLAN is 802.11g. This standard is compatible with the
most popular existing standard, 802.11b, and it provides high capacity and a
higher data transfer rate at 54 Mbps.

The following table summarises the characteristics of different WLAN versions.
Table 1.4 WLAN characteristics
WLAN
standard with 802.11 802.11a 802.11b 802.11g
versions
Anticipated
Standard
July 1997 September 1999 September 1999 final approval
approval
by June 20031
Available
83.5 MHz 300 MHz 83.5 MHz 83.5 MHz
bandwidth
2.4-2.4835 5.15-5.35 GHz
Unlicensed OFDM
GHz 2.4-2.4835GHz 2.4-2.4835GHz
frequencies of
DSSS, 5.725-5.825 GHz DSSS DSSS, OFDM
operation
FHSS OFDM
4 Indoor (UNII1)
Number of
3 4 Indoor/Outdoor 3
non- 3
(Indoor/ UNII2) (Indoor/Outdoo
overlapping2 (Indoor/Outdoor)
Outdoor) 4 Outdoor (UNII3 r)
channels
)
54, 36, 33, 24,
Data rate per 54, 48, 36, 24, 18, 11, 5.5, 2, 1
2, 1 Mbps 22,12, 11, 9, 6,
channel 12, 9, 6 Mbps Mbps
5.5, 2, 1 Mbps
Wi-Fi at
Compatibility 802.11 Wi-Fi5 Wi-Fi 11Mps and
below
Source: Wireless LAN Association, ‘High speed wireless LAN options’

<http://www.wlana.org>.
1
Source: <http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/802/11/Reports/tgg_update.htm>.
2
Source: ETSI (ES 202 131 V1.1.1). For IEEE 802.11 systems using Direct-Sequence Spread
Spectrum, the adjacent channel is defined as the non-overlapping channel which is at least 30
MHz separated from the wanted signal. For IEEE 802.11b and IEEE 802.11g systems, the
adjacent channel is defined as the non-overlapping channel which is at least 25 MHz separated
from the wanted signal.

High-Performance Local Area Networks (HiperLANs)

HiperLAN was proposed as a specification (EN300 652) in 1996 by the European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI). HiperLAN/1 operates at 5 GHz
and provides 24 Mbps data rate. It also provides quality of service (QoS) support
for data, video, voice and images. The HiperLAN, type 2, (HiperLAN/2)
specification was released by ETSI in April 2000. HiperLAN/2 operates at the
5 GHz frequency band with a 54 Mbps data rate over distances of up to 150 m.
The original HiperLAN/2 standard has been extended with two new components,
HiperACCESS and HiperLINK. The HiperACCESS protocol (formerly
‘HiperLAN Type III’) has a point-to-multipoint architecture at 27 Mbps over up
to 5 km. The HiperLINK (formerly ‘HiperLAN Type IV’) is used for point-to-
point links with a data rate up to 155 Mbps over 150 meter distances.
Figure 1.14 gives an overview of all the components of HiperLAN.
High performance LAN
Type I Type II Type III Type IV

HIPERAccess HIPERLink
HiperLAN/1 HiperLAN/2
Figure 1.14 An overview of HiperLAN

Source: Sikora, A (2003) Wireless personal and local area networks, John Wiley &
Sons, Figure 8.1, p. 124
Personal Area Networks (PANs)

Bluetooth
Ericsson’s Mobile Communications Division began its Bluetooth study activities
in 1994. The aim of this study was to replace the many cable connections between
mobile phones and various peripheral devices. Five companies joined this study
and formed the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (BSIG) in 1998 and their aims
were to design an open standard for Personal Area Networks (PANs). BSIG is
also called BIG.

The Bluetooth standard is mainly designed to target three applications at the PAN
level:
• cable replacement
• data and voice access points
• personal ad hoc networks.
The Bluetooth modules can be integrated into notebook computers or PDA
devices so as to facilitate the above-mentioned applications.
HomeRF
The founders of the HomeRF standard are Compaq, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, Intel
and Microsoft. They formed a working group in March 1998, which is called the
Home Radio Frequency Working Group (HomeRF WG). The aim of this working
group was to develop an open standard for industry. The latest version of
HomeRF is version 2.01 and it provides a bandwidth of 10Mbps.
HomeRF is mainly designed for household private networks. It supports a high

data speed and allows movement of stations between cells (roaming). However,
the HomeRF WG was disbanded in January 2003 due to severe competition from
other wireless products, such as WLAN. This means that the commercial life of
HomeRF has ended but the standard is still available to its university partners who
may study and expand upon it.
IrDA (Infrared Data Association)

IrDA was founded in 1993 with the aim of developing a standard to support both
software and hardware via infrared communications links. The standard supports
a walk-up, point-to-point serial interconnection communication between devices,
such as laptops and desktop computers.
A new ‘IrDA DATA’ standard was designed for two-way cordless infrared light
communications in 1994. IrDA DATA is recommended for high-speed short-
range, line-of-sight, point-to-point cordless data transfer applications such as
digital cameras and handheld data collection devices. It has the following
characteristics:
• coverage range: up to two meters

• communication: bi-directional
• data transmission rate: from 9.6 kbps up to 4 Mbps.
In 1998, a new ‘IrDA CONTROL’ standard was developed for wireless human
input devices, such as a mouse, a keyboard or a joystick. It is recommended for
hosting wireless peripherals to a PC for low-speed, full cross range, point-to-point

or to-multipoint wireless controllers. Its features are:
• coverage range: up to five meters

• communication: bi-directional
• data transmission rate: up to 75 kbps.
SELF-CHECK 1.5
Name the major applications for Wireless LAN, HiperLAN, Bluetooth

and IrDA.
Wireless communication systems around

the world
So far we have touched on various international wireless communication
standards. Examples of American standards include AMPS, IS-95, FLEX, while
examples of European standards include ERMES, GSM, UMTS. Apart from
standards from these two regions, Japanese standards, such as PHS, also exist.
International telecommunications co-operation

Before we look at mobile radio systems around the world, let’s first discuss some
basic ideas about worldwide co-operation in telecommunications. Because radio
propagation does not recognise geopolitical boundaries, there is a need for
international co-operation and participation so that an orderly worldwide use of
the radio spectrum can be agreed upon. The International Telecommunication
Union (ITU) is the global organisation of the United Nations. Its main objective is
to harmonise and tend to telecommunications around the world, including the
efficient utilisation of the radio spectrum. The ITU has divided the world into
three regions:
Region 1: Europe, including all former USSR territory outside Europe; Mongolian
People’s Republic; Asia Minor; and Africa
Region 2: Western hemisphere, including Hawaii

Region 3: Australia, New Zealand; Oceania; and Asia, excluding former USSR
territory and Asia Minor.
Hong Kong and China belong to Region 3.
The radio frequency spectrum

The radio frequency spectrum is divided into the following bands:
10 kHz to 30 kHz VLF Very Low Frequency

30 kHz to 300 kHz LF Low Frequency
300 kHz to 3 MHz MF Medium Frequency
3 MHz to 30 MHz HF High Frequency
30 MHz to 300 MHz VHF Very High Frequency
300 MHz to 3 GHz UHF Ultra High Frequency
3 GHz to 30 GHz SHF Super High Frequency
30 GHz to 300 GHz EHF Extra High Frequency
You should note that different frequency bands are characterised for particular
application purposes. VLF and LF are used for carrying navigation and
underwater radio systems. Communication systems that employ frequencies
ranging from MF to UHF are used for data telephony, radio and television
transmission. For frequencies between SHF and EHF, directional, satellite radio
and radar are deployed.The UHF and SHF bands have been further divided:
L band 1 GHz to 2 GHz

S band 2 GHz to 4 GHz
C band 4 GHz to 8 GHz
X band 8 GHz to 12.5 GHz
Ku band 12.5 GHz to 18 GHz
K band 18 GHz to 26.5 GHz
Ka band 26.5 GHz to 40 GHz
Millimetre > 40 GHz

Why are certain frequencies allocated certain services? As a general rule, the
higher the frequency, the shorter its range (since c=f, where c is the velocity of
light, f is the frequency and  is the wavelength). This is due to attenuation of
electro-magnetic waves, in particularly, damping, dispersion, reflection and
absorption. Low frequency waves are spread ground waves. This implies they
follow the curvature of the earth and can thus reach great distances. Airwaves are
generated at higher frequencies. They can reach ranges of from 100 km to 150 km
since the waves are reflected by the ionosphere. As the frequency increases, the
effect diminishes and thus the distance the frequency can propagate is reduced.
Waves larger than 3 GHz are direct waves. The distance that they reach is known
as the line of sight limit.
Table 1.5 Allocation of frequencies to some radio servicesa
Bandwidth (kHz) BRC FIX MOB Bandwidth (MHz) BRC FIX MOB
130 -160 23 23 18.168 -18.780 123
130 -148.5 1 87 -100 3 3 3
148.5 -255 1 87.5 -100
160 -190 23 88 -100 2
255 -283.5 100 -108 123
415 -435 1 136 -137 123
415 -495 23 150.05 -153 1 1
435 -495 1 150.05 -156.7625 23 23
505 -510 2 153 -154 1 1
505 -526.5 13 156.7625 -256.8365 123
510 -525 2 156.8375 -174 123 123
525 -535 2 174 -216 2
526.5 -535 3 174 -223 13 3 3
526.5 -1605.5 1 216 -225 2 2
535 -1605 23 223 -230 13 3 3
1605 -1625 2 225 -235 2 2
1605.5 -1800 3 3 230 -235 13 13
1606.5 -1625 1 1 406 -406.1 123b
1625 -1705 2 2 2 470 -512 2
1635 -1800 1 1 470 -585 3 3 3
1705 -1800 2 2 470 -790 1
1800 -2000 3 3 512 -608 2
1850 -2000 12 12 585 -610 3 3 3
610 -890 3 3 3
614 -806 2
790 -862 1 1
806 -890 2 2 2
862 -890 1 1 1
890 -902 2 3
890 -942 13 13 13
902 -942 2
942 -960 13 13 13
1530 -1660.5 Dedicated to mobile
satellite communica-
tions (land-mobile,
maritime-mobile, or
aeronautical-mobile)
1700 -2450 123 23
2450 -2500 123 123
2500 -2535 3 3
2500 -2655 123b 123 123
a BRC=broadcasting; FIX=fixed; MOB=mobile; 1=Region 1; 2=Region 2; 3=Region 3.
b Using satellite.
Source: Yakoub, M (1993) Foundations of Mobile Radio Engineering, Boca Raton, FL:
CRC Press.

Table 1.5 shows some radio services assigned by ITU, namely broadcasting
(BRC), fixed (FIX), and mobile (MOB) which have been allocated to the various
regions (1, 2, 3, or combinations of them). The mobile services may include land,
maritime, and/or aeronautical mobile communications.
Wireless mobile radio systems in the US, Europe and

Japan
In earlier sections of this unit, a number of wireless mobile radio systems were
discussed, including FLEX, POCSAG, ERMES, PHS, AMPS,
IS-95, GSM and UMTS. These standards did not originate from a single
standardisation body but from various organisations in different regions of the
world. FLEX, AMPS and IS-95 are from American standardisation bodies;
ERMES, GSM and UMTS are from European standardisation bodies; while PHS
is from Japanese standardisation body.
You might think there would be a clear distinction between these standards and
that America would only adopt American standards, while Europe would only
adopt European standards. However, there are exceptional cases. An example of
such a case is GSM1900, which is based on the European standard GSM.
GSM1900 has been adopted in the United States. In Hong Kong, both American
and European wireless communication standards have been adopted.
Standardisation bodies around the world

The following is a list of some major standardisation bodies or working groups
that contribute to commonly adopted standards:
• International Telecommunication Union (ITU)

• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
• European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI)
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
• The 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP)
• Association of Radio Industries and Businesses (ARIB)
• Telecommunication Technology Committee (TTC)
• Electronic Industry Association (EIA)
• Digital Cordless Telecommunications Standard (DECT).
Technologies that follow technical specifications of a particular standardisation

body can be regarded as a technology of an open standard. However, in some
cases, especially in the early stages of telecommunications development, there
were individual organisations or companies that established their own standard.
Such standards are generally known as proprietary standards.
Table 1.6 illustrates examples of some common standards adopted in wireless

communication systems around the world. Their respective formulating bodies
and country of origin are included as well.
Table 1.6 Wireless communication systems in the United States, Europe and Japan
Standardisation body /
Standard Type Country
Work group / Organisation
DECT Cordless phone DECT Europe
PHS Cordless phone ARIB Japan
POCSAG Paging British Post Office UK
ERMES Paging ETSI Europe
FLEX Paging Motorola US
IDEN Trunked radio Motorola US
TETRA Trunked radio ETSI Europe
AMPS Cellular ANSI US
TACS Cellular Vodafone and Cellnet UK
N-AMPS Cellular ANSI US
IS-136 Cellular EIA US
IS-95 Cellular ANSI US
PDC Cellular NTT DoCoMo Japan
GSM Cellular ETSI Europe
DCS-1800 Cellular ETSI Europe
DCS-1900 Cellular ETSI Europe
GPRS Cellular ETSI Europe

Standardisation body /
Standard Type Country
Work group / Organisation
EDGE Cellular ETSI Europe
CDMA2000
Cellular 3GPP US
1XRTT
UMTS Cellular 3GPP Europe
CDMA2000
Cellular 3GPP US
3xRTT
SELF-CHECK 1.6
Referring to the above table, name two standards that are regarded as
proprietary standards (rather than open standards).
Trends in wireless communication

systems and services
Ever since the birth of wireless technology in the 1890s, there has been a never-
ending development and evolution of new technologies. If you look back at the
development history, you can see that in the early stages, voice services were the
sole focus. Later on, data services gradually become the centre of attention. Ever
since then the data rate of transmission over wireless communication systems has
increased. The situation has become even more challenging since demands for
mobility and high-speed data transmission have emerged.
What new developments in wireless communications will we see in the near

future? A higher data rate for multimedia services, such as video conferencing and
video on demand, is certainly one future direction that wireless communications
will evolve towards. Such high-speed data transmission needs also place further
demands on cellular radio communication services. As the maximum data rate
that can be achieved in a 3G network is 2 Mbps at stationary mode and 384 kbps
at slow-moving mode, 3G performance might not fully satisfy demand.

Fourth-generation (4G) cellular radio systems

Although 3G deployment in the global arena has not reached its full pace,
discussions on moving towards fourth-generation (4G) cellular radio systems are
drawing more and more attention. One of the keynote speakers at the IEEE
GlobeCom 2002 Communications Conference, Chief of DoCoMo, Mr Tachikawa,
referred to stretching ‘a world where mobile devices and services are ubiquitous’
and noted that ‘the promise of future 4G mobile networks enables things only
dreamed of today’ (http://www.eetimes.com/story/OEG20021120S0003). It is
generally believed that with 4G cellular radio systems, a data rate of 100 Mbps at
stationary mode and 20 Mbps at slow-moving mode can be achieved. Various
wireless communication equipment manufacturers around the world have already
started research and development work on the next generation system.
As will be shown in Unit 10, 2.5G’s system architecture, voice and data are still
supported by two different cores paths (one for voice services employing circuit-
switched and one for packet data employing packet-switched). As packet-
switched technology evolves, quality of service (QoS) might become an issue,
since from a wireless network viewpoint the provision for a quality service affects
end-to-end performance, especially with the air interface being a major
bandwidth-limiting factor in a wireless data network. The solution is the
development of IP-based networks that support IP version 6 (IPv6) that allow
maintenance of QoS.
Smart antennas
Radio coverage is a topic that every wireless communication system has to face.
Coverage planning is particularly challenging in complex environments, such as
in Hong Kong, where there are a lot of high-rise buildings, tangles of roads, and
changing traffic conditions. An alternative is to employ smart antennas.
Smart antennas provide greater capacity and performance benefits than standard
antennas because they can be used to customise and fine-tune antenna coverage
patterns to match traffic conditions in a wireless network, or to better suit complex
radio frequency environments
Software radios
In contrast to conventional radios, there has been discussion on the possibility of
developing software radios by putting a radio under software control so that it can
support any type of technology, and process signals in the digital domain. A

number of companies in Japan and Europe have described their underlying

principle for software radios and have outlined areas of research that are viewed
as critical for the development of software radios. Alcatel, NTT, Daimler-
Chrysler, NEC, Toshiba, Matsushita, Philips, Nokia and IMST all reported
ongoing research and development activities on software radios. US companies,
such as Hughes and Rockwell Collins, have also described efforts in this area.
Most of the companies view software radios as re-configurable, multi-modal,
multi-channel, or multi-band devices. It should be noted that this view does not
claim that radios dynamically alter error control algorithms or modulation formats
as a function of the channel and traffic characteristics.
Summary
This unit has introduced you to the history of wireless communications and
discussed various wireless communication system standards. We have also looked
at wireless communication system standards around the world. We ended the unit
by looking briefly at emerging trends in wireless communication systems and
services, and later in the course you will have many opportunities to reduce future
possible innovations in the industry.
References
Geier, J (2002) Wireless LANs implementing high performance IEEE 802.11
networks, 2nd edn, Indianapolis, IN: SAMS.
Rappaport, T S (2002) Wireless communications: Principles & practice, 2nd edn,

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Sikora, A (2003) Wireless personal and local area networks, John Wiley & Sons.
Smith, C and Collins, D (2002) 3G wireless networks. McGraw-Hill.
Vacca, J R (2001) Wireless broadband networks handbook, 3G, LMDS, and

Wireless Internet. McGraw-Hill.
<http://www.privateline.com/PCS/history.htm>
<http://home.luna.nl/~arjan-muil/radio/history.html>
<http://www.iridium.com>
<http://www.wlana.org>

<http://www.cdg.org>
<http://www.ofta.gov.hk>
Feedback to activities
Activity 1.1
Iridium offers the following services:
• data services
• voice services
• global paging services
• crew calling.
Suggested answers to self-tests

Self-test 1.1
• AMPS, TACS employ FDMA
• GSM, DCS-1800, DCS-1900 employ TDMA
• IS-95 employs CDMA.
Self-test 1.2
1G: voice services.
2G: voice, fax, SMS, circuit-switched data services.
2.5: voice, SMS and packet-switched data services.
3G: voice, SMS, packet-switched data, multimedia, video-conferencing services.

Self-test 1.3
Communication Modes of Key elements Popularity in the Call
service communication in system market setup
architecture time
Radio paging One-way Paging control Widely adopted and 1–3
communication centre received by the public, seconds
or simulcast Paging but has withered as a
transmitters result of popularity of
cellular radio services
Trunked radio Two-way Central Not very popular 0.5
communication switching among the general seconds
(full-duplex or equipment public but is popular in
semi-duplex) (with HLR large organisations or
embedded) private companies
Base stations
Cellular radio Two-way Mobile Station Widely adopted and 5–6
communication Controller received by the public seconds
(full-duplex) Base Station
Controller
Base stations
Home
Location
Register
Self-test 1.4
Satellite-based cellular systems can cover larger areas over mountains, rural areas
and ocean, and provide worldwide wireless communications (paging, broadcast
and emergency services), but they require more transmitting power and larger
antennas. Terrestrial cellular radio systems can support indoor, high-density area
wireless services at a low cost. For a given frequency allocation, since the
coverage of terrestrial mobile systems is much smaller than that of space-based
cellular systems, land-based mobile systems can serve more users.
Self-test 1.5
WLAN: 1 provides Local Area Network functionality using wireless data
transfer
2 serves as an ad hoc network.
HiperLAN: provides Local Area Network functionality using wireless data

transfer.

Bluetooth: 1 replaces cables
2 acts as data and voice access points
3 serves as a personal ad hoc network.
IrDA: 1 supports point-to-point serial interconnection communication

between devices such as laptops
2 cordlessly supports human input devices such as a mouse,

keyboard and joystick.
Self-test 1.6
FLEX, a paging standard developed by Motorola, and TACS, a cellular standard
developed by Vodafone and Cellnet, are two examples of propriety standards.
Glossary
1G First generation
2G Second generation
2.5G 2.5 generation
3G Third generation
4G Fourth generation
AMPS Advanced Mobile Phone System
BSC Base Station Controller
CDMA Code-Division Multiple-Access
D-AMPS Digital AMPS
DSSS Direct-Sequence Spread-Spectrum
EDGE Enhanced Data Rates for Global Evolution (or previously
Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution)
FDD Frequency-Division Duplex
FDMA Frequency-Division Multiple-Access
FHSS Frequency-Hopping Spread-Spectrum
FM Frequency Modulation
GEO Geostationary-Earth Orbits
GGSN Gateway GPRS Support Node
GMSK Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying
GPRS General Packet Radio Service
GPS Global Positioning System
HiperLAN High-performance LAN
HLR Home Location Register
IPv6 IP Version 6
IrDA Infrared Data Association
ISI Intersymbol Interference
ISDN Integrated Service Digital Network
LEO Low-Earth Orbit
LMDS Local Multipoint Distribution Service
MEO Medium-Earth Orbit
MMS Multimedia Messaging Services
MMDS Multi-point Microwave Distribution System (also known as Multi-
Channel Multipoint Distribution System)
MSC Mobile Station Controller or Mobile Switching Centre
N-AMPS Narrowband AMPS
OFDM Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing
PAN Personal Area Networks
PDA Personal Data Assistant
PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network
OFTA Office of the Telecommunication Authority
QoS Quality of Service

SGSN Serving GPRS support node

TACS Total Access Communication System
TDMA Time-Division Multiple-Access
UMTS Universal Mobile Telecommunications Services
USDC United State Digital Cellular
WCDMA Wideband Code-Division Multiple-Access
WLAN Wireless Local Area Network
WPAN Wireless Personal Area Network

Unit  Wireless Local
2 Area Networks
and Wireless
Personal Area
Networks
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this unit you should be able to:

1 Outline commonly adopted wireless networks on the market;
2 Describe the characteristics of wireless local area networks (WLANs)
and wireless personal area networks (WPANs);
3 Examine the different types of WLANs, especially HIPERLAN1/2
and the IEEE 802.11 Standard;
4 Examine different types of WPANs, especially technologies of
Bluetooth and infra-red;
5 Analyse security concerns, issues and resolutions for different types
of wireless networks;
6 Describe common applications of wireless networks; and
7 Survey the market and assess upcoming trends in wireless networks.

UNIT 2 WIRELESS LOCAL AREA NETWORKS AND WIRELESS PERSONAL AREA  57
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Overview
This unit focuses on wireless networks for wireless local area networks (WLANs)
and wireless personal area networks (WPANs).
We begin the unit with an introduction to wireless networks in general. The main
differences between WLANs and WPANs are highlighted and we discuss various
ways to categorise wireless networks. The advantages and disadvantages of using
wireless networks are then explained.
In the second section of the unit, we take a closer took at WLANs. We first look
at IEEE 802.11, and different physical layer variants, namely those based on
frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), direct sequence spread spectrum
(DSSS), infra-red (IR) and orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM).
The medium access control (MAC) of IEEE 802.11 will be briefly discussed in
this unit. Another popular WLAN is HIPERLAN1/2. A summary of the protocol
structure of HIPERLAN/2 is also given in this section.
Apart from WLANs, WPANs are another area of interest. The third section of the
unit discusses WPANs, and we will explore the architecture, radio specifications
and baseband specifications of Bluetooth in detail.
No matter which kind of wireless network you are using, there is a risk that
authorised participants might ‘overhear’ and ‘tap’ the transmission in the network.
These security risks require various security resolutions, and in the fourth section
of the unit, we look at WLAN and WPAN security concerns and resolutions.
Finally, possible applications of the various discussed wireless networks will be

examined. We also look at market trends in WLANs and WPANs.
Introduction to wireless networks

‘Wireless networks’ is the general description of network technologies that
implement traditional wired-network functionality by employing data transfer
through the air. The most well-known accessible wireless networks on the market
are wireless local area networks (WLANs) and wireless personal area networks
(WPANs).
There are, however, several differences between WLAN technologies and WPAN
technologies.

58  UNIT 2 WIRELESS LOCAL AREA NETWORKS AND WIRELESS PERSONAL AREA
NETWORKS
The major differences are:
• Power levels and coverage

Coverage of a WLAN is about 100 m and its transmitting power is about
100 mW while the coverage of WPAN is about 10 m and its transmitting
power is only about 1 mW. Therefore WLANs can provide services to larger
area; while WPANs can only provide services to a relatively confined area.
• Control of the media

A WPAN is, at all times, contention free. It controls the medium by creating a
master-slave relationship between devices. The master polls its slaves for
transmission and assigns the bandwidth to them according to the quality-of-
service (QOS) requirement. However, a WLAN employs this function as an
option. The reason behind this difference is that a WLAN has a larger
coverage and it may not be always desirable to have strict and absolute control
of the media.
• Lifespan of the network

WLANs have lifespans which are independent of their constituent devices.
This means that WLANs have an uninterrupted existence if all devices move
out of the coverage of the WLAN and replacement devices arrive. However, a
WPAN does not work like this. If the master device does not participate, the
WPAN will not exist at all. Therefore, WPAN devices create a connection to
other devices for a finite lifespan.
Before taking a closer look at what exactly WLANs and WPANs are, let us first
examine some fundamental ways for classifying different types of wireless
networks. We then investigate the restrictions of various types of wireless
networks.
Classifying wireless networks

There are a number of wireless network technologies on the market that have
different characteristics. It would be fruitful if we can group these technologies
into different classes. Possible criteria for classifying wireless networks include:
• level of data rate achieved;

• scale of mobility attained;
• mode of communication supported; and
• types of services provided.

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This list is not exhaustive, and it’s also possible to group technologies according
to a combination of these criteria.
Figure 2.1 illustrates a classification of the various types of wireless network

technologies, according to the level of data rate with respect to the nature of radio
movement.
Figure 2.1 Data rate of various wireless network technologies in accordance to nature
of usage
Level of data rate

As indicated in Figure 2.1 above, a general classification of network technologies
based on the nature of radio movement can be further grouped into two sub-
classes, namely:
• indoor networks (offices, buildings); and

• outdoor networks (stationary, walking and vehicular).
The first group relates to short-range transmissions with distances ranging from a
couple of meters to hundreds of meters. In addition to the length of transmission,
the movement of the radio is confined and the environment is relatively speaking
stable. Here stable refers to having less external disturbance, which can result
from external interference.

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The second group relates to longer-range transmissions with distances ranging

from hundreds of meters to a few kilometers. The movement of the radio is
expected to be unlimited and is more exposed to external disturbance, especially
fading. Furthermore, the speed of radio movement ranges from very slow (as in
the case of being stationary on the street) to very fast (as in the case when the
radio is housed inside a vehicle or in a train).
You will find that in a more stable environment, i.e. when radios are indoors, the
data rate achieved is much higher than in an outdoor environment. The reason is
that if the environment is stable, the possibility of having successful higher speed
data transmission will be greater and the chance of retransmission as a result of
transmission loss will be reduced.
One point worth nothing is that the hand-off capability applies to cellular radio
networks only and not to the other types of wireless network technologies. Can
you think of the reason for this? Imagine you are having a conversation on your
mobile phone when you are travelling by car at 50 km/hr. We have mentioned that
wireless networks that are classified for outdoors can have transmission over
distances up to a few kilometers. If you have a conversation that lasts for one
minute, your car has already travelled about 833 m. This distance is much greater
than a normal cell site in an urban area, which might be 200 m to 400 m across,
i.e. with a 100 m to 200 m radius. What would happen if there was no handover
from one cell to its adjacent cell? Of course, the conversation would be
disconnected.
SELF-CHECK 2.1
If you are travelling in a car on a highway at a speed of 100 km/hr,

how long will it take to travel from one end of a cell to the other, if the
radius of the cell site is 1 km? Will your encounter a hand-off when
you are taking a phone call using your cellular phone? Give reasons to
support your answer. (You have to estimate the average length of a
cellular phone conversation).
There are other criteria for classifying wireless network technologies. The
following classifications are only some of them. They are relatively self-
explanatory.

