CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Road as a transportation infrastructure is an important element in the

development of life of a nation and state, in fostering the unity and unity of the
nation, state territory, and community functions as well as in advancing general
welfare as referred to in the Preamble 1945 Constitution of the State of the
Republic of Indonesia.

Roads as part of the national transportation system play an important role

in supporting the economic, social and cultural and environmental sectors and are
developed through regional development approaches to achieve equilibrium and
equitable regional development, establish and strengthen national unity to
strengthen national defense and security, space in order to realize the national
development goals. (1)

Indonesia, have about 440.617 kilometers of roads consist of 47.837 km

of national road or 11%, 46.486 km of provincial road or 11%, and 346.294 km of
district road or 78%, as shown in Table 1.1. (2) Increasing the number of
populations, bring to the consequency on increasing of traveling especially land
trasportation, and in turn incressing the length of road. Almost of 440.617 km of
roads are constructed with modern pavement structure as shown in Figure 1.1a
and 1.1.b for flexible and rigid pavement respectively.

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 Table 1.1 Length and condition of road in Indonesia

Percentage of
Length Stable Road
Road Status Total Road Authority
(km) Condition
Length
47,017
(non toll
National Road road) 11% 86% Central Gov't
820
(toll road)
Provincial Provincial
46,486 11% 70,99%
Road Gov't
Municipal /
Municipal /
346,294 78% 57,01% Regency
Regency Road
Gov't
Total 440,617 100%
(Source:2)

Surface

Figure 1.1a. Flexible pavement structure

Concrete Slab

Figure 1.1b. Rigid pavemet structure

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 Figure 1.2a. and 1.2b. show the surface pavement of flexible and rigid
pavement respectively.

Figure 1.2a. Flexible pavement surface

Figure 1.2b. Rigid pavement surface

From Figure 1.1a show the flexible pavement structure which generaly
from the top to the bottom consist asphalt surface layer, base course layer, subbase
course layer, and subgrade as a road bed soil. Figure 1.1b. show the rigid
pavement layer which consist of portland cement concrete surface layer, optional
base or subbase layer, and subgrade. It can be seen that both types of pavement

3
are laid over the subgrade as road bed soil. Therefore, the performance of the
pavements structure are depend on the strength or quality of the subgrade.

The most important function of the pavement is to withstand the load

applied from a vehicle such as a truck or an aircraft, without deforming
excessively. The layered structure of the pavement is meant for ensuring that the
road is spread out below the tire, such that the resultant stress at the bottom layer
of the pavement, te sub grade, is low enough not to couse damage. The most
significant load applied to a pavement surface comes from a truck or an aircraft
tire. The approach in flexible pavement is to spread the load in such a way that the
stress at the subgrade soil level is small enough so that is can sustain the stress
without any major deformation. When the existing soil is not stiff enough to
support the relatively small stress, than there is a need to improve the soil. There
is also a need to improve the soil if it is susceptible to moisture. Such a problem
can be solved by treating the soil by an adictive, such as lime and a Portland
cement. (3)

1.2 Problems Statement

Most pavements in Indonesia, especially in the North-East of Central Java

to East Java laid over the weak subgrade cause the road are always in worst
conditions. Some effort has been conducted to solve the subgrade problem or to
improve the subgrade strength, among other by chemically process, i.e. by
stabilizing natural soil using cement, lime, sand, and other stabilizing materials,
by mechanically process, among other by vertical sand drain, yet no one success
to solve the damage problem of the pavement.

In this final assignment, Cakar Ayam Foundation, a foundation system that

was invented by Indonesia Civil Engineer Prof. Dr. Ir. Sediyatmo in 1981 will be
studied to use as road bed soil replacing the existing subgrade soil. The pavement

4
of Semarang – Purwodadi road located at North-East of Central Java will be used
as a case study.

1.3 Objective of the Research

From the background and problem statement, the objectives of this study
are:

1. To know possibility Cakar Ayam foundation to replace existing subgrade.

2. To make design of pavement structure both flexible and rigid using Cakar
Ayam Foundation as road bed soil

1.4 Scope of the Study

To achieve those objectives, the study began with reviewing all of the
literatures especially pertaining on Cakar Ayam Foundation, subgrade soil, and
design of pavement structure. Study will continue with Methodology, where
methods to fulfil the objectives will be describe, continue with design of Cakar
Ayam Foundation and design of road and runway pavement structure. Design and
calculation of pavement structre will given in chapter 4 and chapter 5 will give a
conclusions and recommendations of the study.

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Available literature that pertains to the Cakar Ayam Foundation (CAF)

and subgrade soil will be reviewed. Literature review was conducted to
specifically evaluate the issues relating to the objectives of the research. Those
issues were: a) brief description about Cakar Ayam Foundation; b) using of Cakar
Ayam Foundation for pavement that has been implemented ; and c) existing of
subgrade soil in Semarang – Purwodadi road.

2.2 Cakar Ayam Foundation

a. History

This Cakar Ayam foundation was invented by Indonesian Civil

Engineering Prof .Dr. Ir. Sedijatmo in 1961. At that time Indonesian
was preparing feverously the facilities for the Asian Games 1962. The
high-tension electricl towers have to be build and sholud be completed
within a relatively short time. Electrical towers would connect the
electric-power station, in Tanjung Priok with the sport-venues, in
Senayan.