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Scale of mobility
Scale of mobility refers to the degree of radio movement from one place to the
other. The following categories are derived from the scale of mobility used:
• Indoors (e.g. house, indoors or building) — cordless phones, WLANs,

WPANs.
• Outdoors (e.g. city, campus) — WLANs, Wireless ATMs, cellular radios,

radio paging, trunked radios, extended cordless phones.
• Terrestrial-ness (e.g. over a country, the whole world) — cellular radio, radio
paging.
You can note that the above descriptions consist of possible radio movements,
from confined (as in indoors) to unrestricted (as in terrestrial-ness).
Mode of communication
Mode of communication is a very traditional way to categorise communication
systems. The simplest categories based on mode of communication are:
• One-way communication — radio paging.
• Two-way communication — cordless phones, WLANs, WPANs, wireless

ATMs, cellular radios, trunked radios.
With the advancement of technology and the ever-increasing demand for more
communication services, it is rare to find evolutions in one-way communication
technology. The only remaining widely used form of one-way communication is
radio paging. On the other hand, more and more two-way communication
technologies are emerging in the market. One of the driving forces that lead to the
evolution of such technologies is the ever-increasing complexity of services that
are demanded. Such complexity results in the need for higher speed transmission.
Types of services
We can also categorise technologies according to the services they support. Here
are some categories of service:
• Data and voice — cellular radio (e.g. GSM, IS-95), trunked radio.
• Messaging — radio paging.

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• Data, voice and video — cellular radio (e.g. IMT-2000, WCDMA,

CDMA2000).
• Data and video — WLANs, wireless ATMs.
In the early years of wireless communications, voice and low data rate message
transmission were the main services supported by wireless communication
systems. There has been an increasing demand for wireless communication
systems to support higher data rate transmission so that more data messages can
be sent. In recent years, large bandwidth transmission has been developed which
supports more data transfer, and multimedia services (such as video conferencing
and video-on-demand).
Generally speaking, cellular radio networks mainly support voice services, while
WLANs and wireless ATMs mostly support data and video services. However, as
new cellular technologies support higher-speed data transmission, cellular
networks are now also supporting data services. Similarly, with the maturity of
voice over IP (VoIP) over LAN environments, voice services over WLAN
environments are becoming more widespread.
Advantages and disadvantages of wireless networks

Wireless networks have advantages and disadvantages. Let’s first consider the
several advantages of wireless networks.
Flexible and cableless connection

Wireless communication networks support a wireless transfer of information, both
data and voice. Therefore, portable devices can be connected and can
communicate with each other without the need to have cables between them.
Furthermore, problems with incompatible connectors will become history. This is
particularly true for WLANs and WPANs. In addition, WLANs and WPANs can
form ad hoc networking, i.e. networks formed for a specific purpose.
Rapid deployment and low cost

The terrestrial wireless networks used for cellular radio and broadband
transmission are regarded as superior to wired networks because their
infrastructure can be deployed quickly, and the deployment cost of this
infrastructure is lower. Compare the work process required between setting up a
wired system and wireless system. When setting up a wireless network’s
infrastructure, we only have to install central switching equipment and
transceivers at remote base station sites. There is no need to have any direct

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physical connection between the individual mobile station and base stations in
order to have communication between them. In comparison, a wired system, such
as public service telephone network, requires physical cabling to connect each of
the individual telephones in the system to the local telephone exchange station.
Telephone service providers have to lay cable under roads or highways and this
involves a lot of installation and engineering work, as well as co-ordination work
with authorities.
However, wireless networks are not without disadvantages or limitations. Let’s

now consider a number of limitations.
Availability of bandwidth
Bandwidth spectrum is limited, so having a large number of wireless systems of
the same kind is impossible. In some countries, licensing is required for operating
wireless networks so that government authorities can control the number of
wireless networks operating.
Range
The range of wireless systems is restricted since as a general rule, the higher the
frequency, the shorter the range. This is due to the special diffusion of
electromagnetic waves that includes attenuation, reflection, dispersion and
absorption.
Electromagnetic radiation
As wireless systems involve electromagnetic radiation, there is more and more
concern from the public about whether such radiation is hazardous to human
health. This topic is by all means controversial and lawsuits have been launched
against mobile phone manufacturers by GSM users who have argued that the
electromagnetic radiation incurred by mobile products has damaged their health.
International organisations (such as the International Commission for Non-
Ionizing Radiation Protection, CNIRP and the American National Standards
Institute, ANSI) now set guidelines or recommendations for wireless products.
Interference
Whenever electromagnetic waves are transmitted over the air, they will be
vulnerable to interference. Interference is an external unwanted signal or noise
that affects the performance of a communication channel. Interference can be
generated naturally (e.g. lightning) or unnaturally (e.g. by inadequate frequency
planning of a wireless network).

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Security
As the range of radio transmission cannot be restricted solely to the area in which
potential recipients or users are located but also reaches other areas, there is a risk
that the transmission will be ‘overheard’ by unauthorised recipients.
Authentication and encryption are possible solutions to this of security problem.
We have now completed our introductory section on wireless networks. In the

next section, we will discuss WLANs in detail.
SELF-CHECK 2.2
1 What criteria can be used to classify wireless networks?
2 Complete the following table to summarise the main advantages and

disadvantages of wireless networks.
Advantages Disadvantages
Wireless local area networks (WLANs)

In this section, we will take a look at wireless local area networks (WLANs). In
particular, we look at two international WLAN standards: IEEE 802.11and
HIPERLAN1/2. In order to truly understand what a WLAN is, we first need to
understand what a local area network (LAN) is.
Local area networks (LANs)

LANs are privately owned networks within a single building, such as a company’s
office, or the campus of a university, with an area up to a few kilometers. A LAN
usually involves connecting computers, workstations, servers, printers, etc., for
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the sake of communication and the sharing of information and resources. These
devices are normally linked up via cables. It might be more accurate to say that a
LAN employs transmission technology that consists of a single cable to which the
devices are attached. Traditional LANs operate at speeds from 10 Mbps to
100 Mbps.
LANs are usually regarded as broadcast LANs, i.e. each computer or device
which is hooked up to the cable receives the same piece of information
irrespective of whether that piece of information is sent to it. In order to
distinguish whether the information is to be sent to a particular computer,
identifiers are attached to the information so that the targeted computer knows it is
the designated device to receive the information.
Figure 2.2 shows two of the most common topologies of broadcast LANs.
(a) (b)
Figure 2.2 The two most common topologies of broadcast LANs
(a) Bus (b) Ring

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Bus networks
In a bus network, as shown in Figure 2.2(a), one of the computers acts as master
and is allowed to transmit, while all other computers are required to refrain from
transmission. If more than one computer wants to transmit, there will be conflict.
In order to resolve such conflict, an arbitration mechanism is introduced. The
concept of the arbitration mechanism is that if two or more computers want to
transmit, each computer just waits a random amount of time and then tries to
transmit again.
Ring networks
Another type of broadcast LAN is the ring network, as depicted in Figure 2.2(b).
A typical example is the token ring. In order to identify which computer is
allowed to transmit, and thus reduce conflict between two or more computers
sending at the same time, a token is being used. A computer can transmit
information only if it seizes the token. Each piece of information propagates
around the ring until it reaches back to the sender where the sender removes it
from the ring. When the traffic is not heavy, i.e. when computers are not
transmitting most of the time, the token simply circulates around the ring.
However when the traffic is heavy, the computers have to wait or queue for the
token in order to get ‘permission’ to transmit. Once a computer finishes
transmitting information, it regenerates a new token, which will then be seized by
its downstream counterpart in the ring. In this way, the ‘permission’ to send is
circulated around the ring. This mechanism is also known as round-robin.
In simple terms, a WLAN is a LAN that has been put over a wireless environment
but retains all the characteristics of a wired LAN. As mentioned in Unit 1, there
are various international standardisation bodies that govern telecommunication
standards in various parts of the globe. WLANs are no exception. In this unit, we
will focus on two WLAN standards, namely IEEE 802.11 and HIPERLAN2. The
former is an American standard and the latter is a European standard.
IEEE 802 family

The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) is an American
technical association of industry professionals with common interests in
advancing communication technologies. IEEE has formulated many standards,
and one of the most widely adopted technologies is the IEEE 802 family of
standards. The IEEE 802 family of standards refers to local area networks (LANs)
and metropolitan area networks (MANs), which represent the lowest layers in the
OSI reference model, i.e. the physical layer and data link layer. Details of the OSI

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reference model are covered in CT211 Fundamentals of Communications

Technology and CT312 Networking and Switching Technology.
The standards were developed by the LAN/MAN Standards Committee (LMSC)

which was later referred to the IEEE Project 802. Figure 2.3 depicts the most
important standards in the IEEE 802 family and their relationships.
Assignment
of OSI layers
802.10 Security
802.2 Logical Link Control (LLC)

802.2 Overview & Architecture
Data
802.1 Bridging Link
802.1 Management
Layer
802.3 802.5 802.6 802.11 802.15 802.16
MAC MAC MAC MAC MAC MAC
802.3 802.5 802.6 802.11 802.15 802.16
PHY PHY PHY PHY PHY PHY Physical
Ethernet Token DQDB WLAN WPAN WMAN Layer
Ring
Figure 2.3 The most important standards in the IEEE 802 family and their relationships
Source: Sikora, A (2003) Wireless Personal and Local Area Networks, UK: Wiley,
Figure 4.1, p. 57.
Among the IEEE 802 family, one young member has drawn a lot of attention in
the industry. This young member is the IEEE 802.11 WLAN standard, and it is
one of the themes of this unit.
Background of the IEEE 802.11 standard

In 1997, the IEEE finalised the initial standard for wireless LANs: IEEE 802.11.
This was after a seven year development and approval process. The standard
describes the specification of the medium access control (MAC) and physical
(PHY) layers. MAC and the logical link control (LLC) are the sublayers of the
data link layer (DLL) in the OSI reference model; while PHY includes the PHY
layer convergence protocol (PLCP) and the PHY medium dependent (PMD). The
prime objective of the IEEE 802.11 standard is to allow protocols from the upper
layers to access communication services regardless of the media of transmission,
that is, protocols can access communication services over a communication
channel, i.e. a wired transmission, or over the air, i.e. a wireless transmission.

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The standard IEEE 802.11, which was formulated in 1997, specifies a WLAN that
operates at the 2.4 GHz frequency bandwith 1 Mbps and 2 Mbps. There are three
alternative PHYs, namely:
• frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS);
• direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS); and
• infra-red (IR).
In 1999, IEEE 802.11b, which is also known as the IEEE 802.11 high rate
standard, was approved. It provides users with a data rate capability of 11 Mbps
and 5.5 Mbps in addition to the original 2 Mbps and 1 Mbps in IEEE 802.11. 2.4
illustrates three alternative PHY protocols on IEEE 802.11 and the PHY protocols
adopted in IEEE 802.11b using DSSS and IEEE 802.11a using orthogonal
frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) technology.
Figure 2.4 The most important standards in IEEE 802.11 WLAN
The latest physical layer variant (as of October 2003) is the IEEE 802.11g, which
employs both DSSS and OFDM technologies. It should be noted that IEEE
802.11g is compatible with IEEE 802.11b. A summary of these standards is given
in Table 2.1 below.

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Table 2.1 Summary of the IEEE 802.11 standards
802.11 802.11a 802.11b 802.11g

Standard July 1997 September 1999 September June 2003
approval 1999
Available 83.5 MHz 300 MHz 83.5 MHz 83.5 MHz
bandwidth
Unlicensed 2.4–2.4835 GHz 5.15–5.35 GHz 2.4– 2.4–
frequencies of DSSS, FHSS OFDM 2.4835GHz 2.4835GHz
operation 5.725–5.825GHz DSSS DSSS,
OFDM OFDM
Number of 3 (Indoor/ 4 Indoor (UNII1) 3 (Indoor/ 3 (Indoor/

non- Outdoor) 4 Indoor/Outdoor Outdoor) Outdoor)
overlapping (UNII2)
channels 4 Outdoor
(UNII3 )
Data rate per 2, 1 Mbps 54, 48, 36, 24, 11, 5.5, 2, 54, 36, 33,
channel 18, 12, 9, 6 Mbps 1Mbps 24,22, 12, 11,
9, 6,5.5, 2, 1
Mbps
It should be noted that the same MAC layer protocol is used no matter what
variant of PHY layer is used.
Physical layer of IEEE 802.11

Unlike other wired communication systems, IEEE 802.11 WLAN involves very
different considerations in its physical layer since the medium of transfer is over
the ‘air interface’ rather than over a wired cable. Such considerations include
noise and interference in the air interface.
As shown in Figure 2.4, there are different types of media over which IEEE
802.11 standards are supported. These different types of media are generally
regarded as IEEE 802.11 physical layer definitions. Before going into the details
of different IEEE 802.11 physical layer definitions, it is worthwhile looking into
the architecture of the physical layer since this architecture is the same,
irrespective of the physical layer definition.

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Architecture of the physical layer

The architecture of the physical layer of IEEE 802.11 comprises three
components, namely:
• Physical layer management entity (PHY LME): This works together with the
MAC layer management to carry out management functions for the physical
layer.
• Physical layer convergence procedure (PLCP) sublayer: This communicates
with the MAC layer via primitives through the physical layer service access
point (PHY SAP). Upon the MAC’s instructions, PLCP prepares the MAC
protocol data units (MPDU) for transmission. Upon receiving frames from a
wireless medium, PLCP delivers the incoming frame to the MAC layer.
• Physical medium dependent (PMD) sublayer: Under PLCP directions or
instructions, the PMD provides actual transmission and reception of physical
layer entities between two stations via the wireless medium. PMD
communicates with the PLCP via primitives through the PMD SAP to govern
transmission and reception functions.
Figure 2.5 illustrates the architecture of the IEEE 802.11 physical layer.
Figure 2.5 Architecture of IEEE 802.11 physical layer
We’ve noted that in the IEEE 802.11 physical layer definitions, there are four
specifications for radio systems, namely:
• frequency hopping — spread spectrum (FHSS);

• direct sequence — spread spectrum (DSSS);
• infra-red (IR); and
• orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM).

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Many WLAN products have been developed based on the first two definitions,
however, there is currently no product released based on infra-red. In this unit, we
focus mostly on FHSS and DSSS but some discussion of the standard for IR and
OFDM will also be presented.
Both the FHSS and DSSS operate at around 2.4 GHz, which falls within
unlicensed bands. This implies one does not need any license for the spectrum
from a local telecommunication authority and subsequently no payment is
imposed for the spectrum in order to operate IEEE 802.11 WLAN equipment at
this band. This arrangement has speeded up technological advancement over the
past decade since it allows the development of inexpensive and compact radio
transceivers.
Unlicensed bands
Unlicensed bands are also known as ISM (industrial, scientific and medical)
bands. Anyone can employ equipment that complies with some technical
specifications. As there is no frequency planning and no restriction on the number
of users of an unlicensed band, a certain degree of interference occurs. It is
therefore impossible to claim protection from interference incurred by other users
on these bands.
One feasible and effective way to reduce interference is to limit the transmission
power of the equipment. This limitation on power guarantees that the potential
sources of interference are physically at a short or medium distance away from the
receiver, or in other words, the coverage range of transmitters is confined to
specific areas. For example, the coverage range of transmitters in industrial
buildings and shopping malls can be confined to indoor coverage.
In 1985, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) decided that the

problem of interference was serious enough to set tight limits on transmission
power spectral density. The transmission level in some unlicensed bands was to
be held at 1 watt to boost the development of applications that needed a greater
transmission range. As a result, systems that make use of spread spectrum
techniques were promoted. The IEEE 802.11 physical radio systems were
formulated as one of the consequences of this FCC regulation and they adopt the
ISM band at around 2.4 GHz. The signal level of IEEE 802.11 in the ISM band
adopted in Hong Kong is shown in Table 2.2.

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Table 2.2 Output power level for WLANs at the ISM band in Hong Kong
Frequency
Output power level Spurious emission level
range
2.4 GHz– a peak e.i.r.p. not to exceed e.r.p. not to exceed 10µW
2.4835 GHz 4 W for frequency outside the frequency band in
hopping spread spectrum which the fundamental
modulation or digital frequencies are located
modulation systems; or
b aggregate e.r.p. not to
exceed 100mW for any
modulation
Note: ‘e.r.p.’ means effective radiated power and ‘e.i.r.p.’ means equivalent isotropically radiated
power.
Source: Hong Kong SAR Government, ‘Schedule 2’ in Telecommunications

(Telecommunications Apparatus) (Exemption from Licensing) Order.
Spread spectrum systems

In general terms, spread spectrum systems use much more bandwidth than that
required for transmission. Systems that use bandwidth as it is needed (i.e. the
required bandwidth for transmission is comparable to the signal bandwidth), are
called narrowband systems. In spread spectrum systems, all resources are
allocated to all simultaneous users, while the transmit power of each user is
controlled to the minimal required level to maintain a given signal-to-noise ratio
for a required level of performance. In this manner, each user contributes to the
‘background noise’ in the entire frequency spectrum during their transmission.
Although this ‘background noise’ affects all users, its extent is minimal since, as
mentioned above, the transmit power of each user is kept as minimal as possible.
Spread spectrum systems are, therefore, on the one hand less sensitive to
interference from other users, while on the other hand, they are less likely to
interfere with other users.
Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)

What are frequency hopping techniques? In frequency hopping systems,
conventional modulation techniques are adopted, but the carrier frequency at the
transmitter changes, or hops, in accordance to a given sequence. This sequence is
the code of these systems. What capability do you think the receiver should have
in order to be able to demodulate the received signal so that the information can

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be extracted? You would probably get the right answer — the receiver should
know the correct sequence on how the frequency hops. Figure 2.6 illustrates the
concept of frequency hopping.
(fx)
(T)
Figure 2.6 Frequency hopping concept
In Figure 2.6, fx is the frequency number, and the carrier is hopped periodically,
at an interval of T, from one frequency to the other The frequency hopping
technique provides extra benefits to systems in terms of immunisation from
interference and tackling multipath problems.
Advantages of frequency hopping systems in an interference environment

If there is a narrowband interference source, only those bursts whose carriers
coincides with the interference source will be corrupted, while other bursts will
not be affected at all. On the other hand, other narrowband receivers will only be
affected by the bursts of the frequency hopping systems occupying their same
bandwidth. Therefore, interference will not occur all the time in frequency
hopping systems.
One might ask, ‘What will happen if two or more frequency hopping systems are
working on the same band within the same coverage?’ The possibility of
interference on other systems will be reduced since interference will occur only
when bursts of two or more systems coincide in the same carrier.
Advantages of frequency hopping systems in a multipath environment

In any terrestrial communication, the transmitted signal experiences reflection and
refraction by various smooth and rough terrain, replicating the transmitted signal
at the receiver with several time delays and random phases. Some frequencies
might become heavily attenuated due to the destructive combination of signals
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coming from different paths. On the other hand, some frequencies might be
constructively combined at the receiver end, thereby reinforcing the received
power.
In frequency hopping systems, only some bursts suffer from fading, while other
would be received perfectly. Those that anticipate interference, which contribute
only a small percentage of the transmission, can be recovered either by
retransmissions or forward error coding.
IEEE 802.11 FHSS channel assignment

As mentioned in the previous paragraphs, there are two bit rates in the IEEE
802.11 FHSS physical layer, namely 1 Mbps and 2 Mbps. Both of them operate at
around 2.4 GHz. In both cases, symbol rates are at 1 Msymbols/s. The carrier
frequency can be calculated from the channel number using the following
formula:
f n  2400  n MHz
where n is the channel number, ranging from 2 to 95.
Due to different telecommunication regulations in different geographical areas,

different channel ranges of IEEE 802.11 FHSS have been assigned.
Table 2.3 summarises the IEEE 802.11 FHSS channel assignments in different
regions around the world.
Table 2.3 Channel assignment of IEEE 802.11 FHSS in different regions
Region Channel range Spectrum

North America, Europe, 2–80 2.402–2.480 GHz
Hong Kong
France 48–82 2.448–2.482 GHz
Spain 47–73 2.447–2.473 GHz
Japan 73–95 2.473–2.495 GHz
How is the frequency hopping sequence formed? Depending on the geographical

location, a different base-hopping sequence, b(i) , is adopted. Base-hopping
sequences in accordance with IEEE 802.11 for North America and Europe are
shown in Table 2.4.

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Table 2.4 Base-hopping sequences for North America and Europe
0 23 62 8 43 16 71 47 19 61 76 29 59 22 52 63
26 77 31 2 18 11 36 72 54 69 21 3 37 10 34 66
7 68 75 4 60 27 12 25 14 57 41 74 32 70 9 58
78 45 20 73 64 39 13 33 65 50 56 42 48 15 5 17
6 67 49 40 1 28 55 35 53 24 44 51 38 30 46
Using this base-hopping sequence, the exact channel number pattern for
frequency hopping for North America and Europe can be determined using the
following equation:
f x (i )  b(i )  x  mod(79)  2 (7.1)
where, x is the offset; and mod ( ) is the function of modulus (for example,
78 mod (79) = 78 and 80 mod (79) = 1). For North America and Europe, this
offset is divided into three sets, as indicated in Table 2.5.
Table 2.5 Assignment of frequency hopping sequences
In each of these three sets, there are a total number of 26 patterns. It has been
calculated that within each set, long periods of collisions of bursts as a result of
frequency hopping can be avoided. It should be noted that different regions in the
world have different channel numbers and base-hopping sequence relationships.
Here are some examples of these differences.

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Japan
f x (i )   (i  1)  x  mod(23)  73 (7.2)
Spain
f x (i )  b(i )  x  mod(27)  47 (7.3)
France
f x (i )  b(i )  x  mod(35)  48 (7.4)
Similarly the base-hopping sequences and the offsets for assigning frequency
sequences are different. Table 2.19 to Table 2.23 (in Appendix A) indicate
difference sequences for base-hopping in the countries mentioned above.
SELF-CHECK 2.3
Assuming that the geographical region is France and the offset of

parameter x, as explained in this section, is 31, calculate the frequency
channel numbers of the first five hopping frequencies using Equation
7.4 and Table 2.20 in Appendix A.
Some final details of IEEE 802.11 physical layer FHSS

IEEE 802.11 physical layer FHSS makes use of the Gaussian frequency shift
keying (GFSK) modulation. 2-level GFSK is adopted for the 1 Mbps data rate,
while 4-level GFSK for the 2 Mbps data rate.
In any system that employs 2-level GFSK, the following rules of transmission are
applied:
• 1-symbol be transmitted as ft = fc + f
• 0-symbol be transmitted as ft = fc – f
where ft is the transmit frequency, fc is the center frequency of the hopping

frequency (as calculated in Self-test 2.3) and f is the frequency deviation.
Similarly, in any system that employs 4-level GFSK, there are rules of
transmission to be complied with. The rules applied are:
• 00-symbol be transmitted as ft = fc – ¾ f

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• 01-symbol be transmitted as ft = fc – ½ f
• 11-symbol be transmitted as ft = fc + ¾ f
• 10-symbol be transmitted as ft = fc + ½ f
In the IEEE 802.11 specification, f at 2-level GFSK is 160 kHz which is the
nominal frequency deviation, while f at 4-level GFSK is 288 kHz and the
nominal frequency deviation is 216 kHz.
The maximum dwell time (i.e. the time for a center frequency to hop from one to
another) is defined by the regional telecommunication authority. In North
America, the maximum dwell time is 0.4 seconds. However, the minimum dwell
time, irrespective of the region, is 2 ms, i.e. 500 hops per second. This figure is set
for the sake of transmission efficiency.
The following related IEEE 802.11 physical specifications of FHSS are worth
noting:
• the accuracy of the transmit center frequency is ±60 kHz;
• the maximum time to switch from on to off or vice versa is 8 s;
• the time to switch from transmit to received is 19 s; and
• the reference receiver sensitivity is -80 dBm (for 1 Mbps) or -75 dBm (for
2 Mbps).
Now let us move on to the second type of IEEE 802.11 physical layer definition
— direct sequence spread spectrum.
Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)

What are direct sequence techniques? In direct sequence systems, the modulation
rate is increased by combining the bit sequence (i.e. the information to be sent)
with a higher rate binary sequence so that a new sequence results and the
spectrum is spread. The new sequence is then modulated by the carrier frequency
and transmitted to the wireless medium. The binary sequence is usually called a
chip sequence.
Although the concept of direct sequence systems is pretty straight forward, there
are some practical considerations that you should not overlook. These
considerations include:

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• selection of the type of chip sequence;
• methods for ‘combining’ the bit sequence and the chip sequence;
• selection of the kind of modulation (and of course demodulation as well);
• synchronisation aspects at the receiver; and
• error recovery at the receiver.
Advantages of direct sequence systems

There are several advantages of direct sequence systems. These advantages can be
expressed in terms of the benefits they bring in the areas of interference, privacy
and noise rejection. These are summarised in Table 2.6.
Table 2.6 Advantages of direct sequence systems
Criteria Advantage
Interference Since a direct sequence system employs a spread spectrum, its power
spectral density will be decreased. This lowers the chance of
interfering with other systems within the same band. Furthermore,
direct sequence systems that employ uncorrelated chip sequences can
share the same spectrum without interfering with each other provided
that they use an uncorrelated chip sequence.
Privacy One of the key characteristics of direct sequence is the chip sequence
that is used to ‘combine’ with the bit sequence at the transmitter. The
receiver must know this chip sequence in order to retrieve the bit
sequence being sent. This adds privacy in communication if the chip
sequence is kept between the transmitting party and the receiving
party. However it should be noted that in the IEEE 802.11 standard, the
chip sequence is public and is in fact the same for all users.
Noise At the receiver, the incoming signal bandwidth will be reduced after
rejection the bit sequence is restored, and this reduced signal bandwidth can be
filtered out. All the components, including noise and interference that
are outside the band, will be filtered out as well. This means that direct
sequence systems possess a certain level of noise rejection and
immunity to interference.

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Chip sequences in direct sequence systems

As we’ve just noted, one of the practical considerations for implementing direct
sequence systems is the selection of the type of chip sequence. A chip sequence
can be generally considered as a chain of codes.
Codes are usually periodic. The length of their period, however, can vary from a
few symbols time to thousands of symbols time. The advantage of having a short
code period is that it helps the receiver in synchronisation, while the advantage of
having a long code period is that it guarantees privacy in communication. Despite
this variation in the length of their period, any type of code in direct sequence
systems possesses the following two characteristics:
• Balanced code. This means the codes will have almost the same number of 0s
and 1s (which is called ‘balanced code’). This has the advantage of avoiding
any DC component in electronic circuits.
• The chip rate is always a multiple of a bit rate. This implies that the two
sequences are always synchronised. This helps reduce high-frequency energy
at the transmitter due to a mismatch of transitions of the two sequences.
Codes can be categorised into three types, orthogonal, quasi-orthogonal and

uncorrelated. Table 2.7 summarises the characteristics of these code types and
examples of applications of them are given.

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Table 2.7 Summary of characteristics of different code types
Example of
Type Characteristics
application
Orthogonal When correlated with other orthogonal codes, Central node to
the result is exactly zero only when they have remote receivers
the same time reference. Walsh sequence in
Even a very small level of uncorrelated codes the IS-95 system
will result in an uncontrolled level of
interference.
(This implies the systems must be perfectly
synchronised among all users.)
Quasi- When correlated with other quasi-orthogonal Subsets of Gold
orthogonal codes in phase, a very small level of codes in CDMA
correlation, usually known as residue, results. satellite
Code can withstand some degree of communication
displacement with no significant degradation in
mutual interference.
(Usually employed in synchronised systems.)
Uncorrelated When correlated with other uncorrelated codes Gold codes
in time, it results in a low level of correlation in
time displacements
(Usually used in systems when there is no time
synchronisation.)
It should be noted that the first two types of codes are usually short codes, while
the last one is a long code. A long code helps to reduce the level of correlation
since it increases the possibility of and time between interference peaks. These
codes are usually generated from pseudorandom generators, which can be
implemented with a displacement of registers and with some linear feedback.
IEEE 802.11 DSSS channel assignment

Like FHSS, DSSS supports two modes of transmission, namely 1 Mbps and
2 Mbps, with transmission frequencies between 2.4 GHz and 2.5 GHz. The IEEE
802.11 DSSS can operate up to 14 channels of different frequencies, each 22 MHz
wide.
Table 2.8 illustrates the channel assignment of IEEE 802.11 DSSS in different
regions.

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Table 2.8 Channel assignment of IEEE 802.11 DSSS at different regions
Channel Center North Europe France Spain Japan

ID frequency America
1 2.412GHz  
2 2.417GHz  
3 2.422GHz  
4 2.427GHZ  
5 2.432GHz  
6 2.437GHz  
7 2.442GHz  
8 2.447GHz  
9 2.452GHz  
10 2.457GHz    
11 2.462GHz    
12 2.467GHz  
13 2.472GHz  
14 2.484GHz 
Note: In Hong Kong, the Office of the Telecommunications Authority (OFTA) does not specify
the number of channels that can be used. It only specifies that the performance of radio
communication apparatus operating at band 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz band shall meet ETSI and FCC
(USA) specifications.
Using the information from Table 2.8, we can reduce that the maximum number
of channels that can be held within the band without overlapping is three. Figure
2.7 shows how channels 1, 6 and 11 result in non-overlapping channels.

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Figure 2.7 Illustration of the non-overlapping channels concept in IEEE 802.11 DSSS
(not all the channels are shown in the figure)
It should be noted that the band interval for non-overlapping channels is at least
3 MHz.
SELF-CHECK 2.4
We’ve seen that in order to achieve non-overlapping channels in the

IEEE 802.11 DSSS standard, the band interval between two adjacent
channels must be 3 MHz. Illustrate in a diagram how this 3 MHz band
interval can be reduced.
In North America, the band interval of two non-overlapping channels is at least

3 MHz. This makes the band interval between two adjacent channels 25 MHz. In
Europe, a wider non-overlapping channel band interval of 8 MHz is adopted. This
makes the band interval between two adjacent channels 30 MHz.
In both modes of transmission, the symbol rate is 1 Msymbols/s. For 1 Mbps

transmission, binary phase shift keying (BPSK) modulation is employed, while
for 2 Mbps transmission, quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) modulation is
adopted. The chip sequence is run at 11 Mchips/s. The pseudo-random (PN) code,
usually known as ‘spreading sequence’, used in IEEE 802.11 DSSS is the 11-chip
Barker sequence:
+1, -1, +1, +1, -1, +1, +1, +1, -1, -1, -1

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For systems that employ BPSK to achieve 1 Mbps transmission, the following
rules of transmission are applied:
• 1-symbol is transmitted with phase change = 0

• 0-symbol is transmitted with phase change = 
Similarly, in any system that employs QPSK to achieve 2 Mbps transmission,

there are rules of transmission to be complied with. The rules are:
• 00-symbol is transmitted with phase change = 0

• 01-symbol is transmitted with phase change = /2
• 11-symbol is transmitted with phase change = 
• 10-symbol is transmitted with phase change = -/2
The transmit power of IEEE 802.11 DSSS varies from region to region as shown
in Table 2.9.
Table 2.9 Transmit power level of DSSS in IEEE 802.11b
Source: IEEE, ‘Part 11’ in Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical
Layer (PHY) Specifications — Higher-Speed Physical Layer Extension in 2.4GHz band,
IEEE 802.11b, 1999 edn, IEEE, Table 115, p. 52.
Note: In addition, power control is a mandatory requirement under the IEEE 802.11 DSSS
standard if the maximum power is greater than 100 mW.
The third type of IEEE 802.11 physical layer definition is infra-red (IR).
Infra-red (IR)
Infra-red transmission is a good candidate for sending and receiving information
in a closed area where there is line-of-site (LOS) between transmitter and
receiver, e.g. when the transmission is confined to a meeting room or a classroom.

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There is no regulation governing IR frequency allocation for transmission since

the transmission is so confined. However, there are regulations that govern power
emission of IR in order to protect the human eye.
Although IR is a quite common standard for short-range data transmission, there

is currently no commercial WLAN product available in the market that is based
on the IEEE 802.11 physical layer IR definition.
As for FHSS and DSSS, IR supports two modes of transmission at 1 Mbps and
2 Mbps respectively. The modulation technique that it employs is pulse position
modulation (PPM). For a data rate at 1 Mbps, 4-PPM is employed; while for a
data rate at 2 Mbps, 16-PPM is adopted.
IEEE 802.11b physical layer — HR-DSSS

We have discussed the IEEE 802.11 physical layer DSSS and understand that the
maximum data rate it can support is 2 Mbps. An extension of the IEEE 802.11
DSSS standard was introduced in September 1999, namely the IEEE 802.11 high
data rate direct sequence spread spectrum (HR-DSSS), widely adopted as IEEE
802.11b. The key features of IEEE 802.11b are that:
• it operates at a band around 2.4 GHz (the same as IEEE 802.11 DSS);
• it adds in two more data rates, one at 5.5 Mbps and another 11 Mbps;
• it is interoperable with the IEEE 802.11 DSSS standard; and
• it introduces complementary code keying (CCK).
The Baker sequence is still employed in the 1 Mbps and 2 Mbps data rates, while
the CCK helps to provide the spreading sequences for the 5.5 Mbps and 11 Mbps
data rates.
IEEE 802.11a physical layer — OFDM

The demand for even higher data rates for the IEEE 802.11 standard can be met
with the introduction of IEEE 802.11 orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
(OFDM). This standard can deliver data rates up to 54 Mbps in the 5 GHz band.
The IEEE 802.11 OFDM is commonly referred to as the IEEE 802.11a standard.
There are three operating frequency bands employed by IEEE 802.11a, namely:
• U-NII lower band: 5.15 GHz to 5.25 GHz;

• U-NII middle band: 5.25 GHz to 5.35 GHz; and

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• U-NII upper band: 5.725 GHz to 5.825 GHz.
U-NII stands for ‘unlicensed national information structure’. Each of the bands
has a bandwidth of 100 MHz and each has four 20 MHz channels. It should be
noted that each of these bands has different output power limits. Table 2.10
summarises these limits.
Table 2.10 IEEE 802.11 OFDM channels with output power limits
Frequency Channel Center Maximum output

band numbers frequency power
5.15 GHz to 36,40,44,48 5.18GHz, 40mW
5.25 GHz 5.2GHz,
5.22GHz,
5.24GHz
5.25 GHz to 52,56,60,64 5.26GHz, 200mW
5.35 GHz 5.28GHz,
5.3GHz,
5.32GHz
5.725 GHz to 149,153,157,161 5.745GHz, 800mW
5.825 GHz 5.765GHz,
5.785GHz,
5.805GHz
For the modulation of IEEE 802.11a, a combination of BPSK, QPSK and QAM
are employed, depending on the data rates. Table 2.11 is a summary of these. We
will not investigate each of these individually.
Table 2.11 IEEE 802.11 OFDM modulation techniques with respect to data rates
Data rate Modulation Coding Coded Code bits Data bits

rate bits per per per OFDM
sub- OFDM symbol
carrier symbol
6Mbps BPSK 1/2 1 48 24
9Mbps BPSK 3/4 1 48 36
12Mbps QPSK 1/2 2 96 48
18Mbps QPSK 3/4 2 96 72

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24Mbps 16-QAM 1/2 4 192 96

36Mbps 16-QAM 3/4 4 192 144
48Mbps 64-QAM 2/3 6 288 192
54Mbps 64-QAM 3/4 6 288 216
IEEE 802.11 medium access control (MAC) sublayer

In this section, we discuss the operations of the IEEE 802.11 MAC sublayer, its
frame structure, and its frame types.
The medium access control (MAC) is a sublayer of the data link layer in a
WLAN. Its function is to employ the same transmission medium irrespective of
the kind of wireless media that is used. In other words, the MAC layer is designed
to be independent from the type of physical layer, whether IEEE 802.11-DSSS,
IEEE 802.11-FHSS, IEEE 802.11a, etc. The main functions of the MAC layer
include:
• accessing the wireless medium and joining a network; and

• providing authentication and privacy.
Accessing the wireless medium and joining a network

IEEE 802.11 is built from the fundamental blocks of the basic service set (BSS).
The BSS is a group of stations that are under the control of a single coordination
function in the MAC sublayer. This coordination function can either be a
distributed coordination function (DCF) or a point coordination function (PCF). A
WLAN can be either an ad hoc network or an infrastructure network. An ad hoc
network is formed by a group of stations without any infrastructure network
element, such as an access point (AP). This ad hoc network is sometimes known
as an independent basic service set (IBSS). Figure 2.8 illustrates a typical ad hoc
network.

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Figure 2.8 An ad hoc network
Ad hoc networks have the following characteristics:
• They do not need any AP in the BSS.
• They do not support much mobility (simply because of their primitive

architecture and functionality).
• They support data transfer within the same WLAN (there is no connectivity or
capability to link up to other WLANs).
Infrastructure networks are more sophisticated architectures that allow special

services, such as Internet services, and range extension. Range extension is
achieved via access points which allow connections between different BSSs
through distribution systems, as shown in Figure 2.9. These range extensions form
a bigger system.
Figure 2.9 An infrastructure network

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The distribution system can be regarded as the backbone network or the transport
medium that carries the MAC service data units (MSDU). According to IEEE
802.11 specifications, this distribution system is implementation independent, i.e.
it can be of a wireless medium, as any one of the above discussed IEEE 802.11
physical layer alternatives, or it can be of a wired medium such as IEEE 802.3
Ethernet LAN or IEEE 802.5 Token Ring.
Before transmitting a frame, the MAC coordination must obtain the access grant
of the network by one of the following modes:
• distributed coordination function (DCF); or

• point coordination function (PCF).
In addition to the above coordination functions in the MAC sublayer that relate to
channel access, a fragmentation/defragmentation process is also implemented in
the MAC sublayer in order to divide a long message into smaller units to increase
the reliability of transmission.
The MAC architecture for these coordination functions is illustrated in Figure

2.10.
Required for contention -

free services
Point Used for contention

coordination services and basis for PCF
function (PCF)
MAC
extent
Distributed
coordination function
(DCF)
Figure 2.10 MAC architecture of coordination functions

Source: IEEE (1999) IEEE 802.11, 1999 edn, Figure 47, p. 70.
Distributed coordination function (DCF)
The DCF is a mandatory access method for transferring asynchronous data to best
effect in IEEE 802.11. The DCF operates exclusively in ad hoc networks but can
coexist with the point coordination function (PCF) in infrastructure networks. The
operation of the DCF is based on the carrier-sense multiple access with collision
avoidance (CSMA/CA) algorithm. This CSMA/CA algorithm avoids the

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probability of collision between multiple stations sharing a medium by

introducing a random backoff time if the medium is busy.
Physical and virtual carrier sense mechanisms are used for the MAC coordination
function to determine the state of the medium.
The virtual carrier sense function is carried out by the MAC sublayer. There are
two means of distributing reservation information, namely:
• the exchange of RTS (request-to-send) and CTS (clear-to-send) prior to the

actual data frame; and
• the Duration/ID field in directed frames. This field reserves the period of time
of the medium, either to the end of the next ACK frame or, in the case of a
fragment sequence, to the end of the ACK frame following the next fragment.
The procedure for performing the CSMA/CA algorithm of the MAC coordination
function is as follows:
• The reservation duration information in the Duration/ID field in all frames

restricts a station’s access to the medium. The MAC coordination monitors
this information in all frames and updates this information into a station’s
network allocation vector (NAV) if the updated information is greater than the
current NAV value in the station. The NAV value is used to set up a timer and
this timer counts down until zero. If the NAV is equal to zero, it means that
the reservation period has ended and the station can transmit its frame,
provided that the coordination function of the physical layer also indicates a
clear channel.
• The MAC coordination function performs a backoff algorithm if the physical

carrier sense mechanism indicates a busy channel.
• The CSMA/CA algorithm reduces the probability of collision among stations

which share the medium.
The CMSA/CA algorithm is illustrated in the flowchart in Figure 2.11.

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Start (Frame needing transmission)
No
NAV = 0
?
Yes
Sense the medium

(perform physical
channel assessment
No Random
Medium Backoff
idle ? Time
Yes
Transmit
Frame
Yes
Collision?
No
Frame Transmission
Successful
Figure 2.11 Flowchart of CSMA/AC algorithm in DCF

Source: Geier, J (2002) Wireless LANs Implementing High Performance IEEE 802.11
Networks, Figure 4.1, p. 96, SAMS.
Error recovery mechanisms

Although the MAC coordination function performs the CSMA/CA algorithm,
corruption of information still exists due to information collision and radio
interference. An example of the ‘hidden station’ problem is illustrated in Figure
2.12.

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Radio cell of Radio cell of Radio cell of Radio cell of

Station 3 Station 2 Station 1 Station 4
Station 3 Station 2 Station 1 Station 4
Figure 2.12 Transmission impairment caused by the hidden station
In Figure 2.12, if Station 2 sends information to Station 1, the medium appears to

be free with respect to Station 1. Meanwhile, Station 4 also sends a message to
Station 1. There may be data corruption at Station 1 due to collision. The ‘hidden
station’ in this example results because Station 2 and Station 4 do not have any
direct radio contact and they do not know of each other’s existence, but the radio
coverage of Station 1 covers Station 2 and Station 4. The DCF with the RTS
(request-to-send) and CTS (clear-to-send) mechanism can resolve this hidden
station problem.
The procedure for the DCF to solve the hidden station problem is summarised
below:
• The sender station (i.e. Station 1) sends the RTS frame, which is addressed to
Station 2, to all stations within its coverage (i.e. Stations 2 and 4).
• Only the addressed station (Station 2) responds with a CTS frame to the sender
station. The other station (Station 4) receives the RTS frame and goes into
‘stay quiet’ mode until a time specified in the RTS frame.
• After sending a CTS frame, the addressed station starts communication with
the sender station, while the other stations within the coverage of the sender
station remain in a ‘stay quiet’ mode.
The above DCF with the RTS and CTS mechanism is an optional feature in the
IEEE 802.11 standard. Details of the RTS and CTS mechanism are discussed in
Appendix B.

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An error recovery mechanism has to be implemented in IEEE 802.11 in order to

recover data lost due to transmission impairment. This recovery mechanism is
generally the retransmission of a frame if there is no response from the destination
station. This process is called automatic repeat-request (ARQ).
Point coordination function (PCF)

The PCF is an optional coordination function in IEEE 802.11. It is used to provide
a contention-free transfer for time crucial services. The PCF relies on the point
coordinator (PC) for polling and it enables the polled station to transmit without
competing with other stations to access the medium. The access point (AP) of the
wireless LAN network acts as the PC for this function. The PC senses the medium
is idle after a specific interval, it then sends a beacon frame which contains the
parameters for a contention-free (CF) period. This beacon frame defines the
length of this period and all stations are prevented from taking control of the
medium during this period of time.
After sending the beacon frame, the PC transmits one of the following frames:
• A data frame, which is transmitted from the PC to an addressed station. If the

PC does not receive any acknowledgement (e.g. ACK frame), it will
retransmit this frame.
• A CF poll frame, which permits an addressed station to transmit a single frame

to any destination.
• A data + CF poll frame, which is a combined frame that can increase the
efficiency of the system.
• A CF end frame, which is used to end the CF period.
The details of how the PCF sets up a CF period are discussed in Appendix C.

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SELF-CHECK 2.5
Compare the DCF and the PCF by completing the following table.
DCF PCF
Type of network
Contention method
Data type
Authentication and privacy

Authentication and privacy are vital to wireless LAN security. The process of
authentication allows authorised stations to join into the network, while privacy
protects information transmitted over the wireless medium from being disclosed
to eavesdroppers. Let’s first consider authentication. The IEEE802.11
specification adopts two methods for authentication: open system authentication
and shared key authentication.
Open system authentication is the simplest (and the default) authentication

algorithm in IEEE 802.11. It is actually a null algorithm on authentication. In
other words, any station employing open system authentication that requests
authentication from an AP will be authenticated to allow access to the network, as
illustrated in Figure 2.13.

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Initiating Authenticating
station station / AP
First authentication frame
Content of this frame :
Type : Management
Subtype : Authentication
Information items :
Authentication algorithm identification = open system
Station identity assertion (in SA field)
Authentication transaction sequence number =1
Authentication algorithm dependent information (none)
Final authentication frame

Type : Management
Information items :
Authentication algorithm identification = open system
Result of requested authentication (e.g. successful, reasons
for rejection of authentication etc.)
Figure 2.13 The open system authentication
Shared key authentication is an optional algorithm in a station in IEEE 802.11.

The station must be implemented with the wired equivalent privacy (WEP)
algorithm because this share key authentication uses WEP to encrypt the message.
Therefore, both the requesting station and responding station/AP have the shared
key in order to encrypt and decrypt the message, as illustrated in Figure 2.14.
The shared key authentication process is as follows:
• The requesting station sends out a management frame for authentication to the
responding station or AP and indicates that it uses a ‘shared key’ for
authentication.
• The responding station or AP returns a 128 octets challenge text to the

requesting station, and this challenge text is generated by the WEP pseudo-
random number generator.
• The requesting station copies the challenge text from the second frame into a
third frame. The whole of the third frame is encrypted by the WEP with the
shared key for transmission.
• The responding station decrypts the challenge text by the WEP algorithm with
the shared key. If the decrypted challenge text is the same as the challenge text
sent earlier, the responding station replies with a successful authentication.
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Requesting Responding
station station / AP
First authentication frame
Type : Management
Information items :
Authentication algorithm identification = shared key
Station identity assertion (in SA field)

Type : Management
Information items :
Authentication algorithm dependent information = challenge text
Result of requested authentication (e.g. successful, reasons for rejection
of authentication etc.)

Type : Management
Information items :
Authentication algorithm dependent information = encrypted challenge text
Final authentication frame

Type : Management
Information items :
Authentication algorithm dependent information = result of requested
authentication (e.g. successful or unsuccessful)
Figure 2.14 Shared key authentication

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Privacy transmission
To prevent eavesdropping over the wireless medium, IEEE 802.11 specifies the
WEP encryption algorithm, which intends to provide the same amount of security
as wired transmission. WEP is a symmetric algorithm, which means that it uses
the same secret key for encryption and decryption. The process of WEP
encryption and decryption is illustrated in Figure 2.15.
Initialization IV
vector (IV) Seed WEP Key sequence
Secret key PRNG Ciphertext
Plaintext
Integrity algorithm
Integrity check value (ICV) Message

WEP encryption process
Secret key Key

Seed WEP sequence Plaintext
IV PRNG
ICV
Integrity algorithm
Ciphertext ICV = ICV7
ICV
Message
WEP decryption process
Figure 2.15 Processes of wired equivalent privacy

Source: IEEE, IEEE Std 802.11, 1999 edn, Figures 44–45, pp. 63–64.
The encryption process by WEP for plaintext is as follows:
• The secret key is joined sequentially with an initialisation vector (IV) to

provide a seek. The IV extends the lifetime of the secret key because the IV
can be changed periodically without changing the secret key. In addition, the
IV is transmitted with the ciphered message over the wireless medium so that
the other station can obtain it to decipher the message and obtain the plaintext.
• The seek is used as an input of the WEP pseudo-random number generator

(WEP PRNG) to provide a key sequence.
• The WEP algorithm is described in the RC4 algorithm from RSA Data
Security, Inc.

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• Plaintext goes into the integrity algorithm and this algorithm generates a 4-
octets integrity check value (ICV) which is used to protect against
unauthorised modification.
• The plaintext is concatenated with the ICV. If the number of octets of the
plaintext is n, the number of octets of resulting message with ICV will be n +
4. Therefore the key sequence is equal to the plaintext and ICV in order to
carry out a bit-wise XOR function.
• The output of this process is a message containing the IV and the ciphered
text. Only the plaintext and the ICV will be encrypted.
The process of decryption is the reversed process of encryption with the same
secret key but the decryption process has to compare the ICV values, which are
generated in the decryption process and decrypted from the information. If the
values are different, this means that the received data is in error.
SELF-CHECK 2.6
1 What is the main function of authentication and encryption?

2 How do the methods for authentication in IEEE 802.11 differ?
3 What encryption method is employed for IEEE 802.11, and what
is the function of the initialisation vector?
MAC frame structure

There are three major types of MAC frames. They are the:
• Management frame: A management frame is used to establish initial

communications between stations and access points.
• Control frame: A control frame is used to deliver control messages. It does not
have a frame body, which is used to carry data information.
• Data frame: A data frame is used to carry data information.
Details of the above MAC frame structure will not be discussed here.
IEEE 802.11 is not the only standard available in the market to provide wireless
communication services supporting voice, video and data transmission. On the
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other side of the globe, a European counterpart of the IEEE 802.11 standard
supports wireless communication services of a similar kind. In the following
section, the European wireless communication standard HIPERLAN will be
discussed.
HIPERLAN
Aware of an increasing demand for wireless voice, video and data
communications services, the European Telecommunications Standards Institute
(ETSI) created the broadband radio access network (BRAN) project to develop
the standards and specifications for these demands in the market. Consequently
HIPERLAN (high performance radio local area network) was developed.
HIPERLAN/1 was developed in 1996. It supports data rates up to 20 Mbps and

operates at the 5 GHz band. HIPERLAN/2 specifications were released in April
2000. It is a high-speed radio communication system with data rates from 6 Mbps
to 54 Mbps. It has been extended to include HIPERACCESS and HIPERLINK.
This section mainly focuses on HIPERLAN/2 because it is a more recent
standard.
HYPERLAN/2
There are two frequency bands assigned for HIPERLAN/2, namely the lower
frequency band from 5.150 GHz to 5.350 GHz and the upper frequency band from
5.47 GHz to 5.725 GHz. If we look at the bands in Hong Kong, only two 5 GHz
bands are assigned for WLANs, namely the 5.150 GHz to 5.350 GHz band and
the 5.725 GHz to 5.850 GHz band. This implies that HIPERLAN/2 will not be
officially adopted in Hong Kong.
HIPERLAN/2 is similar to IEEE 802.11a because they both employ OFDM

modulation and support up to 54 Mbps. However, the HIPERLAN/2 standard is
not as globally popular as the IEEE 802.11 standard.
HIPERLAN/2 provides a connection between portable devices and fixed access

points (AP) and has two modes of operation:
• a centralised mode; and

• a direct mode.

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Centralised mode
This mode of operation is mainly used when an area which is larger than a radio
cell has to be covered. When HIPERLAN/2 is operating in a centralised mode, an
AP is connected to a core network, e.g. an ATM, IP or cellular network. All the
traffic from mobile terminals (MTs) has to pass the AP or central controller (CC),
either between the MTs within the AP, or between the MT and others MT
anywhere within the network.
Direct mode
The direct mode is for ad-hoc networking and is mainly used in private home
environments, where a radio cell covers the whole serving area. All data
exchanges between the MT within the same AP or CC do not pass the CC and AP
but are under the control of the CC or AP.
In addition, HIPERACCESS has been introduced into HIPERLAN/2. It is a

specification of fixed radio access for wide area networks. Its data rate is
25 Mbps. This fixed radio access method enables service operators to provide
broadband multimedia services to customers premises. HIPERLINK is a
specification for a static interconnection up to 155 Mbps which is used for the
interconnection of HIPERACCESS networks and/or HIPERLAN/2.
HIPERLAN/2 protocol structure

The basic protocol stack of HIPERLAN/2 is shown in Figure 2.16.

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Figure 2.16 HIPERLAN/2 protocol structure

Source: ETSI, ESTI TS 101761-2 v1.3.1 (2002-01), Figure 1, p. 14.
The basic protocol stack consists of the:
• physical layer;
• data link layer;
• convergence layer; and
• higher layers.
The data link layer has medium access control, a radio link control sublayer and a
data link control sublayer. The functions of the physical layer, data link layer and
convergence layer will be discussed individually.
Physical (PHY) layer

The function of the PHY layer is to map medium access control (MAC) PDUs to
physical layer PDUs. The PHY layer also introduces signaling information, such
as headers for RF signal synchronisation, and error collection information in the
PDUs. The information is modulated using the OFDM method and transmitted at
5 GHz. The transmitting function configuration of the PHY layer of
HIPERLAN/2 is illustrated in Figure 2.17.

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Figure 2.17 Physical layer functional configuration

Source: ETSI, ESTI TR 101683 v1.1.1 (2000-02), Figure 4, p. 12.
The data rates of HIPERLAN/2 range from 6 Mbps to 54 Mbps and these data
rates are varied by applying different puncturing patterns to the mother
convolution codes in the forward error correction (FEC) coding functional block
and by applying different modulation methods (e.g. BPSK and 64QAM). Table
2.12 lists HIPERLAN/2’s modulation schemes.
Table 2.12 Modulation schemes of HIPERLAN/2
Source: ETSI, ESTI TS 101475 v1.3.1 (2001-12), Table 1, p. 11.
Wireless personal area networks

(WPANs)
This section of the unit discusses WPANs. Specifically, we explore the
architecture, radio specifications and baseband specifications of Bluetooth in
detail. Before discussing Bluetooth, we begin this section by giving you some
background information on how WPANs evolved.
The evolution of WPANs

In April 2002, the IEEE approved a standard for wireless personal area networks
(WPANs). This standard is IEEE 802.15.1, which was derived from the Bluetooth
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v1.1 specification. The standard defines information of lower layers of Bluetooth,

or precisely the MAC layer and PHY layer, for wireless connectivity with fixed,
portable, and moving devices within or entering a personal operating space (POS).
A POS is measured from a person or object and typically extends up to 10 m in all
directions and envelops the person.
Personal electronic devices such as cellular phones and personal digital assistants
(PDAs) have become more popular, more intelligent and interactive. Their data
capabilities have also been enhanced: they can connect with other devices and
they can support various types of information. For example, many PDA devices
process personal calendars and to-do lists and can synchronise these capabilities
with databases in personal computers.
However, there has been one common difficulty when using these personal
electronic devices. Propriety special-purpose cables have long been used to
interconnect personal devices. As a result a person who uses several personal
devices has needed several different types of cables, e.g. a cable for the headset
and mobile phone, a cable for connecting the PDA and computer. People have
found it frustrating to manipulate all these cables, and if an old model of cable is
lost or damaged, it is usually quite difficult to obtain a replacement. This
frustration with cables has been the main driving force for developing wireless
connectivity solutions for interconnecting personal devices.
In 1994, Ericsson Mobile Communications Division carried out studies with the
aim of finding out what could be used to replace cable connections between
mobile phones and their various peripheral devices. Five companies, IBM,
Toshiba, Intel, Ericsson and Nokia, founded the Bluetooth Special Interest Group
(BSIC) in 1998 with the aim of creating a non-proprietary standard for personal
area networks (PANs). In the rest of this section, we will look at Bluetooth.
What is Bluetooth?
The first 1.0 draft version of the Bluetooth standard was finalised in July 1999 and
was revised to 1.0b in December 1999. The latest version is 1.1. Details of version
1.1 are available from http://www.bluetooth.org/.
The Bluetooth standard positions itself at the PAN level. Compared with WLANs
and HIPERLANs, Bluetooth is more handy and portable.
The Bluetooth standard focuses on the following three applications:
• replacing cables for interconnection between devices;

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• data and voice access points; and

• personal ad hoc networks.
A computer is not always necessary for the above Bluetooth applications. Very
often a cheap and simple device (such as a mobile phone and its headset) with a
wireless connection can be used for such applications. The Bluetooth chip is also
very inexpensive.
Bluetooth structure and elements

Figure 2.18 shows the protocol specification of Bluetooth version 1.1.
vCard/vCal WAE
OBEX WAP
AT-
TCS BIN SDP
Commands
UDP TCP
IP
PPP
RFCOMM
Audio
1.2CAP
Host controller interface

LMP
Baseband
Bluetooth radio
Figure 2.18 Bluetooth protocol structure

Source: Bluetooth SIG, Bluetooth Protocol Architecture Version 1.1, Figure 1, p. 4.
From Figure 2.18, we can see that different applications run on different protocols
stacks, while all the applications run on the same physical and data link layers.
The protocols can be classified as:
• Bluetooth core protocols;

• Cable replacement protocol;
• Telephone control protocols; and
• Adopted protocols.

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Let’s look at each of these protocols one at a time.
Bluetooth core protocols

Table 2.13 outlines the Bluetooth core protocols.
Table 2.13 Bluetooth core protocols
Bluetooth core Function

protocols
Service discovery Provides a means for applications to discover which services
protocol (SDP) are available and to determine the characteristics of those
available services.
Baseband Is the physical layer of the Bluetooth protocol stack and the
hardware that performs conversion of digital and voice data
into the format for transmission as a radio signal and vice
versa. It also acts as a radio link controller over the
Bluetooth radio layer; manages asynchronous and
synchronous links and their data packets; controls paging
and inquiry to access other Bluetooth-enabled devices;
handles error corrections; designates hop selection; and
implements security in lower layers.
Link manager Responsible for setting up the link between Bluetooth
protocol (LMP) devices. Its functions include an authentication and
encryption procedure, by generating, exchanging and
checking link and encryption keys. It also controls and
negotiates the baseband packet sizes.
Logical link Adapts upper layer protocols over the baseband. It works in
control and parallel with LMP but provides services to the upper layer
adaptation when the payload data is never sent at LMP messages.
protocol (L2CAP) L2CAP provides connection-oriented and connectionless
data services to the upper layer protocols with protocol
multiplexing capability, segmentation and reassembly
operation, and group abstractions. It also permits higher-
level protocols and applications to transmit and receive
L2CAP data packets up to 64 kilobytes in length.

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Cable replacement protocol

The cable replacement protocol includes RFCOMM, which is a serial link (RS-
232) emulation protocol and is based on ETSI 07.10 specifications. It emulates
RS-232 control and data signals over Bluetooth baseband to provide transport
capabilities for upper level services (e.g. OBEX) that use a serial link as the
transport mechanism.
Telephone control protocols

The telephone control protocols include:
• Telephony control — binary (TCS BIN): a bit oriented protocol. This protocol
defines call control signaling for the establishment of speech and data calls
between Bluetooth devices. It also manages mobility management procedures
for handling groups of Bluetooth TCS devices.
• Telephony control — AT commands: a set of AT commands which enable a
mobile phone and modem to control multiple usage models.
Adopted protocols
The adopted protocols are described in Table 2.14.
Table 2.14 Bluetooth adopted protocols
Bluetooth adopted Function

protocols
PPP Runs over RFCOMM to provide point-to-point connections.

PPP is an adopted protocol from the Internet Engineering Task
Force (IETF).
User datagram A connectionless protocol that, like TCP, runs on top of IP

protocol (UDP) networks. Unlike TCP/IP, UDP/IP provides very few error
recovery services, offering instead a direct way to send and
receive datagrams over an IP network. It’s used primarily for
broadcasting messages over a network.
Transmission control One of the main protocols in TCP/IP networks. Whereas the IP
protocol (TCP) protocol deals only with packets, TCP enables two hosts to
establish a connection and exchange streams of data. TCP
guarantees delivery of data and guarantees that packets are
delivered in the same order in which they were sent.

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Internet protocol (IP) Specifies the format of packets, also called datagrams, and the
addressing scheme. Most networks combine IP with a higher-
level protocol called transmission control protocol (TCP), which
establishes a virtual connection between a destination and a
source.
Object exchange A session protocol in the OSI model. OBEX can be used to
(OBEX) protocol exchange all kinds of objects like files, pictures, calendar entries
(vCal) and business cards (vCard) in a simple and spontaneous
manner.
Content formats (e.g. vCard, vCal): vCard and vCal only specify
the specification formats of electronic business cards and
electronic calendaring and scheduling and these specifications
are now under the control of the Internet Mail Consortium.
Wireless application Is designed to provide Internet and Internet-like access to

protocol (WAP) devices, such as digital cellular phone and other wireless
terminals.
Content formats: Its supported content formats under Bluetooth
are WML, WML Script, WTA event, WBMP and vCard/vCal.
These are all part of the wireless application environment
(WAE).
Bluetooth architecture
A Bluetooth network adopts a master-and-slave architecture. The master device
controls traffic flow within the architecture, while the slave device simply follows
commands from the master device. The master devices in Bluetooth system can
either form a point-to-point connection or point-to-multipoint connection with its
slave devices.
In a piconet configuration, there is only one master device while there is at least one
and up to seven active slave devices. In other words, a piconet configuration adopts
both a point-to-point connection (where there is one master device and one slave
device) and a point-to-multipoint connection (where there is one master device but
more than one slave device).
A network that operates with one master device and one slave device is usually
said to be in single slave operation. On the other hand, in a network where there is
one master device and up to seven slave devices, the same physical channel in a
piconet is shared among them. If there are more than seven active devices, the
additional ones can participate passively in a ‘parked’ state.
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In a scatternet configuration, several piconets are combined or scattered. A

scatternet is formed by many piconets with overlapping coverage areas. Each
piconet can only have a single master, as shown in Figure 2.19.
Figure 2.19 (a) Piconet with a single slave operation, (b) Piconet with a multi-slave
operation, (c) Scatternet operation
Source: Bluetooth SIG (2001) Specification of the Bluetooth System, version 1.1,
Bluetooth SIG, Figure 1.2, p. 42.
Slaves in a scatternet can participate actively in different piconets on a time-

division multiplex basis. In addition, a master in one piconet can be a slave in
another piconet. Each piconet in a scatternet configuration has its own hopping
channel and these piconets are not required to be frequency synchronised.
SELF-CHECK 2.7
What are the configurations of Bluetooth? Give examples of the

applications of these configurations.
Radio specifications of Bluetooth

We now look at the transmitting frequency characteristics and modulation scheme
of Bluetooth. The Bluetooth system operates in the 2.4 GHz ISM (industrial,
scientific, medical) band, which is an unlicensed band. The USA, Hong Kong and
most countries in Europe employ the 2.4 GHz to 2.4835 GHz frequency band for
Bluetooth. However, some countries, such as France, have a limited frequency
band (2.4465 GHz to 2.4835 GHz) for Bluetooth. The frequency range is
summarised in Table 2.15.

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Table 2.15 Bluetooth operating frequency range
Geographical region Regulatory range RF channels

USA, Europe and most 2.400 GHz to f = 2402 + k MHz,
other countries 2.4835 GHz where k = 0…78
Bluetooth SIG, Table 2.1, p. 20.
A total of 79 channels are used in most countries, as shown in Table 2.15, with
channel spacing being 1 MHz. Since the ISM band encounters interference
problems, frequency hopping algorithms are implemented in the radio
transmission.
The modulation scheme of Bluetooth is Gaussian frequency shift keying (GFSK)

with BT = 0.5, where BT is the bandwidth time product. Here, bandwidth refers to
that of a Gaussian filter and time is the bit period. A GFSK modulation is very
similar to that of FSK but the pulse information, ‘0’ or ‘1’, will go into the
Gaussian filter before the FSK modulator. The advantage of the Gaussian filter is
that it makes the pulse smoother to limit its spectral width.
We now investigate formats of the physical channel, physical links, packets,

logical channels, Bluetooth audio and security.
Physical channel
The physical channel of Bluetooth is formed by a pseudorandom hopping
sequence which hops through 79 or 23 radio frequency channels. Most countries
use 79 radio frequency channels, while a few countries (e.g. France) use 23 radio
frequency channels. Each physical channel is divided into time slots where each
time slot uses an RF hop frequency to transmit. Consecutive time slots use a
different RF hop frequency to transmit. The nominal hop rate is 1600 hops/s
because the duration of each time slot is 625 s. All Bluetooth units in piconet
shall be time- and hop-synchronised to the channel.
The time division duplexing (TDD) scheme is used in the Bluetooth system for
master and slave devices to transmit their data. This TDD scheme divides the
physical channel into time slots, each 625 µs in length, as shown in Figure 2.20.

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Figure 2.20 TDD time-slot

Time slots are numbered from 0 to 227–1 with a total of 227 numbered time slots.
Time slot numbering is done in a cyclic assignment. The master device transmits
its data in even-numbered time slots while a slave device transmits in odd-
numbered time slots. The beginning of each packet of data is aligned with the start
of each time slot but the packet can be extended up to five time slots for master or
slave device data transmission. This extension is called a multi-slot packet. Figure
2.21 illustrates a master device transmitting a multi-slot packet.
Figure 2.21 Multi-slot packet

The transmitting frequency of a single-slot packet is changed or hopped according

to the hopping sequence at different time slots while the transmitting frequency of
a multi-slot packet is fixed for the whole duration of the packet.

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Physical links
As mentioned, the Bluetooth system has two architectures, namely:
• point-to-point connection for single slave piconet; and
• point-to-multipoint connection for multi-slave piconet and scatternet.
Two kinds of physical links are therefore required in order to cater to the different
requirements of these architectures. They are:
• the synchronous connection-oriented (SCO) link; and

• the asynchronous connection-less (ACL) link.
The SCO link is a symmetric, point-to-point link between the master and a
specific slave in a single-slave piconet. The master device maintains an SCO link
by reserving time slots at regular intervals and therefore an SCO link may be
considered as a circuit-switched connection between the master and the slave.
A typical application SCO link supports time-bounded information such as voice.
A master can support up to three SCO links to the same slave or to different
slaves. A slave can support up to three SCO links from the same master, or two
SCO links if the links originate from different masters. It should be noted that an
SCO link is a synchronous connection between master and slave devices;
therefore, SCO packets will never be retransmitted. This is very similar to voice
transmission in a mobile phone system. Any time slots which are not reserved for
SCO links can be used by the master device to communicate with its slave on a
per-slot basis.
The ACL link is an asynchronous link for exchanging information, which

provides packet-switch-like connection for point-to-multipoint communications in
piconet or scatternet architectures. It is obvious that this packet-switch connection
can support asynchronous applications but it can also support isochronous
(meaning of equal intervals) services, where data must be delivered within certain
time constraints, e.g. multimedia services. However, the time constraint for data
delivery of isochronous applications is between asynchronous and synchronous
applications. For most ACL packets, packet retransmission is applied to assure
data integrity.

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Packets
In order to support the SCO and ACL physical links, Bluetooth has defined three
groups of packets: control link packets, SCO packets and ACL packets. Details of
Bluetooth packet formats are beyond the scope of this course and will not be
discussed further.
Logical channels
There are five logical channels which are carried by packets:
• Link control (LC) channel: This is always carried by the packet header and
carries link control information such as flow control and payload types.
• Link manager (LM) control channel: This is carried by the payload of the ACL
link and carries control information between the link managers of the master
and the slave(s).
• User asynchronous (UA) user channel: This is carried by the payload of the
ACL link and transports L2CAP asynchronous data.
• User isochronous (UI) user channel: This is carried by the payload of the ACL
link.
• User synchronous (US) user channel: The US channel carries transparent

synchronous user data. Only this channel is carried over the SCO link.
SELF-CHECK 2.8
Illustrate the interrelationship between the logical channel, packet

format and the physical channel in a diagram.
Error correction
Three error correction schemes are used in the Bluetooth system:
• 1/3 FEC;
• 2/3 FEC; and
• ARQ scheme for data.

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The purpose of the FEC scheme on the data payload is to reduce the number of
retransmissions. If the Bluetooth system is in an error-free environment, it is not
necessary to use high redundancy correction schemes such as 1/3 FEC. Therefore,
the Bluetooth system can adopt a flexible approach to its error correction scheme
for payload, for example, the data-medium rate (DM) and data-high rate (DH)
packets in the ACL link and the high-quality voice (HV) packets in the SCO link.
FEC code: rate 1/3

This is a simple encoding scheme which is a three time repetition of the original
information of the header and HV1 packet. For example, if the information pattern
is ‘010’ its subsequent pattern is ‘000111000’ in the 1/3 FEC encoding scheme, as
illustrated in Figure 2.22.
Figure 2.22 1/3 FEC encoding scheme
FEC code: rate 2/3

Another scheme adopted by Bluetooth is 2/3 FEC. It is also known as a (15,10)
shortened Hamming code. A special polynomial is used to encode a block of 10-
bit information into a 15-bit codeword block. 2/3 FEC can correct all single errors
and detect all double errors in each codeword. It is used in DM packets, in
frequency hopping synchronisation (FHS) packets, in HV2 packets and in the data
field of the data voice combined (DV) packets.
ARQ scheme
Bluetooth uses an unnumbered fast acknowledgement ARQ scheme. If a slave
device receives a packet from its master successfully, it acknowledges this by
setting the ARQN to 1 so that its master will not retransmit the packet. However,
if the master device receives ARQN = 0, it will keep on retransmitting the packet
until it receives the successful indication (ARQN = 1) from the slave or until
timeout. This is a fast method that minimises the retransmission of packets.
Bluetooth audio
Two formats can be supported in the Bluetooth air interface: 64 kbps log pulse
coded modulation (PCM) format (A-law or µ-law) or 64 kbps CVSD (continuous
variable slope delta modulation).

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Log PCM CODEC

All SCO packets, HV and DV packets, support 64 kbps information streams.
Therefore, 64 kbps log PCM traffic can be transmitted directly. There are two
kinds of formats for 64 kbps PCM: A-law or µ-law compression. If the line
interface uses A-law compression, the air interface uses µ-law compression, and
vice versa.
CVSD CODEC
Instead of using fixed step size delta modulation, Bluetooth employs continuous
variable slope delta (CVSD) modulation. The step size of CVSD modulation can
be adapted according to the average signal slope to reduce the slope overload
effect. The slope overload effect occurs when the change in information is so fast
that the quantised information waveform cannot follow the original information
waveform.
Bluetooth security
Bluetooth has three modes of security:
• security mode 1: non-secure data transfer;
• security mode 2: service-level security; and
• security mode 3: link-level security.
Mode 1 — non-secure
In this mode of operation, the device never initiates a security procedure. Examples
of non-secure data transfer are a vCard and vCalender.
Mode 2 — service-level security

In this mode of operation, the security procedure is only initiated when the
channel establishment request is sent or the channel establishment procedure is
initiated. A device must classify the security requirement of each service (e.g. file
transfer) with at least one of the following attributes:
• Authentication: Identity verification of a Bluetooth device before connection

establishment.
• Encryption: Encrypting the data before transmitting to another Bluetooth
device.
• Authorisation: A Bluetooth device can be enabled to access a specific service
in another device.

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Mode 3 — link-level security

In this mode of operation, the security procedure is initiated before the link
establishment. Link level security includes the following:
• creation and use of keys;
• authentication of devices; and
• encryption of packets.
Mode 3 security will be discussed in detail because it is closely related to the

security methods which are implemented by the Bluetooth hardware device.
Link-level security (mode 3 security)

The Bluetooth baseband specification defines the following elements for
authentication and encryption:
• Bluetooth device address (BD_ADDR): This is a 48 bit public address that is

unique to each Bluetooth device. It can be obtained by the inquiry procedure
in the Bluetooth unit.
• 128 bit random number (RAND): A pseudo random number generator is built
inside a Bluetooth unit. This generator provides a 128 bit random number for
generating the encryption and authentication keys, etc.
• Authentication key: A 128 bit authentication key is used to authenticate a
Bluetooth unit.
• Encryption key: The encryption key is used to protect the information which
transfers between devices. The length of this encryption key varies from 8 bits
to 128 bits to meet the requirements for cryptographic algorithms in different
countries and to facilitate future security upgrades by minimising the hardware
upgrade cost.
Authentication
The authentication process is performed by the link manager protocol, which is
defined in the Bluetooth specification, to verify the identity of a device before
establishment of a link connection. It is a challenge-response method of
authentication. The requesting device sends a challenge message to another device
and the responding device determines whether it has the correct shared key for
establishing the connection. Secret or link keys are exchanged during the
initialisation phase of this procedure. The following four types of link keys can be
used for authentication:

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• Unit key: This is obtained from the Bluetooth unit.

• Combination key: Obtained from two units, this is generated for each pair of
Bluetooth devices when there is a high security requirement.
• Master key: This is used when a master device wants to communicate with
several devices simultaneously.
• Initialisation key: This is used in the initialisation phase and protects the
initialisation data to be transmitted.
Encryption
After the authentication process has been completed successfully, the Bluetooth
device can initiate encryption to encode the data so that it can be transmitted
securely. The encryption depends on the encryption key, whose size varies from 8
bits to 128 bits. The size of this encryption key must be negotiated between the
two devices. The encryption procedure is as follows:
• The authentication process is completed successfully between two devices.
• An encryption key is negotiated and derived from the link key.
• Both devices agree on the size of encryption key and encryption is carried out.
• Encryption is performed for transmitted data between the two devices.
Infra-red technology in WPANs

Infra-red (IR) is another technology used for wireless communication. This
technology is mainly used for cable replacement between devices (e.g. a
computer’s connection with a printer, wireless mouse, etc.). In 1994, the Infra-red
Data Association (IrDA) approved the serial infra-red (SIR) link version 1
specification. The standard supports a walk-up, point-to-point serial
interconnection communication between devices such as laptops and desktop
computers. The data rate of this standard ranges from 2.4 kbps to 115 kbps using
the serial port interface. In 1995, the version 1.1 specification of IrDA was
released, which upgraded the version 1 specification to support new transmission
rates of 576 kbps, 1.152 Mbps and 4 Mbps. The current version 1.4 specification
(Infra-red Data Association serial infra-red physical layer specification) includes a
transmission rate at 16 Mbps.
Let’s look at how the physical layer of the IrDA standard supports different
transmission rates.

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Physical layer of IrDA

Data transmission rates employ different encoding and decoding schemes. The
following paragraphs describe them.
Transmission rates from 2.4 kbps to 115 kbps

Figure 2.23 shows the hardware configuration of a transmitter to transmit data at a
rate of up to 115 kbps.
Data to be IR transducer module

transmitted
IrDA IRED
encoder and
UART IrDA
Driver
device optical signal
Photodiode
IrDA and
Received decoder receiver
data
Electrical signal Electrical

delivered by/to IR frame
the UART
Figure 2.23 Hardware configuration for transmission rate up to 115 kbps

The universal asynchronous receiver-transmitter (UART) delivers a block of ten

bits to the IrDA encoder. This block of ten bits includes one start bit, eight data
bits (without a parity bit) and one stop bit. The encoder transforms the data ‘0’
into an electrical pulse and ‘1’ into no pulse at all. It also transforms the bit time
into a new electrical pulse width as shown in Figure 2.24.

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Electrical
signal Start Stop
bit Data bits bit
delivered
by/to the 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
UART
Electrical
IrDA
frame
Bit Pulse width
time = (3/16) × bit time
Figure 2.24 Pulse duration up to 115 kbps in the encoder

The signaling rate and pulse width at the IrDA encoder are listed in Table 2.16.
Table 2.16 Signaling rate and pulse width at the IrDA encoder
(for a transmission rate from 2.4 kbps to 115 kbps)
Signaling rate Pulse duration (3/16) × bit

time
2.4 kbps 78.13 μs
9.6 kbps 19.53 μs
19.2 kbps 9.77 μs
38.4 kbps 4.88 μs
57.6 kbps 3.26 μs
115.2 kbps 1.63 μs
This electrical IrDA frame from the encoder is transmitted by the infra-red
transducer module. Reception of IrDA is the reverse process of transmission.

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Transmission rates of 576 kbps and 1.152 Mbps

The encoding method for transmission rates of 576 kbps and 1.152 Mbps is
similar to that described above and employs the return-to-zero inverted (RZI)
method. The data is transmitted in a frame format, where it has two beginning
flags (STA), one address (ADDR), a data field, a 16-bit cyclic redundancy check
(CRC), and an end flag (STO). The STA and STO flags have a defined bit pattern,
as shown in Figure 2.25.
Bits are listed from the least significant

bit to most significant bit (for each byte)
Fields STA STA Defined in IrLAP CRC STO

01111110 01111110 ADDR Control Information (optional) CRC-16 01111110
Bits stream sent: 01111110 01111110 xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxx 01111110
Bits including zero insertion

IrDA 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 .. 1 1 1 0
frame
Bit Pulse width

time = (1/4) × bit time
Figure 2.25 Frame format for transmission at 576 kbps and 1.152 Mbps
Source: Bluetooth SIG (2001) Specification of the Bluetooth System, version 1.1, Bluetooth SIG,
Figure 2.5, p. 16.
The ADDR and data (where data includes control and information) fields are
defined in the IrDA link access protocol (IrLAP) layer; while the information field
in data is optional. The signaling rates and pulse duration for these transmission
rates are defined in Table 2.17.
Table 2.17 Signaling rates and pulse durations of the IrDA encoder
(transmission of rate at 576 kbps and 1.152 Mbps)
Signaling rate Pulse duration (1/4) × bit time

0.576 kbps 434.0 ns
1.152 kbps 217.0 ns
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Transmission rate of 4 Mbps

The four level pulse position modulation (4PPM) coding scheme is employed for
the transmission rate of 4 Mbps. The 4PPM codifies the information data into a
group of two bits with the least significant bit (LSB) first, as shown in Table 2.18.
Table 2.18 4PPM data symbol assignment
Group of bits Data symbol
00 1000
01 0100
10 0010
11 0001
Figure 2.26 illustrates how the data information is correlated to the 4PPM data
symbol and transmitted stream.
LSB first bit stream : 11 10 01 00

& two bits in a group
4PPM Data Symbol : 0001 0010 0100 1000
Transmitted stream : 1000 0100 0010 0001

Transmitted Stream
Figure 2.26 4PPM coding scheme
The above 4PPM codified information is transmitted in a frame format as shown

in Figure 2.27.

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PA STA Data Symbols obtained after 4PPM Codification STO
Figure 2.27 Frame format for 4 Mbps
Preamble (PA): It is formed by 16 repetitions of the specific symbol pattern

shown in Figure 2.28.
1000 0000 1010 1000
First Chip Last Chip

to transmit to transmit
Figure 2.28 PA basic structure
Start flag (STA): A specific symbol is used to indicate the beginning of the data
information symbol as shown in Figure 2.29.
0000 1100 0000 1100 0110 0000 0110 0000

Figure 2.29 Start flag symbol pattern
Stop flag (STO): A specific symbol pattern is used to define the end of frame and
end of data symbol, as shown in Figure 2.30.
0000 1100 0000 1100 0000 0110 0000 0110

Figure 2.30 Stop flag symbol pattern
Transmission rate of 16 Mbps

The latest IrDA version 1.4 specification, which was finalised in 2001, defines a
16 Mbps transmission rate using a special coding scheme called HHH(1,13),
which is a run length limited (RLL) code that provides both power efficiency and
bandwidth efficiency at a higher data rate.

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SELF-CHECK 2.9
What are the coding schemes for different transmission rates in IrDA?
Security in wireless networks

All existing wireless communication networks have their own methods for
tackling security problems. For example, WLAN networks (e.g. IEEE 802.11) use
open and shared-key authentication and WEP encryption algorithms, while
Bluetooth employs a 128-bit authentication key and 128-bit encryption key. In
this section we address some security concerns in WLANs and investigate some
methods employed for handling security problems.
Security issues in WLANs (IEEE 802.11)

We saw in our discussion of IEEE 802.11, that this WLAN has implemented the
wired equivalent privacy (WEP) protocol for encryption. This employs a static
key and a dynamic initialisation vector (IV). The static key is at the heart of
encryption in a WLAN.
The static key

If any intruder discovers this key, the intruder can decrypt information which is
transmitted over a wireless LAN. The static key can be discovered from:
• leaks in human communication; and

• encrypted data.
If all of the staff in a company use the same static key to access the Internet, an
intruder might obtain this key information via human conversation.
An intruder can also monitor encrypted information of wireless communication by

special shareware that can be easily accessed from the Internet. This software uses
various algorithms to reconstruct a secret key.
The following scenarios illustrate the weaknesses of the WEP encryption:
• The encryption of data uses a 24-bit initialisation vector (IV), which is

changed by a fixed algorithm for each new packet. This implies that an IV will
be repeated after at most 224 = 16.7 × 106 packets (or in other words the cycle

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of the pattern of IV is 224). Taking advantage of this weakness, tools available

on the Internet can discover the secret key within hours.
• An intruder can obtain the secret key by using some known plaintext and its
encrypted data to work out the keys used for encryption. The known plaintext
can be derived from the known structure of IP packets, or from known
constants.
• Although the cyclic redundancy check (CRC), which is inside the ICV, is also
encrypted using the WEP algorithm, an intruder can change the bits in the
payload and update the encrypted CRC accordingly. Therefore, the receiver
may not be aware of a modification of data.
Security resolutions for WLANs (IEEE 802.11)

As a result of security problems encountered in WLANs, the Wi-Fi Alliance was
established. The Wi-Fi Alliance is a non-profit organisation that certifies
interoperability of all IEEE 802.11 products and handles security issues by
defining a wireless protected access (WPA), which is an intermediate stage to
IEEE 802.11i and includes the temporal key integrity protocol (TKIP) and 802.1x
mechanisms. In addition, a virtual private network (VPN) has also been adopted
for secure access over WLANs.
Wireless protected access (WPA)

WPA combines dynamic key encryption and authentication. The TKIP is similar
to WEP in that it encrypts the payload and CRC of each frame. However, the
TKIP has been strengthened in light of the following issues:
• 48-bit initialisation vectors: TKIP uses a 48-bit initialisation vector (IV)

instead of the 24-bit IV of WEP. The cycle of patterns of the IV is thus
increased from 224 = 16.7 × 106 packets to 248 = 2.81 × 1014 packets. It
significantly reduces the possibility that an intruder can collect a sufficient
number of frames to crack the encryption algorithm.
• Per-packet key construction and distribution: The encryption key for each
client is generated automatically and periodically by WPA. In fact, each frame
uses a unique key in WPA. This prevents the same key being used for a long
time, e.g. weeks or even months.
• Message integrity code (MIC): This is also known as ‘Michael’. It is used to

prevent an intruder from capturing data packets, modifying them and
resending them.
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WPA also employs 802.1x authentication with one of the extensible

authentication protocol (EAP) types. There are a number of EAP standards;
namely, EAP transport layer security (EAP-TLS), EAP-tunneled transport layer
security (EAP-TTLS), and protected extensible authentication protocol (PEAP).
Figure 2.31 shows that IEEE 802.1x with EAP forms an infrastructure in which a
client workstation and the authentication server (e.g. RADIUS server) carry out
mutual authentication.
Figure 2.31 802.11x with EAP authentication

Source: Wi-Fi Alliance (2003) ‘Wi-Fi protected access: strong, standard-based,
interoperable security for today’s Wi-Fi networks’, April 29, p. 5, http://www.wi-
fi.org/OpenSection/pdf/Whitepaper_Wi-Fi_Security4-29-03.pdf.
This mutual authentication is a four-way handshaking process for authentication

of users that prevents intruders from accessing the network. When a user sends a
request to access the network, the client sends the user’s credentials to the
authentication server via the access point (AP). If the user’s credentials are
accepted by the server, the master TKIP key will be sent to both the client and the
AP for encryption. However, IEEE 802.1x with EAP needs to be equipped with
an authentication server, which is expensive for a home or small-office/home-
office (SOHO) users. As a result, a ‘pre-shared key’ (PSK) or password
authentication method is provided in WPA, as shown in Figure 2.32.

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Figure 2.32 Pre-shared key authentication method

Source: Wi-Fi Alliance (2003) ‘Wi-Fi protected access: strong, standard-based,
interoperable security for today’s Wi-Fi networks’, April 29, p. 6, http://www.wi-
fi.org/OpenSection/pdf/Whitepaper_Wi-Fi_Security4-29-03.pdf.
This PSK provides home and SOHO users with TKIP encryption just as IEEE
802.11x with EAP does. However, there is a major difference between the
authentication in IEEE 802.11 and PSK. In PSK, a password (or PSK) is manually
input on the client device and AP for authentication.
SELF-CHECK 2.10
What are the current security problems of IEEE 802.11 in terms of

authentication and privacy? How can these problems be solved by
WPA?
Virtual private network (VPN)

The virtual private network (VPN) has been extensively used for secure data
transmission over unsecured networks (e.g. the Internet or WLANs). The basic
concept of the VPN is based on ‘tunneling’ (e.g. layer 3 tunneling using IPSec)
for authentication and encryption. This tunneling method emulates a point-to-
point link between the client and corporate VPN server via the Internet or WLAN
as shown in Figure 2.33.

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Figure 2.33 A virtual private network

Source: Microsoft (1999) ‘Virtual private networking in Windows 2000: an overview’,
Figure 1, p. 1, http://www.microsoft.com/windows2000/docs/ VPNoverview.doc.
Data information is encrypted and encapsulated with a header that provides

routing information. The data information sent cannot be decrypted without the
encryption key.
Security issues in WPANs (Bluetooth)

One of the basic functions of Bluetooth is to form an ad-hoc network that allows
several users/devices to communicate with each other on the spot, at the same
time. However, ad-hoc wireless networks can be easily accessed by intruders.
This makes Bluetooth networks vulnerable to security risks in the following areas:
• Entering and storing a personal identity number (PIN): The PIN can be used
with other variables to generate a link and encryption key. Users input the PIN
and transmit it over the air to other users in order to set up a secure link. Such
transmission of PINs over the air makes the wireless system vulnerable as
intruders can easily invade the network by capturing the PIN and then posing
as a user. In addition, users at both ends input this PIN in the Bluetooth system
in order to form a secure link. This kind of PIN storage in the Bluetooth device
will be a problem if the device is lost.
• Using a link key: Authentication and encryption of a communication link are

based on a link key, which is formed from the static unit key. For example,
let’s say that A and B are communicating and A uses his unit key to form the
link key for a secure link. After that, A starts another communication with C,
using A’s unit key. Since B already knows A’s unit key from the previous
communication, B can now use this key to decrypt the communication
between A and C.

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• Bluetooth device address: Every Bluetooth device has a unique address. If this
unique address is stolen, activities can be traced and monitored through this
address.
Security resolutions for WPANs (Bluetooth)

Even without any major modification or upgrading of the current version
Blueprint specification, we can protect our Bluetooth device from security threats
in the following ways:
• By forming a small size ad hoc network and keeping the network in a secure
place, e.g. in a conference room. Intruders will not be able to gain access to the
network easily because the maximum distance for the Bluetooth connection is
around 10 meters.
• By using a specific key to encrypt the information. For example, specific

combination keys can be used at a master device to each slave in the network
so that all encrypted information exchanged between each slave device goes
through the control of the master device.
• By recommending a two way authentication process to stop unknown devices

from connecting to the network.
Applications of WLANs and WPANs

This section discusses various applications that make use of WLAN and WPAN
technologies. These applications are gaining more attention and popularity in the
market. We will examine the evolution of some wireless technologies and also
consider their possible future applications.
Applications of WLANs
Wireless LANs can be used for indoor applications or building-to-building
applications.
Indoor applications
Indoor applications extend the connection of wired LANs to anywhere in a
building by access points (APs). There are several advantages to installing a
WLAN indoors rather than installing a wired LAN. For example, the
reconfiguration or reinstallation costs of a WLAN are much lower than wired

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LAN and expansion of a wireless network is much easier. In addition, the user can
choose to provide coverage anywhere in the building. The installation time of the
WLAN is very short and, therefore, it can be used to provide a temporary LAN
service for special events. Finally, a WLAN provides an easy way to extend the
number of users. For example, one additional access point can provide LAN
access for around 250 users.
Indoor applications of WLANs can be classified into four main categories:
• public buildings;
• business environments;
• domestic buildings; and
• industrial environments.
WLANs in public buildings

Some applications for wireless LANs in public buildings include:
• Educational institutions: Schools and universities can provide interactive

multimedia learning for students anywhere on campus, even in places where it
would be difficult to provide such learning using wired LANs (e.g. the
playground).
• Healthcare facilities: Patients’ medical records can be updated in real time so

that doctors can access the most current information for consultation purposes.
• Law courts: If courtrooms are situated in old buildings that lack a wired LAN,
WLANs can be used to access reference documents and previous court cases
for reference.
• High-security buildings: WLANs can be used in high-security buildings such

as museums, sports grounds, stadiums and theatres to check entrance tickets
and monitor patron traffic.
• Public transportation: An electronic and/or magnetic card can be given to

passengers at airports or stations as a boarding pass or ticket. This card can
also operate as a pager or a badge, so the system can send information to the
passenger and also monitor the flow of passengers.

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WLANs in business environments

Some applications for wireless LAN in business environments include:
• Office environments: Provision of WLANs is a cost-effective way to rapidly

extend LAN infrastructure. A company does not need to renovate its office
and WLANs can support mobile staff, giving them access to or updates of
business information.
• Cafés or shops: Nowadays, some cafés provide WLAN access to their

customers to access the Internet or company information via virtual private
network connections.
WLANs in domestic buildings

Installation of WLANs makes it unnecessary to wire along skirting boards or drill
into walls. This has encouraged a lot of home users to use WLAN to access
broadband services from anywhere in their home instead of using wired LAN.
WLANs in industrial environments

WLANs can be used to provide real-time monitoring or updating of
manufacturing processes and information.
Building-to-building applications
WLAN bridges and antennas are required for building-to-building applications.
There are two kinds of topologies for building-to-building applications: point-to-
point topology and point-to-multipoint topology. Point-to-point topology requires
a panel antenna with a WLAN bridge as shown in Figure 2.34.
Figure 2.34 Point-to-point topology for a building-to-building WLAN application

Source: 3Com, ‘Point-to-point topology’ in User Guide Version 1.1.1 for product
3CRWE91096A.
Alternatively, if an omni-directional antenna is connected to a host AP, it can

provide a point-to-multipoint topology in building-to-building applications that
are up to 6.6 km apart (as shown in Figure 2.35).
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Figure 2.35 Point-to-multipoint topology for a building-to-building application

Source: 3Com, ‘Point-to-multipoint topology’ in User Guide Version 1.1.1 for product
3CRWE91096A.
There are many possible applications of building-to-building WLANs. For

example, the LANs of sister educational colleges can be linked together via a
point-to-point or point-to-multipoint topology so that educational materials can be
shared among colleges. Building-to-building applications can also be used by a
company or in an industrial environment where there are several buildings each
having its own data network. Since the interconnection cost of telephone lines
between buildings might be very expensive, a WLAN link can be used to provide
a data connection between the buildings at low cost.
SELF-CHECK 2.11
What equipment is required to set up a building-to-building bridge?

Draw a diagram to illustrate the connections of the equipment.
Applications of WPANs (Bluetooth)

The Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG) has defined a lot of Bluetooth usage
models or applications and each usage model consists of profiles, which define
the protocol and features of that application. There are mainly three groups of
profiles for Bluetooth specification v1.1:
• Telephony profiles: Under this category, Bluetooth SIG has further defined
application profiles for intercoms, cordless telephony, headsets, fax and dial-
up networking.

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• LAN access profiles: These profiles mainly allow Bluetooth devices to access
a LAN.
• ObEx profiles: Under this category, three application profiles have been
defined: synchronisation, file transfer and object push. These application
profiles are mainly for data transfer between two Bluetooth devices.
Let’s look at some of these Bluetooth application profiles in more detail.
Ultimate headset usage model

A headset profile can be used to implement a wireless headset. According to the
specification, the wireless headset supports a full duplex audio input and output
mechanism as shown in Figure 2.36.
Cellular phone Laptop or PC
Headset
Figure 2.36 Ultimate headset application

Source: Bakker, D M and McMichael Gilster, D (2002) Bluetooth End to End, New
York: M&T Books, Figure 13.3, p. 189.
Internet bridge usage model

There are two profiles in Bluetooth that support devices for accessing the Internet:
dial-up networking profile and LAN access profile. A cellular phone or wireless
modem is commonly used as a bridge for computers to access the Internet. The
computer, cellular phone or wireless modem is equipped with the Bluetooth dial-
up networking profile for supporting wireless communication between them.
Figure 2.37 illustrates this concept.

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Server
Cellular phone Modem
Laptop or PC
Figure 2.37 Dial-up for the Internet access
In addition, the Bluetooth LAN profile can also be used to support Internet access
where Bluetooth devices, such as cellular phone, PDA and computer, establish a
Bluetooth link to LAN equipment that has Bluetooth capability. In Figure 2.38
below, the dotted line represents a link that supports the Bluetooth LAN profile,
while the solid line represents a wired cable.
LAN
LAN access point Data terminal
Figure 2. 38 Bluetooth Internet access via LAN access point

Three-in-one phone usage model

This application employs two Bluetooth profiles, namely the intercom and
cordless telephone profiles. This application model provides an Intercom service,
where one cellular phone can communicate with the other without having to
access the wireless cellular network (for example, when two cellular phones are in
the same office). When they communicate with each other, they form a direct
Bluetooth intercom link. Figure 2.39 illustrates this concept.

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Cellular Phone
Intercom
Cordless
Telephone
In office Cordless Phone Outdoor Areas

base station at
Home
Figure 2.39 A 3-in-1 phone application
A cellular phone with the Bluetooth cordless telephone profile can also
communicate with the public service telephone network (PSTN) via a cordless
phone base station which is connected to PSTN. The cordless phone base station
also supports the Bluetooth telephone profile and is commonly used at home.
Automatic synchroniser (hidden computer) usage model

This usage model enables a Bluetooth device to synchronise its data with another
Bluetooth device by using the synchronisation profile, allowing, for example, a
mobile phone or PDA to exchange personal information management (PIM) data
with a computer. The types of information exchanges are phonebook, calendar
and to-do list. In addition, this model can also be used to synchronise data
between a mobile computer or PDA and a computer, as illustrated in Figure 2.40.
Synchronization Synchronization
of data of data
Synchronization
of data
PDA
Cellular phone
Mobile computer
Figure 2.40 Data synchronisation between Bluetooth devices

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Interactive conference usage model

This model provides a Bluetooth device to access other Bluetooth devices for the
exchange of data or information during a meeting. This model employs the
Bluetooth file transfer profile, which enables a Bluetooth device (e.g. a laptop
computer) to browse objects, manipulate objects and transfer files to another
Bluetooth device.
After releasing the above profiles in Bluetooth specification version 1.1, the
Bluetooth SIG carried on its development of new profiles to support new
applications:
• Human interface device (HID) profile: The draft of this profile was produced
in 2000 and its adopted version 1.0 was released in May 2003. This profile is
used for devices that are used by humans to control computer systems, e.g.
keyboards, pointing devices, control buttons, bar code readers, etc.
• Advanced audio distribution profile: The adopted version 1.0 was finalised in
May 2003. This profile is defined for distributing high-quality audio content
on asynchronous connectionless link (ACL) channels. However, this
‘advanced audio’ will be distinguished from ‘Bluetooth audio’, which is
narrow band voice on synchronous connection-oriented (SCO) channels. A
typical application for this profile is the distribution of audio content from a
stereo music player to headphones or speakers.
Besides the above mentioned profiles, there are many others that are currently
under construction by the Bluetooth SIG. These profiles can be found on the
following webpage:
https://www.bluetooth.org/docman2/ViewCategory.php?group_id=53&category_i
d=214
(Note that you may have to register at www.bluetooth.org before accessing the
above webpage.)

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Emerging markets and trends in wireless

networks
We have studied several WLAN and WPAN technologies that are currently
available in the market. These wireless technologies have their own strengths and
weaknesses. In this section, we will examine whether WLAN and Bluetooth
technologies are currently competing with each other in the market and we will
look at future trends in WLANs and WPANs.
Can Bluetooth and wireless LAN 802.11 coexist?

When comparing the marketplace for Bluetooth and IEEE 802.11 and assessing
whether they can coexist, we have to consider their strengths and weaknesses. The
following criteria help us to answer the question of whether they can coexist.
Operating frequency spectrum

Both Bluetooth and IEEE 802.11b or 802.11g use the ISM spectrum at the
2.4 GHz band. The reason behind this is that the 2.4 GHz band is an unlicensed
spectrum. As the two technologies share the same spectrum, no doubt they will
interfere with each other. The IEEE 802.15 coexistence task group has presented
two sets of materials regarding frequency interference between 802.11b and
Bluetooth, and between 802.11g and Bluetooth. They are optional in this course
but they can be found through the following links:
• http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/802/15/pub/2001/Jan01/01066r0P802-15_TG2-
Coexistence-of-BT-with-80211g.ppt
• http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/802/15/pub/2001/Jan01/01077r0P802-15_TG2-
Bluetooth-Interference-with-WLAN-DS.ppt
Set up cost
Setting up an IEEE 802.11 network is more expensive than a Bluetooth network
since a client card and AP are required in a wireless LAN. The set up cost of a
Bluetooth network is relatively low as the Bluetooth chip is already integrated into
the device and the cost of the chip is about US$5. Therefore, it is expected that by
2006, the number of Bluetooth devices will outnumber that of WLANs by ten
times in Europe (according to Forrester Research, http://www.forrester.com/ER/
Research/Report/Summary/0,1338,11827,00.html).

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Coverage area
Although a WLAN is more expensive to set up, its coverage is about
300 m; much larger than Bluetooth’s coverage of 10 m.
Data rate
The maximum data rate of a WLAN is 54 Mbps while Bluetooth’s is only
1 Mbps. In practice, the maximum asymmetric data rate is around 721 kbps and
the symmetric data rate is 432.6 kbps.
Ad-hoc networking
The ad-hoc network is one of the strengths of Bluetooth. It is much easier to set
up an ad-hoc network in Bluetooth than in IEEE 802.11.
Power consumption
Bluetooth devices consume less power than IEEE 802.11 devices. Therefore,
Bluetooth is more suitable for applications run on mobile phones and portable
devices. The transmitting power of Bluetooth can be 1 mW, 2.5 mW or 100 mW,
while that of a WLAN is 100 mW or 1 W. The higher the transmitting power, the
shorter the duration that a device can be supported by the same battery capacity.
Information type
IEEE 802.11 is mainly employed for data transfer applications. If voice
communication is required, it can only be done on voice over IP (VoIP).
However, Bluetooth is designed for supporting both data and voice applications.
SELF-CHECK 2.12
Based on the comparison that we’ve just made between Bluetooth

and WLANs, to what extent do you think they can coexist? Give
reasons to support your answer.
Future trends in WLANs and WPANs

In this section, we will study the future trends in WLANs and WPANs.
Specifically, we will look at the future development of WLAN and WPAN
standards and their applications.

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Evolution of IEEE 802.11

The IEEE 802.11g standard was finalised in June 2003, however, vendors had
already put their products based on the draft standard IEEE 802.11g on the shelf
before June 2003. They then provided a software version upgrade for their pre-
released products to meet the final version of the IEEE 802.11g specification. In
general terms, IEEE802.11g can be regarded as:
An IEEE standard for wireless local area networks (WLANs) that offers
wireless transmission over relatively short distances at up to 54 megabits per
second (Mbps) compared with the 11 megabits per second of the 802.11b (Wi-
Fi) standard. Like 802.11b, IEEE802.11g operates in the 2.4 GHz range and is
thus compatible with it. IEEE802.11g operates on DSSS and OFDM.
The IEEE task group is continuing to develop future IEEE 802.11 standards to
improve the functionalities of wireless LAN. These developments include:
• IEEE 802.11e: This standard will extend the function of the MAC layer to
support applications such as voice or video with the quality-of-service (QOS)
requirement. Since it is a new standard on the MAC layer, it will be common
to all IEEE 802.11 physical layer variants.
• IEEE 802.11h: This is also called a ‘spectrum managed 802.11a’. This

standard addresses the frequency spectrum requirements of the European
regulatory bodies and will provide the functions of dynamic channel selection
(DCS) and transmit power control (TCP) in the 5 GHz band. These two
functions will help to avoid interference with satellite communications in
Europe as HIPERLAN/2 currently does.
• IEEE 802.11i: The existing encryption security provided by the MAC layer is
through the use of WEP and is a relatively weak security method. IEEE
80211i has been designed to incorporate 802.1x, which uses extensible
authentication protocol (EAP) for user authentication, and stronger encryption
techniques such as AES (advanced encryption standard).
• IEEE 802.11n. The first official meeting was held in Sept 2003. The aim of the
task group is to define a new standard of data transfer of at least 100 Mbps.

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Evolution of HIPERLAN/2
The first release of the HIPERLAN/2 specification was published in April 2000,
while the prototype and product demonstration were held at the end of 2002. ETSI
is still carrying on its work on the future development on the interworking
between HIPERLAN/2 and 3G mobile phone infrastructures.
Evolution of Bluetooth
The Bluetooth standard evolved from version 1.1 to version 1.2, which
incorporates new features for security and avoiding frequency interference with
WLAN at 2.4 GHz. The new standard was officially released in June 2003 and
includes the following new features:
• Adaptive frequency hopping: one of the methods to be used to reduce

interference between other wireless communication systems (e.g. WLAN) at
the 2.4 GHz ISM spectrum.
• Enhanced voice processing: employs an ‘error detection methodologies’ to

improve the quality of voice in noisy environments.
• Enhanced quality-of-service (QOS): increases the performance of multipoint

implementations where one radio can service more than one client at one time
by using a better scheduling method for traffic management.
• Anonymity mode: masks the physical address of radio to raise the security
level of the Bluetooth system.
Future applications of WLANs

WLANs are currently adopted as asynchronous data communication systems. The
task group of IEEE 802.11 will go on to improve the standard to support services
or applications where QOS is vital. These applications include voice over WLAN
(VoWLAN) and home entertainment systems using video and voice.
In addition, WLAN networks (e.g. HIPERLAN/2) will be integrated into UMTS

(universal mobile telecommunications system, which is the 3G system adopted in
Europe) networks so that WLAN works with UMTS networks to provide high-
speed data access in hot spot areas.
Future applications of WPANs (Bluetooth)

The major use of Bluetooth is to replace physical cable connections between
devices. A lot of applications are still open to Bluetooth system implementation.
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Currently a lot of devices in the market, such as mobile phones, mobile

computers, handheld devices, headsets, office LANs, etc., already have built-in
Bluetooth chips. More application areas will be exploited by Bluetooth
technology, which include:
• Sketchpads: Special software that enables users to draw or write on a

document file on palmtop computers. This modified file can be transferred to
other Bluetooth devices so that other users can review it.
• Remote synchronisation: Synchronisation of data will be extended to remote

devices, which are not connected within the WPAN network but with a PSTN
link. For example, a message can be sent from a computer at an office via a
mobile phone to the user’s personal data assistant (PDA) using the Bluetooth
link to alert the user (who is outside the office) that a meeting schedule has
been changed. Such schedule updates at the PDA can be done automatically.
• Home entertainment: For example a Bluetooth-enabled TV can notify users

that a favorite program is about to start. Another application of Bluetooth at
home is as a remote control.
Summary
This unit has looked at various wireless technologies for WLANs and WPANs.
Such technologies include IEEE 802.11, HIPERLAN/2 and Bluetooth.
For IEEE 802.11, physical layer variants including DSSS, FHSS, IR and OFDM
were explained. Different MAC layer frame structures and functions were touched
on. We also looked at HIPERLAN, and described different functional blocks of
the HIPERLAN/2 physical layer.
In our discussion of WPANs, we took a closer look at one of the most popular
standards in the current market, Bluetooth. This standard has the fundamental
application of replacing physical cables between different devices. Its baseband
specification was elaborated in some detail.
Security problems exist in any type of wireless communication network. WLANs

and WPANs are no exceptions. The security concerns and resolutions for these
two types of wireless networks were addressed.
Various applications that make use of WLAN and WPAN technologies were also
discussed. These applications are gaining more attention and popularity in the

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market. We also examined the evolution of these wireless technologies and looked
at some of their possible future applications.
Last but not least, there are various signs in the market that different
standardisation bodies are making an effort to facilitate the coexistence of these
wireless networks in the market. We looked at these efforts and briefly touched on
some possible future trends in the WLAN and WPAN markets.
References
Asuncion, S and Lopez-Hernandez, F J (2003) Wireless LAN standards and
application, Norwood, MA: Artech House.
Bakker, D M and McMichael Gilster, D (2002) Bluetooth end to end, New York:
M&T Books.
Bluetooth SIG (2001) Specification of the Bluetooth system, version 1.1,

Bluetooth SIG.
ETSI, Broadband Radio Access Network (BRAN) HIPERLAN Type 2; Physical

(PHY) Layer ETSI TS 101 475 v1.3.1 (2001-12), ETSI.
ETSI, Broadband Radio Access Network (BRAN) HIPERLAN Type 2; System

Overview ETSI TS 101 683 v1.1.1 (2000-02), ETSI.
Geier, J (2002) Wireless LANs implementing high performance IEEE 802.11

networks, Indianapolis: SAMS.
IEEE, ‘Part 11’ in Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical
Layer (PHY) Specifications — Higher-Speed Physical Layer Extension in
2.4GHz band, IEEE 802.11b, 1999 edn, IEEE.
Infrared Data Association (2001) Serial infrared physical layer specification,

version 1.4, Infrared Data Association.
Sikora, A (2003) Wireless personal and local area networks, UK: Wiley.

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Self-test 2.1
The figure below illustrates the information given in the self-test.
Assume that the base station provides radio coverage in a circular footprint, as
depicted above. The diameter of the coverage is two times that of the radius of the
radio coverage, which is:
Diameter = 2  Radius = 2  1 km = 2 km
For a vehicle to travel at 100 km/hour, let the time taken to travel 2 km be T.
T = Distance travelled / Speed of vehicle = 2 km / (100 km/hr) = 0.02 hour = 1.2

minutes
This implies the car takes 1.2 minutes to travel from one end of the cell to the
other end. A cell with a 1 km radius can be regarded as nominal. For base stations
providing radio coverage in urban areas, a smaller radius is normally employed.
Confined radio coverage could increase overall traffic capacity in the network
since the frequency reuse factor can be higher.
Do you think the 1.2 minutes taken to travel from one end of the cell to the other
end is long or short? Think of the average length of time of your mobile phone
conversations. Is it longer or shorter than 1.2 minutes? I bet that most of your calls
are longer than that. If the base stations do not possess any capability to handover
the mobile phone from one base station to another, the call will be dropped and
the conversation discontinued. Now, you should understand why handover is

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important to any wireless systems that are employed in situations where there is
outdoor mobility of mobile stations.
Self-test 2.2
1 The following criteria can be used to classify wireless networks:
• level of data rate achieved;

• scale of mobility attained;
• mode of communication supported; and
• types of services provided.
From these criteria a number of categories of wireless networks can be

determined.
2 The main advantages and disadvantages of wireless networks are summarised

in the following table.
Advantages Disadvantages
• Flexible and cableless • Bandwidth spectrum is
connection limited
• No problems with • Restricted range
incompatible connectors • Electromagnetic radiation
• Easily formed ad hoc may pose health hazards
networking • Vulnerable to interference
• Rapid deployment with • Security risks
low cost for infrastructure
Self-test 2.3
Taking the offset of channel assignment, x, as 31, and the region as France, the
following table is obtained.
17 5 18 32 23 7 16 4 13
33 26 10 31 20 29 22 12 6
28 14 25 0 8 1 15 3 11
30 24 9 27 19 2 21 34

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Making use of Equation 7.4,
f x (i )  b(i )  x  mod(35)  48
Putting x = 31, we have f31 (i )  b(i )  x  mod(35)  48 , where i is the identifier of

the sequence of the frequency being hopped. Then,
for i = 1, b(1) = 17, f31(1) = [17 + 31] mod (35) + 48 = 13 + 48 = 61

for i = 2, b(2) = 5, f31(2) = [5 + 31] mod (35) + 48 = 1 + 48 = 49
for i = 3, b(3) = 18, f31(3) = [18 + 31] mod (35) + 48 = 14 + 48 = 62
for i = 4, b(4) = 32, f31(4) = [32 + 31] mod (35) + 48 = 28 + 48 = 76
for i = 5, b(5) = 7, f31(5) = [7 + 31] mod (35) + 48 = 3 + 48 = 51
This implies that the channel frequency number of the first five hopping
frequencies are 61, 49, 62, 76 and 51.
Self-test 2.4
The band interval between two consecutive center frequencies in IEEE 802.11
DSSS is B = 5 MHz. The bandwidth of a channel in IEEE 802.11 DSSS =
22 MHz (this implies half of the bandwidth B½bw= 11 MHz).
Let X be the band interval between the two nearest non-overlapping channels, e.g.
between channel 1 and channel 6, as used in this example.

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B  X  2( B1/ 2bw  2 B )  X  5  2(11  2  5) MHz  3 MHz
Self-test 2.5
DCF PCF
Type of network Ad hoc and Infrastructure
infrastructure network only
network
Contention method CSMA/CA Contention free
Data type Asynchronous data Synchronous data
Self-test 2.6
1 The function of authentication is to verify the identity of users before their
connection to the network.
The function of encryption is to encrypt data, which is transferred between

both ends of the communication link, by the WEP algorithm to prevent the
intruder from decoding the information.
2 There are two methods for authentication. They are open system
authentication and shared key authentication.
Their differences are shown in the following table.
Open system Shared key

User No Yes
restriction (any person can (only the person
access the network) with the shared key
can access the
network)
Encryption No Yes
Mechanism of Null Challenge and
authentication response
3 The encryption method for IEEE 802.11 is wired equivalent privacy (WEP).

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The initialisation vector (IV) is used to extend the lifetime of the secret key
because the IV can be changed periodically without changing the secret key.
Self-test 2.7
The configurations of Bluetooth are piconets with one slave, piconets with
multiple slaves, or scatternet configurations. An example of a piconet with one
slave is a mobile phone and its cordless handset. An example of a piconet with
multiple slaves is a personal computer (master device) connected with a Bluetooth
mouse, keyboard and printer (slave devices).
Here is an example of a scatternet.
Mouse
Mouse
Keyboard
PC PC
Keyboard Data exchange

between two PC.
Therefore, a
scatternet is formed
Printer Headset
Piconet Piconet
Note : Bluetooth link

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Self-test 2.8
Channels
User User User

Logical
Link Control Link Manager Asynchronous Isochronous Synchronous

(LC) Control (LM) Control (UA) User (UI) User (US) User
Channel Channel Channel Channel Channel
LC Control
Channel is Are transferred as payload in the packet
transferred to the
header of every
packet except ID
packet
Packet *
AUX1
NULL
POLL
NULL
POLL
DM1
DM1
DM3
DM5
FHS
FHS
DH1
DH3
DH5
HV1
HV2
HV3
DV1
ID
ID
Header
Physical
Synchronous Connection Oriented Asynchronous Connectionless Link

Link
Link (SCO Link) (ACL Link)
Note : Packet* - A complete packet shall have “Access Code”, “Header” and “Payload”, but above diagram only shows the
“Header” and “Payload” parts of packet. In addition, the physical link shall be formed basis on a complete packet.

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Self-test 2.9
Signaling rate Coding scheme
2.4 kbps RZI (Return-to-zero inverted)
9.6 kbps RZI
19.2 kbps RZI
38.4 kbps RZI
57.6 kbps RZI
115.2 kbps RZI
576 kbps RZI
1.152 Mbps RZI
4 Mbps 4PPM
16 Mbps HHH(1,13)
Self-test 2.10
Problem Current security Resolved by WPA
methods of IEEE
802.11
Authentication Intruders can 1 Open system — is 802.1x — is a four-way
access the a null handshaking
network by authentication authentication process
stealing the system and anyone and requires an
key. can access the authentication server to
network. distribute the access key
2 ‘Shared-key’ to the client stations and
system — requires AP for access.
a key to gain access PSK — requires the user
to the network but to manually distribute the
this key is password or key to the
distributed client stations and the AP
manually to every for authentication.
user.

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Privacy Intruders can WEP algorithm: TKIP algorithm

try to decode • 24-bit initialisation • 48-bit initialisation
the encrypted vector. vector;
text to obtain
• per-packet key
the static key
construction and
and to modify
distribution to
the encrypted
prevent a user from
text.
using a key for a long
time; and
• message integrity
code to prevent any
intruder from
modifying the
encrypted
information.
Self-test 2.11
Both host and client buildings require the following equipment:
• antenna (omni-directional antenna or panel antenna);
• a building-to-building WLAN bridge (e.g. 3Com — 3CRWE91096A product);

and
• a hub.

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Panel or
Panel or omnidirectional
omnidirectional antenna
antenna
RF cable RF cable
WLAN WLAN
bridge bridge
To wired LAN To wired LAN
Host Building Client Building
Self-test 2.12
Although Bluetooth and WLAN overlap in certain applications, they should
complement each other in the market, rather than directly compete with each
other. According to the comparisons of their strengths and weaknesses, we can see
that Bluetooth is not designed to directly compete with WLAN IEEE 802.11
because it is designed for WPAN applications as a cable replacement and to
provide an ad-hoc network. For corporate or home LAN applications, customers
will continue to use WLAN devices rather than Bluetooth devices since the data
transmission rate of Bluetooth is only 1 Mbps. The only problem with the
coexistence of WLANs and Bluetooth is interference, because they use the same
ISM frequency spectrum at the 2.4 GHz band.
Recognising this problem, the IEEE 802.15 task group was formed to investigate
coexistence mechanisms between IEEE 802.11 and Bluetooth. There are two
mechanisms for reducing interference between Bluetooth and IEEE 802.11: non-
collaborative and collaboration mechanisms. The details of these mechanisms can
be found at http://www.hp.com/sbso/wireless/wifiBluetooth.html.

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Glossary
ACL Asynchronous connectionless link
ACK Acknowledgement
AES Advanced encryption standard
AP Access point
ARQ Automatic repeat request
ATM Asynchronous transfer mode
ANSI American national standards institute
BSS Basic service set
CF Contention-free
CNIRP Non-ionising radiation protection
CRC Cyclic redundancy check
CSMA Carrier-sense multiple access
CTS Clear to send
CVSD Continuous variable slope delta modulation
DCF Distributed coordination function
DLL Data link layer
DSSS Direct sequence spread spectrum
EAP Extensible authentication protocols
EIRP Equivalent (or effective) isotropically radiated
power
ERP Effective radiated power
FCC Federal Communications Commission
FHSS Frequency hopping spread spectrum
HIPERLAN/ High performance radio local area network type 2
2

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IBSC Independent basic service set

IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
IR Infra-red
IrDA Infra-red Data Association
ISM Industrial, scientific and medical
IV Initialisation vector
LAN Local area network
LLC Logical link control
LMSC LAN/MAN Standards Committee
LSB Least significant bit
MAC Medium access control
MAN Metropolitan area network
MIC Message integrity code
MPDU MAC protocol data units
MSDU MAC service data units
NAV Network allocation vector
OFDM Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
PC Point coordinator
PCF Point coordination function
PCM Pulse coded modulation
PDA Personal digital assistant
PEAP Protected extensible authentication protocol
PHY Physical layer
PIM Personal information management
PLCP PHY layer convergence protocol
PMD PHY medium dependent

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POS Personal operating space

PPM Pulse position modulation
PSTN Public service telephone network
QOS Quality of service
RLL Run length limited
RTS Request to send
SCO Synchronous connection oriented
SOHO Small office/home office
TKIP Temporal key integrity protocol
UART Universal asynchronous receiver-transmitter
UMTS Universal mobile telecommunications system
VPN Virtual private network
VoIP Voice over internet protocol
WAN Wide area network
WEP Wired equivalent privacy
WLAN Wireless local area network
WPA Wireless protected access
WPAN Wireless personal area networks
3G Third generation

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Appendices
Appendix A Base-hopping sequence for different countries
Table 2.19 Base-hopping sequence for Spain
13 4 24 18 5 12 3 10 25 19
8 23 15 22 9 21 0 6 14 1
20 7 16 2 11 17 26
Table 2.20 Base-hopping sequence for France
17 5 18 32 23 7 16 4 13
33 26 10 31 20 29 22 12 6
28 14 25 0 8 1 15 3 11
30 24 9 27 19 2 21 34
Table 2.21 Assignment of frequency hopping sequence in Japan
Set 1 0 3 6 9
Set 2 1 4 7 10
Set 3 2 5 8 11
Table 2.22 Assignment of frequency hopping sequence in Spain
Set 1 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
Set 2 1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25
Set 3 2 5 8 11 14 17 20 23 26
Table 2.23 Assignment of frequency hopping sequence in France
Set 1 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
Set 2 1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31
Set 3 2 5 8 11 14 17 20 23 26 29 32

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Appendix B DCF function with RTS and CTS frames (Optional)

Details of the RTS and CTS mechanism are shown in Figure 2.41. The first
timeline in the figure represents the actions of Station 1, while the second timeline
represents the actions of Station 2 and so on. Key notes describing the RTS and
CTS mechanism are also given.
1 5 7
Send Receive Receive
SIFS
Send frame
Station RTS CTS ACK
S1
3 10 6
Receive Send Send
SIFS
SIFS
Receive frame
RTS CTS ACK
DIFS
Station 4
S2 Receive Net Allocation Vector
CTS (NAC CTS)
2
Station Receive Net Allocation Vector
S4 RTS (NAV RTS)
Notes:
1 At a particular point in time Station 1 starts transmitting an RTS frame that is addressed to
Station S2. This frame can be received by stations S2 and S4.
2 After Station S4 successfully receives the RTS frame it sets the NAV time counter and ‘stays
quiet’. The NAV counter on Station S4 then gets the time it requires for the CTS, data and
ACK frames in addition to the corresponding SIFS intervals.
3 Later on, after a SIFS time interval, Station S2 transmits the CTS frame. This can be received
by Stations S1 and S3.
4 Station S3 sets its NAV counter to the time required to transfer the data and ACK frames, as
well as the intervening SIFS time, and then ‘stays quiet’.
5 After Station S1 has successfully received the CTS frame, and waited for a SIFS interval, it
then transfers the data frame.
6 After waiting for a SIFS interval, Station 2 sends an ACK frame to confirm successful
reception.
7 The data has been transferred successfully, the NAV counters in both stations that were not
involved in the communication have run out and, after a DIFS time period has elapsed, a new
data transmission can start.
Figure 2.41 RTS and CTS mechanism
Source: Sikora, A (2003) Wireless Personal and Local Area Networks, UK: Wiley,
Figure 4.11, p. 69.

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Further notes: ‘SIFS’ refers to ‘short interframe space’. The actions on the first
line (top line) are performed by Station 1, while the actions on the second line are
performed by Station 2 and so on. The actions on the fourth line (bottom line) are
performed by Station 4. Only Station 2 and Station 4 are within the radio coverage
of Station 1, while Station 3 is beyond the radio coverage of Station 1 as shown in
Figure 2.12.
Appendix C PCF function (Optional)

Figure 2.42 shows data transfer in a contention-free period (CFP) by a point
coordinator.
Contention-free repetition interval

Contention-free period
SIFS SIFS SIFS PIFS SIFS
D2+ack D3+ack D4+ Contention period
Beacon D1+poll +poll +poll poll
U1+ack U2+ U4+ack Dx = Frames
ack CF-End sent by point
PIFS SIFS SIFS No SIFS coordinator
response Reset NAV Ux = Frames
to CF-Poll sent by polled
NAV stations
CF_Max_Duration
Figure 2.42 Data transfer under CFP by a PC

Source: IEEE, IEEE Std 802.11, 1999 edn, IEEE, Figure 62, p. 90.
The procedure of data transfer in a contention-free period (CFP) is as follows:
1 The point coordinator (PC) sends out a beacon frame to start the CFP.
2 When all stations receive the beacon frame, they update their NAV value by
the parameter value, CFPMaxDuration, which is carried by the beacon frame.
This NAV prevents the stations from taking control of the medium so that a
contention-free period is set up for all stations.
3 After sending out a beacon frame, the PC waits for at least one SIFS period
and then transmits a contention-free poll (CF-poll) frame, a data frame, a
data+CF-poll frame or a contention-free end frame (CF-end). The CF-end
frame will be sent immediately to terminate the CFP if there is no buffered
traffic in the PC. CF-poll contains the address of the station which is to be
called by the PC. In Figure 242, the PC/AP sends out the combined data (D1)
with a CF-poll frame to the destination station.

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4 The destination station responds to the point coordinator’s CF-poll by sending

out a contention-free acknowledgement (CF-ACK) frame without data or a
contention-free acknowledgement (CF-ACK + data) frame with data. This
combined CF-ACK + data frame improves efficiency. The destination station
responds with U1 + CF-ACK.
5 If the PC/AP wants to send another piece of data to a different station, it sends
out the combined data with CF-ACK and CF-poll. The CF-ACK part is used
to acknowledge the previous reception of data (D1) to the old station, while
the CF-poll and data (D2), as shown in Figure 242, is addressed to a new
station.
6 Similarly, the new station responds with a combined U2 + CF-ACK frame to

acknowledge the reception of data (D2) and return the information U2 to the
PC/AP.
7 The PC/AP sends out a CF-poll with/without data but it does not receive any
CF-ACK within the interval PIFS. The PC/AP starts to transmit another piece
of data (D4) to a new station by CF-ACK.
8 Finally, the contention-free period is ended when the PC/AP sends out the CF-
end frame.

Unit  Fixed Wireless
3 Wide Area
Networks
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this unit you should be able to
1 Describe the driving forces for broadband services.
2 Outline the fundamental concepts of wireless broadband networks.
3 Examine the differences between fixed wireless broadband networks
and mobile wireless broadband networks.
4 Explain and analyse the design principals, radio aspects and
applications of LMDS and MMDS.
5 Speculate on possible future trends for wireless broadband hybrid
networks.
Overview
This unit introduces you to fixed wireless wide area networks. Wide area
networks (WANs) are generally used to deploy broadband services with high-
speed data transmission applications, such as multimedia services and video-on-
demand services. The demand for high-speed data transmission is a result of the
popularity of the Internet. In addition, the commercial acquisition and mergers in
recent years of telecommunications companies, software companies and
entertainment companies have also contributed to the growth in demand for high-
speed data transmission.

UNIT 3 FIXED WIRELESS WIDE AREA NETWORKS  157
The fundamental concepts of wireless broadband networks will be elaborated in

the first section of this unit; and then we describe the various technologies
employed in fixed wireless broadband networks and mobile wireless broadband
networks.
The local multipoint distribution system (LMDS) and multipoint microwave

distribution system/multichannel multipoint distribution system (MMDS) will
then be focused on and explained, in terms of system architecture, radio
propagation and capacity. In addition, the respective applications of these two
types of systems will be described and analysed.
Finally, some possible future trends in wireless broadband networks will be

discussed.
Introduction to fixed wireless wide area

networks
Wide area networks (WANs) refer to networks that deploy communication
services over a vast regional coverage or span. Such coverage or span can be
province-wide or even nation-wide. Wireless WANs, then, are networks that
employ wireless means for transmitting media and have vast regional coverage.
Fixed wireless WANs are networks that provide wireless communication services
to radio subscribers who are at fixed locations. It shall be noted that the
counterparts of fixed wireless WANs are mobile wireless WANs, where target
radio subscribers do not have rigid or fixed locations during data transfers within
the networks.
Fixed wireless WANs are commonly employed to deploy broadband services

where high-speed data transfers are needed. In our technology-driven age, there is
an ever-increasing demand for high-speed data transmissions for supporting
services such as multimedia content, telecommuting and videoconferencing. This
makes broadband connectivity the ultimate requirement of any subscriber at home
or at work.
So, what forces are driving broadband services in the market?

158  UNIT 3 FIXED WIRELESS WIDE AREA NETWORKS
Forces driving broadband services in the market

Technology forces
According to the Internet ratings service Nielsen//NetRatings, broadband access
increased 134% in 2001 in the United States. Nearly 16 million users accessed the
Internet from home during April 2001 using a cable modem, DSL (digital
subscriber line), ISDN (integrated services digital network) or LAN (local area
network), compared to only 6.8 million in April 2000. (Massey 2001)
In Hong Kong, the number of broadband Internet users has increased

tremendously in recent years. The types of broadband technologies that are being
adopted include DSL, LMDS and cable modems, fiber-to-the-building and other
technologies. According to the statistics of the Office of the Telecommunications
Authority (OFTA) of Hong Kong (presented in Tables 3.1 and 3.2), there were 1.2
million broadband Internet users as of November 2003 and their total Internet
traffic was 119,620 terabits in November 2003.
Table 3.1 Broadband Internet traffic in Hong Kong
Internet Internet Internet Internet

traffic traffic traffic traffic
(terabits) (terabits) (terabits) (terabits)
Month Year 2000 Year 2001 Year 2002 Year 2003
January - 1,587 11,373 31,143
February - 2,770 11,192 28,372
March - 3,671 12,705 38,258
April - 4,310 13,583 51,505
May - 4,340 14,980 61,614
June - 6,080 15,485 69,803
July - 6,924 17,521 85,665
August - 7,750 19,718 95,342
September - 8,135 21,019 100,289
October - 8,543 24,079 114,955
November 1,624 8,950 25,704 119,620
December 1,285 10,547 27,937
Source: OFTA, www.ofta.gov.hk.

Table 3.2 Customer statistics of Internet service in Hong Kong
Source: OFTA, www.ofta.gov.hk.
Many people claim that the main force driving broadband services originated
from the Internet, where Web browsing has almost become a daily part of life.
Furthermore, the amount of data being downloaded or retrieved by end-users
during Web browsing has increased to a very large extent, thereby increasing
demand for high-speed data networks that can provide fast and efficient data
transmissions.
In addition, with the maturity of voice over IP (VoIP), voice messages over the
Internet have contributed to the demand for broadband services. VoIP is directly
competing with traditional long-distance-call services provided by
telecommunications services providers in providing inexpensive voice messages
between Internet users. However, VoIP is not without problems. The current
version of IP packet data transmission over networks, IPv4, does not support
grade of service (GOS). This implies packets will be sent from the initiator to the
recipient in a best effort mode. Thus, there is no guarantee that a packet can be
called through at a certain level of GOS. In the next version of IP packet, IPv6,
GOS on packet transmission over networks can be assured.
As mentioned in the ‘Overview’ of this unit, multimedia content,

videoconferencing and telecommuting are becoming more and more popular, and
the popularity of these services are also driving the demand for broadband
services.
Business forces
Apart from technical forces, business forces also explain the rapid rise in
broadband use. In recent years, there have been a number of global mergers and
acquisitions among technology-media-telecom (TMT) companies. A very familiar

case in Hong Kong was the acquisition of Hong Kong Telecom by Pacific
Century CyberWorks (PCCW). The former was a dominant telecommunications
operator, while the latter was an Internet startup company.
Examples of overseas acquisitions include America Online (AOL), an Internet

service provider, which acquired the media giant Time Warner in 2000. AOL
offered Time Warner a huge market for its products while Time Warner gave
AOL a vast range of content to its subscribers.
It has been argued that traditional television, radio and telephone services are in
decline and that the coming era will be the age of multimedia services deployed
with computers, mobile phones and digital televisions. This is one of the reasons
why there have been strategic alliances between mobile phone makers and
Internet giants, as well as portable communication devices manufacturers. There
has consequently been an increasing demand for wireless broadband networks
since the traditional way of building up a wired broadband network (requiring
cable laying and an enormous degree of road work) cannot cope with the rising
demand for service deployment.
Now, let us take a look at the different types of wireless technologies that can be
employed as fixed and mobile wireless broadband networks.
The fundamentals of wireless broadband

networks
In this section, we will address issues that relate to wireless broadband networks
adopted by various organisations or carriers. There is a wide range of choices of
wireless broadband networks that customers can consider. For example,
broadband users can either deploy their own private network or select existing
carrier networks; they can also choose a terrestrial network or a satellite network
for services.
The following issues will be discussed in this section:
• choice between wired-line or wireless broadband;

• choice between a private or a public carrier;
• drawbacks of wireless broadband;
• radio spectrum of wireless broadband networks; and
• wireless broadband applications.

Wired-line or wireless broadband?

When considering whether a wireless or wired-line network should be
implemented for providing broadband services to customers, network operators
take into consideration the following elements:
• cost of deployment;
• speed of deployment;
• flexibility of the network; and
• reliability of the network.
Wireless broadband networks have the advantages of lower cost, rapid

deployment capability and more flexibility, and their reliability is compatible to
that of wired-line networks in developed countries.
In the United States, approximately 54% of broadband customers are served by

wired-line networks which employ ADSL technology. However, this technology
requires customers’ premises to be within 3.5 km of a central office. In addition,
less than 14% of buildings are connected up via fiber to fixed network carrier
operators. Consequently, the provision of wireless broadband networks can fill the
gap between the demand for broadband and the lack of wired-line connections,
particularly for providing broadband services in unconnected or remote areas.
In an effort to open up the telecommunications market and reduce the cost of

wireless broadband services, the Hong Kong SAR government introduced five
fixed wireless broadband licenses in 2000. The government intended to reduce the
cost of wireless broadband services by introducing more competition in the
services provided by wired-line networks. The following activity takes you to
information related to government policies on broadband licenses and
competition.

ACTIVITY 3.1
Visit the official homepage of Office of the Telecommunications

Authority (OFTA), Hong Kong at http://www.ofta.gov.hk and find
out which five companies obtained fixed wireless broadband licenses.
(Please click on Site Map and then Press Room. Visit Press
Releases for January 2000. The five companies are listed in Annex A
at the end of the ‘Press Release’.)
Private or public carriers?

If a company has decided to go for wireless broadband services, it then has to
make another important decision:
• whether it should deploy its own wireless broadband connection; or
• whether it should simply subscribe to a wireless broadband carrier for

services.
In the past, most of the wireless broadband connections were deployed for private
use and these were primarily point-to-point connections between private
buildings. However, after the government released new licenses for building
wireless broadband networks, a number of companies deployed wireless
broadband services in metropolitan areas to provide public services. We refer to
these companies as competitive local exchange carriers (CLECs) or Internet
service providers (ISPs). They use wireless broadband technology to provide the
‘last mile’ from their base stations to customer premises instead of laying physical
cables (e.g. twisted copper cable or fiber cable).
Drawbacks of wireless broadband networks

Although wireless broadband networks have advantages such as flexibility and
rapid deployment capability, they are not without limitations. The following
factors are some of the drawbacks associated with wireless broadband networks.

Capacity limitation
A wireless broadband network employs radio spectrum, which is a finite resource.
This finite resource limits the number of users or traffic that can be used on the
network. In general, we can equate the amount of spectrum with data throughput,
1 Hz spectrum yielding 1 bps to 4 bps depending on various factors, such as the
modulation scheme and environmental factors.
Line-of-sight operation
Proper and effective operation of a wireless broadband network relies heavily on
having line-of-sight between transmitters and receivers. This requirement restricts
the distance between the hub station and the customer’s premises (this usually
varies from a few kilometers to tens of kilometers). For this reason, the antenna at
the customer’s premises is usually installed on the rooftop of the building so that
line-of-sight can easily be obtained between the antenna at the customer’s
premises and the hub station. In addition, the beam width of the antenna at the
customer’s premises should be very narrow, normally 3 to 4 degrees, to allow
direct focus to the hub station. However, the beam width of the antenna at the hub
station will be wide enough (normally 90 degrees) for point-to-multipoint
operation.
Equipment interoperability
Since there are different standards for wireless broadband networks currently in
the market, it is difficult to ensure that the equipment from different vendors can
inter-operate properly. Therefore, service providers normally purchase all of the
equipment from one vendor to ensure the network works properly.
Radio spectrum
Wireless broadband networks employ frequency bands between 900 MHz and 40
GHz. Some of the bands require licenses but some do not. At the end of this
section, we will outline which bands require licenses and which do not.
In general, a higher frequency band has an advantage over a lower frequency band
because higher frequency bands have more available spectrum for deploying
services. In addition, the antenna dimension is smaller for a higher frequency band
than for a lower frequency band, and, therefore, it is easier to install the antenna
for a higher frequency band at the customer’s premises. However, higher
frequency band transmission also has its drawbacks: its signal strength attenuates

more than a lower frequency band under bad weather conditions such as rain and
fog.
Both private and public carriers have their own reasons for using a licensed
spectrum or an unlicensed spectrum. The main advantage of using a licensed
spectrum is that the government regulates and assigns the spectrum to designated
operators and interference among different users is therefore minimised. On the
other hand, unlicensed bands are free for anyone to use but the networks
experience more unregulated interference.
The radio spectrums for wireless broadband are listed in the Table 3.3.
Table 3.3 Radio spectrums for wireless broadband networks in the United States
Frequency spectrum Description
900 MHz and 2.4 GHz Unlicensed systems using spread-spectrum

techniques
2.5 GHz Licensed to carriers for multichannel multipoint

distribution system (MMDS)
5 GHz New unlicensed band for unlicensed national

information infrastructure (UNII)
23 GHz Commonly used for microwave LAN systems
28 GHz Licensed to carriers for local multipoint

distribution services (LMDS)
38/39 GHz Licensed to carriers for general-purposes

communication services
Wireless broadband network types

Many types of wireless broadband networks are available in the market. We will
only briefly discuss private and carrier systems, and point-to-point and point-to-
multipoint systems.
Private licensed links (microwave)

Traditionally, carriers have used a microwave link as a backhaul network, such as
a T3 connection at 45 Mbps. Most of these links are multihop systems and
commonly operate at 2 GHz, 4 GHz and 6 GHz. However, if a private citizen
wants to have a private link to bridge a LAN system between two points, he/she
can apply to the FCC in the United States for a licensed frequency between 21.2
GHz to 23.6 GHz.
Private unlicensed links (spread spectrum)

A spread spectrum bridging product is an alternative for bridging two LAN
systems with microwave transmission. These products normally transmit at the
2.4 GHz (ISM) band.
UNII (unlicensed national information infrastructure) band

FCC has assigned at 300 MHz unlicensed spectrum from 5.15 GHz to 5.35 GHz
and from 5.725 GHz to 5.825 GHz for wireless LANs, wireless MANs and in-
building networks.
MMDS (multichannel multipoint distribution system)

MMDS is a kind of carrier service, which was initially intended for broadcast
television. In the United States, the transmission frequency is 2.5 GHz. It was
initially a one-way broadcast system. After the FCC of the United States revised
its regulations, it provided two-way broadband communication. The details of this
system will be discussed later.
38 GHz carrier service

The FCC of the United States assigned 14 pairs of 50 MHz wide channels at
38.6 GHz to 40 GHz and these channels are available for carriers as ‘last mile’
connections. Normally, carriers use these microwave connections to extend their
existing fiber network coverage to buildings where it is difficult to install a
physical fiber network. Carriers can then market high-speed connections to the
tenants of the buildings. The high-speed services are T1, E1, frame relay, Ethernet
and ATM.
LMDS (local multipoint distribution service)

LMDS is also a carrier class service, which initially also was the last mile
connection between the hub station and the customer’s premises at 28 GHz. It can
provide services such as telephone and Internet. Its proposed architecture is based
on point-to-multipoint, with a centralised hub station communicating to fixed
antennas and modems in customers’ premises. The details of this technology are
studied in the next section.

Wireless broadband network applications

Wireless broadband networks can provide any service or application that wired-
line networks can offer. For example, fixed wireless broadband networks can
provide a T1 circuit, a cable television, an Ethernet cable or a fiber optic cable. In
addition, these broadband networks provide the same type of interface
connections and use the same protocols, such as T1, frame relay, Ethernet and
ATM.
Fixed wireless broadband networks do not only provide high-speed data

connection to business subscribers, but also provide services such as voice
communications and Internet connections to residential subscribers. Fixed
wireless networks operate as well as wired-line cable systems in terms of delay
and bit-error rate. The only exception, where fixed wireless broadband networks
are not comparable with wired-line networks, is when communication of the fixed
wireless broadband network involves geosynchronous satellites, where the delay
of a wireless broadband network with geosynchronous satellites can be more than
a quarter of a second.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
What are the pros and cons of wired and wireless broadband networks?
Wireless broadband networks: fixed and

mobile
Wireless local loop (WLL) services can be defined as fixed wireless broadband
services that provide telephone network access for fixed location subscribers.
There are various technologies that can be employed for the provision of such
fixed wireless broadband services. Such technologies include:
• cellular mobile phone network technologies;
• personal communications systems (PCS) technologies;
• proprietary technologies; and
• fixed wireless communication technologies, e.g. point-to-point and point-to-

multipoint microwave communication systems.

Alternatively, mobile wireless broadband services can be deployed using some of

the above technologies, such as:
• cellular mobile phone network technologies; and

• wireless local area network (WLAN) technologies.
If radio subscribers have to ‘roam’ from here to there and require high speed data
rate transmissions during their travels, they will want mobile wireless broadband
services, while if radio subscribers are fixed at some locations (usually remote
ones) and need high-speed data rate transmissions, fixed wireless broadband
services should be their choice.
This section will discuss the technologies which are used for mobile and fixed
wireless broadband services. In addition, the differences between mobile
communication technologies and fixed wireless broadband communication in the
context of WLL will be elaborated.
Technologies for fixed wireless broadband services

Many WLL systems are employed over:
• cellular network technologies;

• cordless phone technologies;
• proprietary technologies; and
• microwave networks.
Examples of such include the advanced mobile phone system (AMPS), total
access communication system (TACS), global system for mobile communication
or Groupe Spéciale Mobile (GSM), digital European cordless telephone (DECT),
multipoint microwave distribution system or multichannel multipoint distribution
system (MMDS), local multipoint distribution service (LMDS), etc. In the
following sub-sections, each of these types of technologies will be elaborated.
Cellular technologies
There are many variants of cellular technologies, which can be used for the
application of the last-mile of WLL systems in order to provide narrow or
broadband services to end-users. (Last-mile technology is any
telecommunications technology, such as wireless radio, that carries signals from
broad telecommunication on across the relatively short distance — hence, the ‘last
mile’ — to and from a home or business.) These variants of technologies include

AMPS, TACS, GSM, general packet radio service (GPRS), CDMA2000 and third
generation (3G). Detailed elaboration of each of these technologies, including
system configurations and operational principles, will be given in Units 9 and 10.
Cordless phone technologies

Cordless technologies are also adopted by WLL to provide limited mobility in
telephone and broadband services. Cordless technologies include digital European
cordless telephone (DECT) and the personal handy-phone system (PHS). A figure
that depicts how cordless phone technology is used to provide WLL service to
end-users is shown in Figure 2.4 on Page 41 in the textbook.
Digital European cordless telephone (DECT)

DECT was standardised by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute
(ETSI) in the early 1990s and operates at the 1.88 GHz to
1.9 GHz frequency band. ETSI updated the specifications of EN300 765 in the
year 2001, which provides basic telephony service, such as the ‘plain old
telephone service’ (POTS), and additional advanced telephony services as offered
by the integrated services digital network (ISDN). Apart from these services, the
EN300 7645 specifications can interoperate with the DECT packet radio service
(EN301 649) to provide a packet data service. This service can offer up to 2 Mbps
and it will be enhanced to offer up to 20 Mbps.
Personal handy-phone system (PHS)

The personal handy-phone system (PHS) is a Japanese standard, which uses the
1815 MHz to 1918 MHz frequency spectrum. Both PHS and DECT employ the
time division multiple access–time division duplex (TDMA-TDD) approach,
where a carrier is divided into slots and some of the time slots are used for
downlink transmission, while some are used for uplink transmission. The carrier
spacing is 300 kHz and each carrier has four time slots where one is for a control
signal. Adaptive differential pulse code modulation (ADPCM) is adopted as the
modulation scheme.
Cordless technologies are particularly suitable for very high-density areas.

However, they are not very suitable for less populated areas because of their radio
range limitation. From an investment point of view, they are particularly not
suitable for rural areas as a relatively large number of cell sites or base stations
need to be constructed in order to provide sufficient coverage in rural areas.

Proprietary technologies
Proprietary technologies systems employ both TDMA and CDMA techniques and
were particularly designed for the implementation of fixed broadband wireless
communication systems. They, therefore, offer better quality than either cordless
or cellular technologies in terms of the following aspects:
• bit rates;
• coverage size; and
• voice quality.
Radio coverage of proprietary technologies systems can reach up to

15 km in open spaces or rural areas. Examples of proprietary technologies
systems include Nortel Proximity I, DSC Airspan, and Lucent Airloop.
Nortel Proximity I operates at the 3.4 GHz to 3.6 GHz frequency range and uses
frequency division duplex (FDD) to provide simultaneously full duplex
communication on uplink and downlink. Each carrier can support ten 32 kbps
channels, in other words, it is TDMA based. Two lines are provided for each
subscriber, therefore, a maximum of 64 kbps (32 kbps2) bandwidth is made
available per subscriber.
DSC Airspan is a CDMA-based system that operates in the 2 GHz frequency

band, where the channel bandwidth is 3.5 MHz. Its data rate can reach up to 128
kbps.
Proprietary technologies systems usually have excellent voice quality and data
capabilities but their main drawback is that they are very expensive compared
with other wireless technologies. The reason behind this is that open wireless
systems are widely adopted by most operators thereby lowering the cost of
equipment owing to a large economy of scale. However, as closed or proprietary
systems are not adopted widely, the equipment cost remains very high.
Microwave technologies
Microwave technologies systems were originally used to provide the multichannel
broadband broadcasting of video signals. As video signal transmission is one-
direction only, i.e. from the broadcasting transmitter to end-users’ receivers,
microwave technologies systems were designed to provide one-way signal
transmission, or more precisely, downlink only. Recently, microwave
technologies-based systems have been developed into asymmetric full duplex
communication systems that can transmit both uplink and downlink signals at the
same time so that they can support broadband wireless services (e.g. Internet).
The most popular microwave technologies are the multichannel multipoint

distribution service (MMDS) and local multipoint distribution service (LMDS).
These two technologies will be studied in detail in the next section.
A comparison of different technologies

Although the uses of cellular and microwave technologies for the deployment of
fixed broadband wireless services have not been fully discussed in this section, we
would like to compare these and other technologies to give you a better picture of
the pros and cons of various technologies. The comparison is shown in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4 Performance comparison of different technologies
Service Cellular Proprietary Cordless Microwave
Telephony Good Good Good Optimized for

data
Data 14–384 kbps 144 kbps 500 kbps 10 Mbps

(2G)
2 Mbps (3G)
Frequency 800/900 MHz 1.5–4 GHz 1.7–2 GHz 2.5/28/40 GHz

band
Line-of- Not critical Moderately Moderately Moderately

sight critical critical critical for 2.5
GHz
Very critical for
28/40 GHz
Supplement Good Good Limited Very limited

ary services
Capacity High High Very high Very high for

data
Range High (>> 35 km) Low (6–15 km) Very low (5 High (30 km)
(radius) km)

Deployment Very wide Limited Limited (but Very limited

growing) (especially in
developing
countries)
Deployment Moderate Expensive Moderately Very expensive

cost inexpensive
ACTIVITY 3.2
Interpret the information in Table 3.4 and comment on the pros and
cons of the various technologies.
Technologies for mobile wireless broadband services

As mentioned in the introduction section, most of the wireless communication
technologies that are employed in deploying fixed wireless broadband services
can also be used to deploy mobile wireless broadband services. As the distinction
between fixed and mobile wireless broadband networks relies on the mobility of
radio subscribers, whether a wireless technology is chosen for deploying mobile
wireless services depends on its ability to support a mobile radio subscriber within
the network.
Of the above list of technologies adopted for fixed wireless broadband networks,
cordless phone technologies are not suitable for deploying mobile wireless
broadband services as there is no roaming between cells. This heavily hinders
smooth call throws when radio subscribers travel from one place to another during
data transmission.
In addition, microwave technologies are not suitable for mobile services since
there are stringent requirements for having line-of-sight between microwave
transceivers in order to attain a transmission link between the two ends. This can
hardly be fulfilled when radio subscribers are moving within the network.
Cellular technologies
As mentioned in the previous section, there are various cellular technologies,
namely 1G technologies such as AMPS, TACS; 2G technologies such as GSM
and narrowband CDMA; 2.5G technologies such as GPRS and EDGE; and 3G
technologies such as CDMA2000 and UMTS. A detailed description of these
technologies will be given in Units 9 and 10.

Wireless local area network (WLAN) technologies

With the rising popularity of WLANs in the recent years, it has been suggested
that WLANs be employed to deploy mobile wireless broadband networks. The
first choice is WLAN IEEE 802.11b, which is also known as Wi-Fi (wireless
fidelity). Such a system was originally for an indoor LAN network that can
support a data rate of up to 10 Mbps. As the technology develops, manufacturers
of WLAN IEEE 802.11b have amplified the power of the radio devices so that a
larger coverage can be attained. Outdoor IEEE 802.11b systems operate best
when deployed in a configuration known as hot spots, which can provide radio
coverage up to 100 m to 300 m.
Yet WLAN IEEE 802.11b is not without challenges. Interference resistance and
security are the two prime concerns of employing WLAN as a mobile wireless
broadband network. A detailed discussion of WLAN technologies was already
included in Unit 7. You can revisit that unit if needed.
SELF-CHECK 3.2
There are four methods for implementing the wireless local loop for
fixed wireless broadband communication services.
List them and give an example of each method. Also explain why the
line-of-sight transmission criterion is important for some methods but
not important for others.
Local multipoint distribution system

(LMDS)
The local multipoint distribution system (LMDS), as its name implies, supports
point-to-multipoint communication where services that are targeted include voice,
high-speed data, Internet and video traffic. In this section, we will study the
system architecture, as well as the access method, modulation, radio propagation
and system capacity of LMDS.
The frequency spectrum assigned for LMDS is from 28 GHz to 31 GHz, but there
are slight variations of such frequency spectrum from country to country. Table
3.5 lists the frequency spectrum of LMDS in different countries.

Table 3.5 Frequency spectrum assignment of different countries
Countries LMDS spectrum

USA Blocks in 28 GHz to 31 GHz
European Blocks in 24 GHz to 31 GHz
Hong Kong Blocks in 24 GHz to 31 GHz
Since the frequency spectrum allocation of LMDS is near 28 GHz, its wavelength
is very short, ranging from 0.0107 meters to 0.01XX meters). A signal with such a
short wavelength is suitable for direct line-of-sight communication between two
fixed locations (e.g. a base station location and a subscriber’s home or office)
only. The advantages of using LMDS to provide fixed wireless broadband
services include the following:
• lower entrance cost barriers for the deployment of a LMDS network;

• rapid and easy deployment of LMDS networks, therefore causing minimal
disruption to the environment;
• scalable network architecture that can respond to customer demand, because
LMDS coverage can be deployed according to customer need (unlike wired-
line networks where infrastructure needs to be built before the needs of
customers are identified); and
• minimisation of fixed infrastructure costs, because most of the cost for
building a traditional wired-line infrastructure goes into the cable network
while the deployment cost for LMDS is mainly the equipment cost of the
customer premises equipment (CPE).
System design — architecture

The network architecture of a typical LMDS is illustrated in Figure 2.7 on Page
44 in the textbook. This figure shows typical elements of an LMDS network with
the base station being connected to an asynchronous transfer mode (ATM)
backbone switch through either a wired or wireless link OC-3 (which refers to a
fiber optic line capable of 155 Mbps) or OC-12 (which refers to a fiber optic line
capable of 622 Mbps). This backbone switch will be connected to the outside
world via:
• T1/E1 to PSTN;
• wireless or wired OC-3/OC-12 links to another ATM backbone switch; and
• wireless or wired DS3 link to the Internet.

On the other side of the base station, the microwave antenna will be connected. It
is used for communicating with the equipment in the customer’s premises.
In the subsequent sub-sections, the following aspects of LMDS system

architecture will be discussed:
• architectural installation variants for the base station;
• access methods;
• modulation; and
• the network interface unit (NIU), which is equipment that is installed in the
customer’s premises.
Architectural installation variants of LMDS base stations

LMDS base stations consist of two parts, namely the LMDS digital equipment
and microwave equipment (such as an antenna). There are two variations in the
architectural installation of LMDS base stations:
• A co-sited base station: This is the most commonly adopted method for
installing an LMDS base station where both the digital equipment and its
microwave equipment are installed at the same building, as shown in
Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1 Co-sited base station configuration

Source: International Engineering Consortium, Local Multipoint Distribution System
(LMDS), http://www.iec.org/online/tutorials/lmds/, Figure 2, p. 5.

• A remote base station: This architectural installation variant is adopted where

indoor digital equipment is separated from outdoor microwave equipment and
linked by analog fiber, as shown in Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2 Remote base station configuration

The advantage of this configuration is that it increases the redundancy of digital

equipment because this equipment is consolidated in one place. However, the
unavailability and cost of analog fiber make this configuration difficult to
implement.
Access methods
The access methods which are currently implemented in LMDS are frequency
division multiple access (FDMA) and time division multiple access (TDMA). The
access method that is in a downlink direction (i.e. from the LMDS base station to
the customers’ premises) commonly employs TDMA technology where the
customers share the downlink connection, as shown in Figure 3.3. The data to
each customer is carried by the individual time slot of the carrier in the downlink
direction.
Figure 3.3 Access methods used in LMDS (FDMA)


FDMA is adopted as the access method of uplink transmission (from the

customers’ premises to the LMDS base station) where each customer uses a
different frequency carrier to transmit data back to the base station.
In TDMA, customers share both downlink and uplink carriers, as shown in Figure
3.4.
Figure 3.4 Access method used in LMDS (TDMA)

SELF-CHECK 3.3
In Figures 3.3 and 3.4, we can see that the carrier uses the TDMA for
downlink (from the base station to the customers’ premises) if the
customers’ services are mainly for Internet traffic. Why is TDMA,
rather than FDMA, used for downlink in this situation?
Criteria for choosing access methods

The decision of LDMS operators to choose either FDMA or TDMA for downlink
or uplink is based on a number of factors, such as the amount of traffic and the
profile of traffic. For example, FDMA links will most likely be adopted where
customer traffic is constant over time or varies gradually. On the other hand,
TDMA will be assigned to customers whose traffic is bursty. Assignment of
bandwidth will then vary depending on the traffic of customers.
Here is an example of an FDMA access link:
• A large customer premises may request a DS-3 or unstructured DS-1 links
because this customer might aware that he has very constant traffic demands.
Bandwidth for data traffic links, such as DS-3 or DS-1, will then be assigned to
him whether he has data to transfer or not.

Here is an example of a TDMA access link:

• A home customer may request a single 10baseT port for Internet access. Since
the traffic of this customer is very bursty, a TDMA link might be suitable.
This customer can then share the downlink and uplink carrier with other users
to transfer data.
In addition to the above traffic factor, there are a lot of other issues that might
affect the choice of TDMA or FDMA link. Such factors include but are not
limited to the following:
• efficiency of medium access control;

• customer-premises multiplexer efficiency;
• channel structure efficiency;
• amount of forward error code (FEC) to be used on the channel;
• maximum data rate at peak hours; and
• blocking level.
Table 3.6 lists some other issues related to TDMA and FDMA links.

Table 3.6 TDMA and FDMA system issues in LMDS
Issues TDMA FDMA

User burstiness TDMA allows for bursty response An FDMA link is always on,
efficiency and does not request slots unless regardless of whether or not
necessary. the user sends data.
Wireless MAC MAC efficiency ranges from 65– Efficiency is estimated at
(medium access 90% or higher depending on the 100%, no MAC.
control) burstiness characteristics of the
users and the MAC design.
Customer- Both the FDMA and TDMA Both systems multiplex
premises mix systems allow higher-priority user various streams through the
traffic to be sent first. same wireless pipe.
Channel Efficiency is estimated at 88%, Efficiency is 100%.
efficiency based on preamble and ranging.
FEC 75–85% 91%
percentage*
Maximum data TDMA allows bursting to the FDMA provides a constant
rate maximum rate of the channel, pipe, with bursting occurring
based on fairness algorithms for the based on fairness algorithms
wireless MAC and the customer- within the customer-premises
premises multiplexer. multiplexer.

(LMDS), http://www.iec.org/online/tutorials/lmds/, Table 1, p. 8.
*Note: The FEC percentage indicates the percentage of packets that are FEC packets. The greater the
FEC percentage is, the greater the packet loss that can be handled. If it is 100%, a redundant stream is
created to protect against packet loss.
FEC packets are used to strengthen the stream against data packet loss. They accomplish this by
containing redundant information about the preceding packets. This redundant information can be
used to reconstruct the stream in the event of packet loss.
Modulation
The modulation methods for TDMA and FDMA are almost the same. The
estimated bandwidth for FDMA access schemes for a 2 Mbps constant bit rate
(CBR) connection is listed in Table 3.7.

Table 3.7 FDMA modulation methods
Name Modulation method Estimated bandwidth for

2 Mbps CBR connection
BPSK Binary phase-shift keying 2.8 MHz
DQPSK Differential quaternary phase-shift keying 1.4 MHz
QPSK Quaternary phase-shift keying 1.4 MHz
8PSK 8-phase-shift keying 0.8 MHz
4-QAM 4-quadrature amplitude modulation 1.4 MHz

Note: The estimated bandwidth excludes the effects of guard bands, filters and transport overhead.
The new LMDS equipment even supports the 256-QAM modulation method.
Network interface unit

A network interface unit (NIU) is installed in customer premises and it acts as an
interface between the LMDS base station and the in-building communication
facilities (e.g. LAN), as shown in Figure 3.5.
Legend:
NIU
STB Set-top box
VC Video codec
VC
STB TV
PBX
LAN
Figure 3.5 Network interface unit (NIU)

Source: Held, G (2000) Data Over Wireless Networks: Bluetooth, WAP, and Wireless
LANs, McGraw-Hill, Figure 8-4, p. 183.

The NIU consists of various major components, namely:
• an RF modem which supports modulation techniques (e.g. 16-QAM, 64-QAM,

BPSK) and access methods (e.g. TDMA and FDMA);
• in-building communication facilities which support interfaces such as T1, T3,

10BaseT, LAN, and are as per customer’s requirements;
• a chassis for easy housing of the various modules of the unit; and
• a power supply.
In addition to the above components, a set-top box (STB) can be connected to the
NIU to provide interactive television services for residential subscribers.
Furthermore, a video coder (VC) can be installed in the NIU to provide a video
conferencing facility to business subscribers.
Radio propagation in LMDS

The detailed propagation models of mobile radio were introduced in Units 3 and
4. In this section, we will highlight the issues related to LDMS radio propagation
at around 28 GHz.
Propagation issues
Among the various propagation issues, the following two aspects require special
consideration:
• Rain attenuation: The signal strength of an LMDS system at 28 GHz will be

reduced by the rain effect since rainfall causes depolarisation of the signal and
results in a decrease in signal strength. (Actually, rain attenuation is a very
common propagation problem in any microwave system. This is the main
reason why microwave technologies are not popular in countries where there
is heavy rain.)
• Multipath fading: The multipath fading effect occurs less in LMDS. There are
four reasons for this:
1 LMDS propagation is in direct line-of-sight (LOS) which means that

diffraction and reflection effects will not occur as often in mobile radio
communication, and this multipath fading effect is minimal for LDMS
communication.

2 The height of the antenna also plays an important role in the multipath
effect. If the antenna is located higher up, its multipath effect will be lower.
The antenna of LMDS is normally installed on the rooftop of the
customer’s premises and is more than six meters above ground level,
whereas the height of a mobile radio (GSM or PCS communication
system) is about two meters high (i.e., the height of a human being).
Therefore, the multipath fading effect is weaker in the LDMS system.
3 The type of antenna will also affect the reception of the multipath signal.
The mobile radio employs an omni-directional antenna which can receive
and transmit in 360° on a horizontal plane, and, therefore, can receive all
multipath signals from all horizontal directions. However, LDMS uses a
directional antenna (normally with a 10° to 15° horizontal transmission
pattern). As a result, fewer multipath signals can be received in the LMDS
system.
4 A moving environment has more multipath signals and mobile radios are
usually moving (e.g. the customer carries the mobile radio while walking
on the street or traveling in a bus). However, the antenna of LMDS is
fixed. As a result it will have a less pronounced multipath fading effect.
System capacity of LMDS

The system capacity of the LMDS communication network is influenced by two
major factors:
• the data rate for transmission that can be achieved with respect to its frequency
spectrum, i.e. spectral efficiency; and
• the maximum number of subscriber sites that can be attained.
In the following sub-sections, system capacity for both FDMA and TDMA will be
explained.
System capacity for FDMA

For the sake of calculating the system capacity of LMDS that employs FDMA, we
have to determine the capacity per cell site. The following equations illustrate the
concept behind this:

LMDS system capacity = number of cell site within system 

capacity per cell site
Cell site capacity = number of sectors within the cell site 

sector capacity
In order to illustrate the data capacity of an LMDS system, the spectral efficiency
of the modulation methods being employed shall be used. As discussed in Unit 5,
spectral efficiency is measured in bits per second per hertz. Table 3.8 lists the
spectral efficiencies of the three most common methods employed in QAM.
Table 3.8 Spectral efficiency
Modulation method Spectral efficiency
4-QAM 1.5 bps/Hz
16-QAM 3.5 bps/Hz
64-QAM 5.0 bps/Hz

Now let us assume an operator has a usable spectrum of S GHz with a frequency
reuse ratio of n. Here usable spectrum refers to the total spectrum that is
employed in deploying the operator’s wireless communication services, while
frequency reuse ratio refers to the number of times that the operator utilises the
same channel within the same wireless network. In applications such as those for
LDMS, frequency reuse ratio is usually related to the number of sectors ns in the
network.
A simple equation that relates usable spectrum, frequency reuse ratio and the
spectrum of each sector in a network can be derived as
S = n  Sn
where S is the usable spectrum

n is the frequency reuse ratio
Sn is the spectrum employed in each of the sectors.

If an operator utilises 500 MHz in its network as usable spectrum with a

frequency reuse ratio of 2 (meaning there are 2 sectors in the network), the
spectrum used in each of the sectors will be 250 MHz (derived by the equation
above, where S = 500 MHz and n = 2). Although it is possible to allocate the
bandwidth asymmetrically (i.e. having ‘unbalanced’ 1 bandwidth transmission
between uplink and downlink), we assume it is symmetrical for both uplink and
downlink transmission here. Therefore, the usable spectrum for uplink and
downlink for each sector is 125 MHz.
Example 8.1
Assume each customer premises site uses a 5 MHz FDMA link at
4-QAM modulation.
The data rate for each customer site is 5  spectrum efficiency with
4-QAM from Table 3.8.
The data rate for each customer site is = 5  1.5 Mbps = 7.5 Mbps
We have 125 MHz usable of the downlink and 125 MHz for uplink. Therefore,
the total available downstream links are (125 MHz / 5 MHz) = 25 links.
Therefore, the total data rate for downstream links per sector, which use 4-QAM
modulation, is 7.5 Mbps  25 links = 187.5 Mbps.
The maximum number of customer sites per sector = 125 MHz / 5 MHz = 25.
SELF-CHECK 3.4
Assuming that each customer premises site uses a 5 MHz FDMA link at
16-QAM and the usable spectrum is 500 MHz as well, what is the data
rate for each customer?
1
Can you think of examples of the need to have ‘unbalanced’ uplink and downlink transmission
assignment? A typical example is Internet browsing where downlink data traffic (from the
server to the subscriber’s computer) is very much heavier than its uplink data traffic (from the
subscriber’s computer to the server), since subscribers perform data enquiry and data
downloading more frequently and in larger bulk than uploading.

System capacity for TDMA

Among the various types of multiple access systems, the TDMA system is the
best choice for serving customers whose data rate is relatively slow. The
calculation of the data rate in TDMA is a bit more difficult. The prime reason
behind this is that in TDMA, the carrier is divided into time slots for data
transmission. It is this division of carrier into time slots which creates overhead in
the data transmission rate. This makes every 5 MHz TDMA channel support an
approximate 80 number of T1 time slots, where the data rate of each T1 time slot
is 64 kbps. As a result, every 5 MHz TDMA channel can support 80  64 kbps =
5.12 Mbps.
For the sake of easy comparison between the system capacity of the FDMA and
TDMA systems, let us assume that there is a 250 MHz bandwidth available for
uplink and downlink transmission (as in the illustration mentioned in the previous
sub-section ‘System capacity for FDMA’). This will result in 50 links (250 MHz /
5 MHz) being supported by each sector of the TDMA access system. As a result,
each sector can support up to 50  5.12 Mbps = 256 Mbps for downlink and
uplink transmission.
As each user will employ one time slot for transmission, the total number of
simultaneous users that can be supported will be 50 links  80 time slots = 4000
time slots per sector. If we assume a concentration level of 5:1 over the sector,
there will be 4000 time slots  5 = 20000 connections per sector within the
designed blocking level. The assumption of a 5:1 concentration level reflects the
Internet usage of these connections.
Multipoint microwave distribution

system/multichannel multipoint
distribution system (MMDS)
The MMDS system is another fixed wireless broadband technology, and it has a
long history that goes back to the 1960s. It was used for wireless distribution of
television as an alternative to cable TV at the 2.5 GHz spectrum. Therefore,
MMDS initially was a one-way distribution system. After the FCC changed its
regulations, the MMDS system introduced an uplink to support two-way data
services. In this section, we will discuss the history of MMDS, its architecture and
its propagation and transmission methods.

History of MMDS
The MMDS service was first launched as instructional television fixed
programming (ITFS) in the late 1960s. The frequency spectrum was
2.5 GHz to 2.7 GHz. It was used by universities to provide supplementary lecture
material and campus information. The FCC of the United States recognised
MMDS’s commercial applications and it allocated a number of 6 MHz channels
in the 2.5–2.7 GHz range for TV broadcasting, called the metropolitan
distribution system (MDS). The market for this service seemed very attractive but
it gradually lost its potential because of its limitations for providing bandwidth for
more TV channels and services. Until the mid-1980s, the MMDS system was
deployed in several countries including Australia, Canada, France and Hong
Kong.
In the United States, the MMDS service operators use the system to provide
analogue TV and data communication services. The system architecture of
MMDS to provide one-way communication will be discussed in the next section,
and its options for two-way data service is also discussed in this unit.
In Hong Kong, i-Cable Communication Ltd has operated its Cable TV service
since 1993. Initially Cable TV employed the MMDS technology to provide TV
programmes to Hong Kong customers because MMDS deployment was cheaper
and faster. However, the company had to build a hybrid fibre coaxial (HFC)
infrastructure to provide the Cable TV service in line with its commitments. The
statistics in Table 3.9 show that the number of subscribers to the MMDS service
has gradually decreased, while the number of subscribers to the HFC service has
increased.
Table 3.9 Cable TV subscribers served by the MMDS HFC networks in Hong Kong
Year MMDS subscriber number HFC subscriber numbers

1995 1,050,000 89,000
1996 1,060,000 292,000
1997 1,020,000 500,000
1998 974,000 629,000
1999 735,000 957,000
2002 100,000 1,900,000

Nowadays, Cable TV services are mainly provided by the two-way HFC network
and only a small portion of subscribers, living in remote areas, use the MMDS
network in Hong Kong.
System design — architecture

Let’s now look at the MMDS frequency spectrum, the network elements which
form the MMDS network, and the options for providing two-way Internet services
with MMDS.
Frequency spectrum for MMDS

Table 3.10 lists the frequency spectrum for MMDS systems in the US and Hong
Kong. The bandwidth of each MMDS channel is 6 MHz.
Table 3.10 Frequency spectrum of MMDS networks
Country Frequency spectrum

US 2.5–2.692 GHz
Hong Kong Blocks in 17.7–19.7 GHz
Network architecture
The MMDS network can be used to provide:
• TV broadcast; and
• two-way broadband Internet access.
Let’s examine some of the differences in the network architecture for providing
TV and two-way broadband Internet access.
Figure 3.6 illustrates a typical MMDS system that provides a broadcast TV

service.

Satellite Transmit Receive

antenna antenna antenna
Down
converter
Satellite Decoders/
Amplifier
receiver encoder
Cable Converter/
Cable transmitter/ Modulation Up converter decoder
receiver
TV
Video distribution station
Subscriber
Figure 3.6 MMDS system configuration for broadcasting TV only
Figure 3.6 shows how a video distribution station receives the TV signal either
from the cable or the satellite: it is rare to have both. In Hong Kong, the Cable TV
company runs cable to distribute the TV signal to video distribution stations.
Normally, the antenna of this station is very high so that it can cover a large area.
The coverage area cannot be as large as a typical MMDS running at 2.5 GHz,
which covers around
50 km to 100 km. The MMDS system receives the VHF frequency and then,
rescrambled, upconverts it into a 2.5 GHz frequency, amplifies the signal and
transmits it to subscribers.
Options in two-way communications

Since the MMDS system was initially designed to broadcast TV, it is a one-way
communication system. After the FCC of the United States changed its
regulations, operators employed it to provide broadband Internet services. There
are at least three options for adopting the return path that can be chosen by
MMDS operators.
Wired return path

In this solution, the downlink (where the data is transmitted from the MMDS
system to the subscriber’s premises) uses the wireless MMDS link and the return
path (where the data is transmitted from the subscriber) employs the plain old
telephone system (POTS) or integrated service digital network (ISDN). The

service provider uses the POTS return path for customers who transmit small
amounts of data back to the Internet but download a lot data from the Internet.
Figure 3.7 illustrates the configuration of wired returns. (This is the current
supercell configuration.)
To the Internet, wide area networks, or other high-speed networks
Series 2000 point of presence
CyberManager Router (S)

10/100 Mbps
Fast Ethernet switch
100 Mbps
10/100 Mbps
CMD-2000B LAN card
LAC
Upstream terminal
server
(modem bank)
Modulator Modulator
card card
IF
Transmitter
Transmitter
3 × 2 MHz channel
IF downstream
Other transmitters:
One digital transmitter
per 6 MHz channel Waveguide combiner
Antenna
Telephone
network
Antenna/Transceiver
Transceiver power inserter

and power supply
End user External

computer Wireless broadband router phone mode
10Base-T/USB RS-232-C
Figure 3.7 Wired return configurations

Source: ioWave Inc, Series 2000 System Description Release 5.1,
Figure 4-1, p. 4-3.

The following should be noted:
• The network management unit is a high-speed computer server for

administrating and managing the network configuration, storing the subscriber
database and system backup, etc. (e.g. Cyber Manager in the following figure).
• The downstream router and modulator has a LAN interface and a modulator,
which provides 64-QAM, 16-QAM and QPSK modulation. It also provides
the intermediate frequency (IF) signal for the transmitter. In the MMDS
system, there is one transmitter per channel.
• The upstream terminal server is a modem bank to provide the dial-up Internet
service for the return path of subscribers.
• The transmitter converts the IF signal from the downstream router and
modulator to the carrier frequency at 2.5 GHz and it also amplifies the signal
magnitude.
• The waveguide combiner combines several signals from the transmitter and
feeds these signals into a cable feeder for an antenna.
• The antenna/transceiver is installed at the customer’s premises and it also

houses the transceiver unit, which combines the function of transmitter and
receiver.
• The wireless broadband router provides the modulation (e.g. QPSK, 16-QAM
and 64-QAM) and gives the LAN and RS232 interface for the customer’s
Internet service connection.
Wireless return path — ISM band

A wireless return path can employ a spread spectrum modulator to transmit the
return data in the industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) band. Figure 3.8 outlines
this method.

Figure 3.8 Wireless return path of the MMDS system in the ISM band
Source: International Engineering Consortium, Wireless Broadband Modems,
http://www.iec.org/online/tutorials/wire_broad, Figure 4, p. 11.
The cable modem (e.g. Hybrid CCM) has a RS232 signal output port and it can be
used to drive a commercial available spread spectrum modulator at 900 MHz. A
transverter module converts the signal from 900 MHz to 2.4 GHz in the ISM band
for the return path. Therefore, a spread spectrum demodulator is employed at the
base station to decode the signal of transmission. Since this ISM band is an
unlicensed band for transmission, the problem of interference is addressed in this
method. A highly directional 2.4 GHz antenna is normally installed at the
customer’s premises to minimise the probability of interference with other users.
Wireless return path — special frequencies in the MMDS band

Only a few channels in the MMDS band will be used for the return paths or uplink
access for the MMDS system. The antenna system configurations for uplink and
downlink are different. Usually an omni-sector is used for downlink while a sector
antenna system is used for uplink. The sector antenna configuration facilitates the
frequency re-use architecture on the uplink path because of limited channels for
uplink. Figure 3.9 is a typical network configuration for a two-way wireless return
path in the MMDS system.

Three elements are important in the two-way wireless MMDS system:
• the down converter, the main function of which is to convert the data at the
carrier frequency (2.4 GHz) down to the intermediate frequency (IF) for the
splitters, upstream router and demodulator;
• splitters, which split uplink signals into each demodulation module; and
• an upstream router and a demodulator which has a LAN interface and provides
64-QAM, 16-QAM and QPSK demodulation to obtain the data.
To the Internet, wide area networks, or other high-speed networks
Series 2000 point of presence
CyberManager Router (S)

10/100 Mbps
Fast Ethernet switch
100 Mbps 100 Mbps

CMU-2000-14C
CMD-2000B LAN card Each CMU-2000
LAC LAC accommodates 14 QPSK
demodulator cards
(QOC-030-2). Each card
DEC
demodulates two upstream

frequencies.
Modulator Modulator QOC-030-2 cards
card card Quantity: 2 to 14 cards
IF
Transmitter
Splitter Splitter
Transmitter
3 × 2 MHz channel
IF downstream
Other transmitters: Downconverter
One digital transmitter
per 6 MHz channel Waveguide combiner Downconverter
Antenna Sector antennas
Antenna/Transceiver
Transceiver power inserter

and power supply
End user
computer Wireless broadband router
10Base-T/USB
Figure 3.9 Wireless return path configuration

Source: ioWave Inc, Series 2000 System Description Release 5.1, Figure 3-1,
p. 3-3.

Propagation and transmission methods in MMDS

One of the key issues affecting the use of the MMDS system for data
communication is the multipath effect of the signal due to reflection. This
multipath effect can cause misinterpretations of received data. A number of
communication methods that minimise this effect on MMDS communication are
examined in this section.
Multipath communications
The signal to be transmitted at microwave frequency (e.g. 2.5 GHz) is affected by
the multipath signals, which are created by the reflection of the objects in the path
between the transmitter and receiver, such as trees, houses, etc. These multipath
signals are superimposed with the original signal and the composition of the
signals is received by the receiver. If obstacle objects are near the receiver, the
time delay between the reflected signals and the original signal is very slight and
the phase difference between them is also slight, as is shown in Figure 3.10(a).
However, if obstacles are far from the receiver, the time delay between them is
apart and they have a high degree of phase misalignment, as is shown in Figure
3.10(b).
Primary Primary
received received
signal signal
Echoed/Reflected signals Echoed/Reflected signals
(a) Reflected signals due to near objects (b) Reflected signals due to far objects
Figure 3.10 Multipath effect
Minimising multipath reflections

As shown in Figure 3.10, the multipath effect exists in microwave transmission.
For the transmission of a TV analogue signal, these reflected signals appear as
ghosts of the image. However, if an MMDS system is used to transmit the data,
these reflections may cause the computer to misinterpret the information.

Therefore, these reflections are minimised for data communication at microwave

frequency.
A direct line-of-sight transmission can minimise the number of reflected signals

and their amplitude and these reflected signals can be filtered out by a suitable
filter. However, the MMDS system works in a non-direct line-of-sight
environment and sometimes the original signal strength is even weaker than the
reflected signal because of obstacles blocking the direct path. As a result, removal
of reflected signals is more difficult in the MMDS system. The following
techniques have been developed to enhance the reception of digital data in the
multipath environment.
QAM with decision feedback equalization

As explained in Unit 6, the decision feedback equalisation (DFE) method employs
a relatively narrow bandwidth wireless system to minimise the intersymbol
interference (ISI) from the multipath effect. The received signal is oversampled.
For example, the signal rate may be at 1 kHz and the sampling rate may be at 4
kHz or 8 kHz. After the oversampling process, DFE filters out the echoed carriers.
However, it is difficult to implement DFE in a channel with a 6 MHz bandwidth
MMDS system.
Despite this difficulty of implementing DFE in QAM modulation to minimise the

ISI effect, QAM modulation (e.g. 16-QAM and 64-QAM) is still the most
common technique applied in the MMDS system.
Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)

We briefly discussed this technology for wireless transmission in previous units.
This technology uses pseudorandom codes to spread the narrow bandwidth signals
into broadband signals. These orthogonal pseudorandom codes enable the
simultaneous transmission of signals within a spread spectrum. The receiver uses
the same code in order to decode the corresponding user’s signal back. The other
user’s signal is removed by the code and the reflected signal is also not a problem
in this despreading process. However, the DSSS technique cannot be applied to
the MMDS system because for the DSSS technique requires a spread spectrum,
which is significantly greater than the available bandwidth in the MMDS system.
This can be illustrated in the following example. Comparing the CDMA IS-95 and
the analogue AMPS system, a carrier of IS-95 is 1.25 MHz bandwidth while a
carrier of AMPS is 30 kHz. The ratio of a carrier of IS-95 to AMPS is 42. We can
therefore estimate the spread spectrum bandwidth for the DSSS technique to be
implemented on the MMDS system to be 252 MHz, which is more than the
current available 100 MHz bandwidth in the US. Therefore, it is not practical to
implement the DSSS technique in the MMDS system.
Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)

The idea of FDM is to divide the available spectrum into channels, with each
channel responsible for transmitting signal information. A guard band frequency
is used to prevent adjacent channel interference. However, some wireless
communication systems (e.g. AMPS) do not have a guard band between their
channels. The radio frequency engineer who plans the frequency assignment of
each base station needs to avoid the adjacent channel assignment in the same base
station and its coverage area.
Although FDM minimises the effect of reflection by the introduction of a guard

band or a restriction on using the adjacent channel, these methods reduce
bandwidth utilisation.
Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM)
In the OFDM system, there are a number of subcarriers within an OFDM carrier.
These subcarriers are considered to be orthogonal and independent of each other.
Therefore, there is no need to have a guard band for each subcarrier. As a result,
the frequency utilisation of OFDM is better than for a FDM system, which
requires a guard band for each carrier. However, note that guard bands are
required for each OFDM carrier.
In addition, each OFDM symbol has a cyclic prefix and this cyclic prefix is just a
redundancy copy of a part of the symbol. It acts as a guard period for the
multipath signal. As a result, the OFDM system is more robust to the multipath
effect. This modulation scheme is also used by vendors for their equipment.
Vector orthogonal frequency division multiplex (VOFDM)

VOFDM is a method proposed by Cisco Systems which promotes an open-
technology standard for MMDS modulation. Cisco launched its MMDS product
in 1999 using the VOFDM technique. The operation principle of VOFDM
modulation is shown in Figure 3.11.

Figure 3.11 VOFDM technique

Source: Cisco Systems (2001) ‘Multipoint broadband wireless: leading Cisco technology
surmounts near line-of-sight limitations’, Packet, 13(2),
http://www.cisco.com/en/US/about/ac123/ac114/ac173/ac167/
about_cisco_packet_department09186a008010f7d7.html.
VOFDM employs spatial diversity to the OFDM system, and the spatial diversity
actually uses multiple antennas in the hub and customer sites, as shown in Figure
3.11. Different multipath signals are received by different antennas and the system
adds these multipath signals into a stronger useful signal using the vector
processing technique. Therefore, the spacing of the antennas needs to be at least
100 times the wavelength of the MMDS system in order for the VOFDM spatial
diversity technique to function properly. Since the MMDS system operates at 2.5
GHz, the required spacing of each antenna is about 12 metres.
SELF-CHECK 3.5
Compare LMDS and MMDS in terms of architecture (base station,
customer premises equipment, and return path) and propagation.

Applications and services on fixed

wireless broadband networks
We have studied a couple of fixed wireless broadband technologies (LMDS and
MMDS). Now, let us switch to discussing the applications and services of such
technologies at home and in businesses. In addition, we will compare the
performance of LMDS and MMDS with other broadband technologies.
Applications and services of LMDS and MMDS

The fixed wireless technologies of LMDS and MMDS are cost-effective ways to
provide the last-mile connections for customers’ premises. Some applications and
services of these wireless broadband networks are as follows:
• Internet phone: This acts like a regular phone, yet it does not make any circuit-
switch connection to PSTN. Voice message transmissions are all through IP
packet data via an IP data network (e.g. wireless broadband networks).
• IP fax machine: This is similar to an Internet phone. This device transmits fax
data via an IP data network (e.g. wireless broadband networks).
• Wireless broadband access devices: These devices enable wireless broadband

Internet access over cable TV and existing phone lines up to 40 Mbp.
• ‘Yuppie appliances’: These include devices such as the ‘pet tracker’, which is
a collar on a pet that tracks the pet’s location via global positioning satellite
(GPS).
• Set-top box: This device sits on top of a TV and provides various services,
such as digital TV, Internet access, and gaming (interactive video games).
• Residential gateway: This is an intelligent gateway between the LAN inside a

subscriber’s home and the wireless broadband access network, as shown in
Figure 3.12. This gateway provides services such as file and application
sharing, Internet sharing, networked games, plain old telephone service
(POTS) and fax service.

Gateway core
Applications
Home LAN Management Local loop Last mile
interface(s) Network services interface technologies
RTOS
Processor
Figure 3.12 Residential gateway

Source: Vacca, J R (2001) Wireless Broadband Networks Handbook: 3G, LMDS, and
Wireless Internet, McGraw-Hill, Figure 3.1, p. 116.
• Video-on-demand: Two-way residential wireless broadband networks can

provide video-on-demand services to customers because they support high-
speed data rate transfer.
• Work at home (telework): Employees can connect to their office to work via
this high-speed wireless data network.
• In-home wireless broadband networking: A home LAN infrastructure allows

for home automation and the sharing of resources between information
appliances (such as printers, servers, scanners) and computers.
• Control wireless broadband network: Devices can be controlled via wireless

broadband network. Typical examples include meter reading, burglar alarms,
garage entrance gates, pet feeders and temperature monitoring control systems.
• Backhaul of other wireless networks: These wireless broadband networks

(LMDS and MMDS) can be used as backhaul networks for providing the
support of 2G, 2.5G and 3G mobile networks. After all, all such cellular phone
wireless networks require transmission links between base stations and their
base station controllers or even central switching equipment.
In the future, all home entertainment appliances (such as TVs, VCRs and stereo
systems), telephone systems and computers may be connected to a home gateway
for Internet access.
Comparison of wireless and wired broadband access

technologies
We have reviewed the various applications and services that can be provided by
wireless broadband access technologies. However, such services and applications
can also be deployed by wired access technologies. In this section, we will
compare the different broadband access technologies, both wired and wireless, in

terms of deployment cost, deployment time, equipment cost, data rate supported,
etc.
Among the various wired and wireless broadband access technologies, we have
chosen those technologies that are most commonly adopted in the market. These
technologies include:
• integrated services digital network (ISDN);
• asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL);
• cable modem;
• multipoint microwave distribution system or multichannel multipoint

distribution system (MMDS);
• local multipoint distribution service (LMDS); and
• satellite.
Table 3.11 compares the various broadband access methods.
Table 3.11 Comparison of different wireless and wired broadband access methods
Technology ISDN ADSL Cable MMDS LMDS Satellite

modem
Deployment High High High Low Medium Very

cost high
Deployment Medium Medium Medium Low Low Low

time
Customer Medium Medium Low Low- High High

premises medium
equipment
cost
Data rate 128 kbps 1–8 Mbps 30 Mbps 27 Mbps 36 Mbps 36 Mbps
(both (downlink), (shared (shared (shared (shared
uplink 384/640 downlink), downlink downlink downlink
and kbps 0–384 ), 0–5 ), 0–8 ), 2 Mbps
downlink) (uplink) kbps Mbps Mbps (shared
(uplink) (shared (shared uplink)
uplink) uplink)

Total High High Medium Medium High Medium

capacity
Coverage Near Near Large 50–100 2–6 km Large

area per cell central central km
office office
ACTIVITY 3.3
Interpret the information in the Table 3.11 and compare the various
technologies for broadband networks in terms of:
• deployment cost;
• deployment time;
• data rate;
• capacity; and
• coverage.
What are the relative strengths and weaknesses of each technology?
After you have made some notes on the strengths and weaknesses of the
access methods for different technologies, compare your notes with the
feedback at the end of the unit.
Future trends
If we want to try to assess future trends in wireless broadband networks, there are
various aspects to consider. In this section, we will look at the future prospects of
wireless broadband networks with regard to:
• wireless and wired-line network integration; and

• the standardisation of wireless broadband networks.

Integration of wired-line and wireless broadband

networks
The integration of wired-line and wireless broadband networks can be generally
regarded as a ‘hybrid’ broadband network that employs both wired and wireless
technologies to deploy broadband services. The hybrid system, can provide
multiservices, such as T1/E1, frame relay, TDM, ATM, POTS, etc., via a
multiaccess platform (e.g. ATM fiber, fixed wireless broadband, ADSL modem,
etc.). The generic set-up of such a network is shown in Figure 3.13.
T-1/E-1
FR
Broadband TDM
wireless ATM
Transceiver POTS
10BaseT
T-1/E-1 HDSL
line modem T-1/E-1
Frame
Service
TDM
distribution
ATM
backbone
ATM fiber services
MainStreetXpress ATM switch
36170
base station
10BaseT
ADSL ADSL
Ethernet modem
Figure 3.13 Wireless and wired-line network integration
Source: Vacca, J R (2001) Wireless Broadband Networks Handbook: 3G, LMDS, and
Wireless Internet, McGraw-Hill, Figure 27-1, p. 702.
The service distribution backbone is connected to a base station (i.e.

MainStreetXpress 36170 in Figure 3.13) which can provide multiaccess
platforms, such as ADSL and fixed wireless broadband network, to meet the
customers’ broadband requirements.

There are at least two strategies for implementing a wired-line and wireless
integrated network:
• Companies build a core fiber network in the metropolitan area and extend
fibers to buildings only within 400 m of the core fiber network, while a fixed
wireless broadband network provides service to customers who are located 4
km away from the core fiber network. The company can gradually extend its
fiber connection by moving fiber to the first points of wireless broadband
connection and shifting the wireless broadband base station further away.
Nextlink in the United States has adopted this network expansion strategy.
• Some companies integrate their fixed wireless and wired-line broadband

networks in order to meet surging demand for high-speed data services of
customers. For example, Sprint in the United States uses its DSL and MMDS
network to deliver integrated on-demand network (ION) service.
In Hong Kong, two LMDS carriers acquired their wired-line licenses in 2002.
Some customers in Hong Kong are served by hybrid wireless and wired-line
networks. To find out more about this, complete the following activity.
ACTIVITY 3.4
Visit the OFTA website to find information on the current LMDS

carriers operating in Hong Kong in terms of:
• which carrier(s) solely operate LMDS; and
• which carrier(s) operate LMDS and wired-line networks.
Standardisation of wireless broadband networks

As we have mentioned in the above sections, there have not been any standards
formulated for fixed wireless broadband networks. Such a lack of standardisation
for fixed wireless broadband networks leads to difficulty in interoperation
between different vendors’ equipment. As a result, the Institution of Electrical and
Electronic Engineers (IEEE) of the United States and the European
Telecommunication Standardisation Institution (ETSI) in Europe launched
respective standards for wireless broadband networks.

IEEE 802.16
The IEEE 802.16 working group started its work in 1999 to create a standard for
wireless broadband access for offering a high speed, high capacity, low cost, and a
scalable solution to extend fiber optic backbones. The progress of 802.16
standards is listed below:
• The first IEEE 802.16 standard (‘air interface for fixed broadband wireless
access systems’) was approved in December 2001. This standard defines
operating frequencies of wireless broadband network between 10 GHz and 66
GHz.
• The IEEE 802.16 working group published a standard called IEEE 802.16.2
recommending the operation of multiple, different broadband systems in the
10 GHz to 66 GHz frequency range.
• In January 2003, the IEEE 802.16 working group approved an amendment to

IEEE 802.16, which is called IEEE 802.16a. This standard includes the new
frequency bands from 2 GHz to 11 GHz for wireless broadband network.
• The IEEE 802.16c standard was approved in December 2002. It is aimed at

improving interoperability by specifying system profiles that list the features
and functions to be used in a typical implementation in the 10 GHz to 66 GHz
range.
• The IEEE 802.16 working group continued its development of standards and it
approved the development of a new amendment IEEE 802.16e, which
extended the standard to include ‘combined fixed and mobile operation in
licensed bands’ (2 GHz to 6 GHz), in December 2002.
In addition to the work of the IEEE standardisation bodies, an industry

consortium’s charter, wireless interoperability microwave access (WiMAX), was
established. Its aim is to promote the industry to deploy a global standard for
wireless broadband network and to certify the interoperability of products and
technologies.
ETSI Standard
The European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) has created a
broadband radio access networks (BRAN) project for the development of two
standards: HIPERACCESS and HIPERMAN. HIPERACCESS covers frequencies
above 11 GHz while HIPERMAN is for frequencies below 11 GHz.

HIPERACCESS
This wireless broadband network specification uses a point-to-multipoint

architecture and provides multimedia and high-speed data service to residential
and small and medium-sized enterprises. In addition, it can also serve as the
backhaul of a universal mobile telecommunication system (UMTS) network.
Some developments in this standard are as follows:
• The current version v1.1.1 of the HIPERACCESS System Overview was

published in March 2002.
• The current version v1.1.1 of the HIPERACCESS Physical Protocol

Specification was published in April 2002 and an amendment on it is under
review.
• The current version v1.3.1 of the HIPERACCESS Data Link Control (DLC)
Protocol specification was published in December 2003.
• The current version v1.1.1 of the HIPERACCESS Convergence Layer (CL),

part 1 and part 2, was published in October 2002.
• Reviews of existing specifications and drafts of new specifications of

HIPERACCESS are ongoing.
HIPERMAN
This is an interoperable fixed wireless broadband standard that operates at

frequencies between 2 GHz and 11 GHz. This standard was designed to employ a
basic MAC layer, which includes the data link control and convergence layers of
the IEEE 802.16-2001 standard. This standard was developed in close co-
operation with IEEE 802.16 and therefore, it interoperated with a part of IEEE
802.16a standard in 2003. The ETSI positions the HIPERMAN as complimentary
to HIPERACCESS, since the radio channel behavior of these standards is quite
different. These standards are fine-tuned to optimise performance at their own
frequency bands in order to satisfy targeted market segments. The data rate of
both systems is 25 Mbps.
The specifications Functional Requirements for Fixed Wireless Access Systems

Below 11 GHz, Physical (PHY) Layer and Data Link Control (DCL) Layer have
been published. In addition, there are further specifications being drafted.

SELF-CHECK 3.6
What are the current challenges associated with the standardisation of

wireless broadband networks?
Summary
This unit has discussed some fundamental concepts in wireless broadband
networks and examined some of the reasons why broadband services are
becoming more and more popular.
After completing this unit, you should understand that broadband services can be
provided by wireless networks, wired-line networks or hybrid networks (i.e.
integrated wireless and wired-line networks). In this unit, we have considered
some basic broadband issues such as the choice between a private or a public
carrier, the unique aspects of wireless broadband, the radio spectrum of wireless
broadband systems, and some issues related to deploying broadband services such
as deployment cost and deployment pace.
Two types of microwave technologies that are widely employed for providing
broadband services, local multipoint distribution service (LMDS) and multipoint
microwave distribution system/multichannel multipoint distribution system
(MMDS), were discussed in this unit. The applications and services that are
provided by these technologies were also elaborated.
One of the challenges of wireless broadband networks is standardisation.

Currently, broadband network vendors have their own proprietary products, and
this creates problems in interoperability among established networks. However,
the Institution of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) and the European
Telecommunication Standardisation Institution (ETSI) have set up their own
standards, namely IEEE 802.16, and HIPERACCESS and HIPERMAN,
respectively, for wireless broadband systems. In particular, HIPERMAN has been
designed for cooperation with IEEE 802.16.

References
Cisco Systems (2001) ‘Multipoint broadband wireless: Leading Cisco technology
surmounts near line-of-sight limitations’, Packet, 13(2),
http://www.cisco.com/en/US/about/ac123/ac114/ac173/ac167/
about_cisco_packet_department09186a008010f7d7.html.
Held, G (2000) Data over wireless networks: Bluetooth, WAP, and Wireless
LANs, McGraw-Hill.
International Engineering Consortium, Local Multipoint Distribution System

(LMDS), http://www.iec.org/online/tutorials/lmds/.
International Engineering Consortium, Wireless Broadband Modems,

http://www.iec.org/online/tutorials/wire_broad.
ioWave Inc, Series 2000 System Description Release 5.1.
Massey, A (2001) ‘Broadband’s promise shines on the “last mile”’, Houston

Business Journal, 15 Jun., http://houston.bizjournals.com/
houston/stories/2001/06/18/focus1.html?t=printable.
Rappaport, T S (2002). Wireless communications principles and practices, 2nd

edn, Prentice Hall.
Vacca, J R (2001) Wireless broadband networks handbook: 3G, LMDS, and

Wireless Internet, McGraw-Hill.
Feedback to activities
Activity 3.1
The five companies that obtained fixed wireless broadband licenses were:
• PSINET Hong Kong Limited (now called Winstar Wireless Hong Kong Ltd);
• HKNET-Teligent Company Limited;
• Hong Kong Broadband Network Limited;
• Easter Technology Limited; and
• SmarTone Mobile Communication Limited.

Activity 3.2
From Table 2.4, you can see that the cellular technologies, proprietary
technologies and cordless phone technologies are good at providing telephony
services, while solely microwave technologies are good at offering optimised data
services. This is backed by the high data rate support and high capacity
characteristics that can realise services such as broadband wireless services, where
there are many subscribers or users.
However, deploying broadband wireless services using microwave technologies-

based systems is not without difficulties. One difficulty is line-of-sight, i.e.
whether the path between the transmitter and receiver will be blocked. This issue
is particularly difficult to resolve in highly developed countries where high-rise
buildings and crowded urban areas always make radio reception difficult.
Activity 3.3
In terms of the deployment cost of broadband access services, we can see from
Table 3.11 that employing ISDN, ADSL and cable modem as technologies is
expensive, whereas their deployment time is medium. Can you think of the reason
behind this? These technologies rely on wired media in order to deploy services,
and laying cable from the central hubs to subscriber premises is a huge task
requiring a lot of expensive road work. The deployment of broadband services via
these technologies is justified from an investment viewpoint in highly populated
areas, such as in high rise residential buildings or in commercial buildings. ISDN
and ADSL technologies do not have the coverage area span of cable modem
technology since the latter technology is primarily accompanied by ordinary
household cable television services provision.
However, you should also note that the data rate attained under ISDN and ADSL
technologies is low compared with other technologies. Such a data rate might still
be acceptable to subscribers for carrying services such as Internet browsing and
data downloading or retrieval. For services that need high bandwidth, such as
video-on-demand, these technologies will severely handicap users.
Now, let us look at the various wireless technologies being adopted to deploy
broadband access methods, i.e. MMDS, LMDS and satellite technology. All of
these have a low deployment time. This is because the operator only needs to set
up transceivers for receiving and transmitting the signal between the central office
and the subscribers’ premises. All that is needed is line-of-sight between the
central office and the transceiver, and there is no need for road work. However,
deployment costs are high for satellite technologies, since the operator has to
launch a number of satellites into space to provide the service.

Regarding the data rate that can be supported by wireless technologies, we can
conclude from Table 3.11 that wireless technologies are superior to wired
technologies in deploying broadband services.
Activity 3.4
Existing LMDS only carriers:
• Winstar Wireless Hong Kong Ltd; and

• SmarTone Broadband Service Ltd.
Existing LMDS and wired-line carriers:
• Hong Kong Broadband Network Limited

• Easter Technology Limited.

Self-test 3.1
You should note that the pros of the wireless broadband network are actually the
cons of the wired broadband network and vice versa.
The pros of the wireless broadband network (or the cons of the wired broadband
network) include:
• Cost of deployment — A smaller investment is needed to build up a wireless

broadband infrastructure before launching a certain level of services (including
coverage and traffic capacity).
• Speed of deployment — It is faster to deploy wireless broadband services than

wired-line services as it takes a much shorter time to build up the
infrastructure. It takes a much longer time to lay physical cables between
stations and individual users’ premises than simply setting up transceivers and
providing radio coverage for serving these individual users’ premises.
• Flexibility of the network — It is easier to expand networks or relocate

stations. For instance, when there is sudden demand for broadband services in
a particular region, adopting wireless broadband infrastructure instead of
wired-line allows for a much quicker deployment of the network.
The cons of the wireless broadband network (or the pros of the wired-line
broadband network) include:
• Capacity limitation — Since the frequency spectrum of a wireless broadband

network is limited (not only from a technology point of view but also from a
regulatory point of view) and the frequency reuse is not infinite, the overall
traffic that can be supported by each system is limited. The reason behind this
is that only a certain level of interference can be tolerated without ‘interfering’
or ‘disturbing’ its own transceivers and other networks.
• Line-of-sight operation — Stations and individual premises need to have a

line-of-sight between them for signal reception to be viable. This is a general
requirement for almost every type of radio communication technology.
• Equipment interoperability — Up until the present, the standardisation of

wireless broadband systems has not been achieved and most existing
equipment follows individual vendors’ proprietary specifications. This makes
choosing an interface for the equipment from an individual vendor difficult.
Self-test 3.2
• Cellular technology, for example, AMPS, TACS, GSM, IS95.
Line-of-sight transmission is not critical because of the frequency transmission
at 800/900 MHz.
• Cordless phone technology, for example, DECT, PHS.

Line-of-sight transmission is moderately critical because of the frequency
transmission at 1.7 GHz to 2 GHz.
• Proprietary technology, for example, DSC Airspan.

Line-of-sight transmission is moderately critical because of the frequency
transmission at 1.5 GHz to 4 GHz.
• Microwave technology, for example, LMDS and MMDS systems.

Line-of-sight transmission is moderately critical if the system is operated at
2.5 GHz, however, it will be critical if the system is operated at 28/40 GHz.
Self-test 3.3
Since Internet traffic is bursty, customers do not need to hold up the channel
during their idle time. Therefore, TDM access is more appropriate because it
allows customers to share the carriers. In contrast, with FDM access, the physical

channel is dedicated to a customer regardless of whether this customer has

something to send or not.
Self-test 3.4
From Table 3.8, the spectral efficiency of 16-QAM is 3.5 bps/Hz and the
customer premises site uses 5 MHz FDMA.
The data rate for each customer site is 5 MHz  spectrum efficiency with 16-
QAM.
The data rate for each customer site is = 5 MHz  3.5 bps = 17.5 Mbps
Self-test 3.5
LMDS and MMDS can be compared with respect to system architecture and
propagation.
Architecture
Both LMDS and MMDS have:
• a base station to serve a target service coverage region;
• an antenna system for transmission (wide horizontal angle, e.g. 90 degree);
• a physical link, e.g. E1, ATM, OC3, or OC12 interface for connection between
the base station and the central switch office; and
• customer premise equipment that needs to be installed for providing service.
Yet, there are differences between the architecture of LMDS and MMDS. LMDS
is designed to support two-way communication, and, therefore, its return path uses
the same technology as its forward path. MMDS, on the other hand, is designed
for one-way communication, and, therefore, its return path can use different
technologies, such as dial up, DSSS technique in the ISM band, and limited
special frequency in the MMDS band.
Propagation
• LMDS requires direct line-of-sight propagation because its frequency
spectrum is in 28 GHz.
• MMDS does not require direct line-of-sight propagation because its frequency
spectrum is in 2.5GHz in the US. However, it is around

18 GHz in Hong Kong, and, therefore requires direct line-of-sight propagation

for transmission.
Self-test 3.6
The current challenges in the standardisation of wireless broadband networks
include:
• unifying the wireless broadband network standards;
• developing high-speed, high-capacity, low-cost, and scalable solutions;
• improving the interoperability of different vendors’ equipment;
• interoperability between the US (IEEE 802.16) standard and the European

(ETSI HIPERMAN and HIPERACCESS) standard;
• development of wireless broadband as a backhaul of UMTS;
• development of wireless broadband standards in 2 GHz to 11 GHz and

10 GHz to 66 GHz; and
• enhancement of fixed wireless broadband networks to support mobility (e.g.

IEEE 802.16e).
Glossary
3G Third generation
ADPCM Adaptive differential pulse code modulation
ADSL Asymmetric digital subscriber line
AM Amplitude modulation
AMPS Advanced mobile phone system
ATM Asynchronous transfer mode
CBR Constant bit rate
CDMA Code division multiple access
CLEC Competitive local exchange carrier
DECT Digital European cordless telephone
DS-1 Digital signal level 1 (equals T1 rate in US; E1 rate in Europe)

DS-3 Digital signal level 3 (equals T3 rate in US; E3 rate in Europe)
ETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institute
FDD Frequency division duplex
FDMA Frequency division multiple access
FEC Forward error code
GOS Grade of service
GPRS General packet radio service
GSM Global system for mobile communication or Groupe Spéciale
Mobile
ISDN Integrated services digital network
ISP Internet service provider
LMDS Local multipoint distribution service
NIU Network interface unit
MMDS Multipoint microwave distribution system/multichannel multipoint
distribution system
PCS Personal communication system
PHS Personal handy-phone system
POTS Plain old telephone service
PSK Phase-shift keying
TACS Total access communication systems
TDMA Time division multiple success
TDMA-TDD Time division multiple success–time division duplex
VOFDM Vector orthogonal frequency division multiplex
VoIP Voice over Internet protocol
WAN Wide area network

WLL Wireless local loop

WLAN Wireless local area network

MODULE FEEDBACK
MAKLUM BALAS MODUL
If you have any comment or feedback, you are welcome to:
1. E-mail your comment or feedback to modulefeedback@oum.edu.my
OR
2. Fill in the Print Module online evaluation form available on myINSPIRE.
Thank you.
Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

(Pusat Reka Bentuk Pengajaran dan Teknologi )
Tel No.: 03-27732578
Fax No.: 03-26978702


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Faculty of Science and Technology

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Developers: Ir Vera Chung

Members: Dr Wilson Chu

External Course Assessor: Dr Francis Lau

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, September 2008

Unit 1: Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems and Services 1

Unit 2: Wireless Local Area Networks and Wireless Personal Area 56

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Wireless local area networks (WLANs) 64

Unit 3: Fixed Wireless Wide Area Networks 156

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Wireless broadband networks: fixed and mobile 166

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

PURPOSE OF THIS COURSE GUIDE

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

1 Describe the history and explain the current development of wireless

Unit 1: Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems and Services

1 Describe the fundamentals of digital wireless communication systems.

2 Describe the history of wireless communication systems.

3 Outline different types of terrestrial telecommunication systems and their

4 Outline different types of practical wireless personal data communication

5 Review and assess possible emerging new wireless technologies.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Finally, possible applications of the various discussed wireless networks will be

1 Outline commonly adopted wireless networks on the market.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Unit 3: Fixed Wireless Wide Area Networks

1 Describe the driving forces for broadband services.

YOUR STUDY PLAN

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Table 1: Study Plan

Activities Totals Hours

INDEPENDENT STUDY GUIDE

Table 2: General Guideline

Unit No. of Hours Assessment Activities

Unit 1 15 Self-test 1.1, 1.2, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6

SUPPLEMENTARY COURSE MATERIALS

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

1 Continuous Assessment, which comprises of the following components:

2 Course examination, which contribute 50% of the total mark. Examination

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

HOW TO DO YOUR ASSIGNMENTS

Student can download this assigment during Tutorial 1

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

The fundamentals of wireless

Figure 1.1 Block diagram of a basic digital wireless communication system

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Elements in wireless digital systems

• Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM)

Channel coding and channel decoding

• Examples of waveform coding

• Examples of structured sequences