Seven towers should be built in the Ancol area and only 2 were
just finished, where the other 5 were to be completed within couple
months As all of us know the Ancol area at that time was a swampy

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 area and it was very hard to make the foundation in the conventional
way so he had to find out a new method quickly to overcome this
problem. On a bright morning he got an intelligent idea to build. The
tower on a foundation consists of a concrete slab to which concrete
pipes were fixed underneath monolithically, clawing in the earth. This
idea comes soon to be realized and the Cakar Ayam Foundation was
born.

The calculation was made very roughly and Cakar Bumi

Corporation, a contractor who build the tower, got a dimension of a
slab and pipes two and half times heavier than we use to apply at the
moment (now), but anyway this system is much cheaper and quicker
to execute than the piling foundation used for the previous 2 towers.
With firm confidence that this system was the solution, the 5 towers
were finished in due time and now we can still see the tower. Since
that time Prof. Sedijatmo is looking for a more exact and more
economical computation-method and after passing various processes
we now came to the dimension which more or less becomes a
standard. (4)

b. Cakar Ayam in Brief

For those who is not familiar with this foundation system, the
following explanations may be useful. This Cakar Ayam foundation
consist of a reinforced concrete slab of 10 to 15 cm thick, depending
on construction that should be borne and condition of the soil
underneath.

Underneath the slab reinforced concrete pipes are

monolithically fitted with a distance between the axes of each pipe of
2 or 2.50 m while the length of the pipe varies between 1.50 to 3.50

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 m. The length of the pipe diameter is 1.20 m or 1.50 m and the
thickness of pipe is 8 cm

In principle, the Cakar Ayam foundation is applicable on the

soft-test soil to hardest soil, but according to our experience it is most
economical if applied on soil with a bearing capacity of 1.5 to 3.5
tom/m2 although many times we also use to harder soils as it still
money saving.

c. Load and Settlements

For equal distributed load the Cakar Ayam foundation is very

favorable. But as building-foundation it always has to support
concentrated load through the building columns which reach about
500 to 600 tons. In this case we apply concrete footing under the
columns which reduce the shear in the slab to an amount within the
allowable value. So if there is a concentrated load the thickness of the
slab under the load is governed by the shear not by bending moment.
As an example the church of Jelambar Jakarta using Cakar Ayam
Foundation has pilar of ± 35m high, and weights ± 400 tons,
concentrated on one point. The shear was distributed by means of
footing under the pilar.

Speaking about settlement, there is no occur a settlement under

this foundation. But it will settle less if compare to the other
foundation system like slab with stiffening beams. The soil under slab
with pipes will have a better condition againts settlement compared
with that under slab with stiffening beams., because the existing pipes
will also prevent the soil from siding letterally.

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 All these project mentioned in the appendix have been
satisfactory executed and until now we have no complains whats ever
about exessive settlement or other problems.

d. Advantage of Cakar Ayam Foundation

Because of simplicity, this construction is favourable to be

used in remote areas in Indonesia or elsewhere where modern
equipment and high skilled labour are seldom or not available and to
some extent this system can subtitute more complicated system like
pile foundation, etc.

Our experience is that the construction cost of a foundation

using this system for a 3 to 4 storey building in Jakarta, where piling
equipment are easily available, is similar to that of piling foundation
using 12 m piles. If the pipes are longer, the price-increase of pile
foundation will be felt very cleary and this price differentce will be
much more for remote areas where piling equipments and skilled
labour are scare. According to our experiences we can save the
foundation cost up to 30%.

As mentioned previously, this system is very suitable for soft

soil and its application is not limited tor building only but also for
roads and runways. A plus-point of this system is that there will be no
drainage system needed of expansion joints. About this Prof. Dr. Ir.
Sedijatmo has written a special article named “ A new method for the
construction of road surfaces particulary on weak soil “.

e. Cakar Ayam Construction System for Runway Pavements and

Highways

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 A lot has been written on Cakar Ayam construction in general
as well as on Cakar Ayam for building-construction. This time we will
discuss Cakar Ayamconstruction as pavement for runways or
highways where the condition of soil under it is soft or not enough to
use conventional construction without applying improvements or
replacing the underlying ground beforehand.

At the moment the pavement for apron extension at Juanda

Airport Surabaya, which is 12.000 m2 and teh runway extension of
Polonia Airport Medan, about 30.000 m2, have been completed. Still
under preparatory construction are the runways, taxiways and aprons
of the Jakarta International Airport Cengkareng which have a total
area of 1.200.000 m2.

In the design which is finished and ready to start with, is the

construction of a connection road Jakarta-Cengkareng, 15 km long
with a pavement area of 300.000 m2. This road is scheduled to be
started before the end of this year. Stiil design is the plan for the 2nd
extension of the Juanda Airport Surabaya apron, which area is about
30.000 m2.

2.3 Montmorillonites Mineral

Montmorillonite is a very soft phyllosilicate group of minerals that form

when they precipitate from water solution as microscopic crystals, known as clay.
It is named after Montmorillon in France. Montmorillonite is the most active clay
mineral and has the capacity to swell significantly.

Water absorption in the material containing clay of this type will result in
the development of the extent of which depends on the type and content of

10
montmorillonite, a type of ion exchange electrolyte content of the liquid phase and
the internal structure of the material itself. The porosity, water content and
plasticity normally decrease in value with increasing depth, whereas the strength
and elastic modulus increase.The engineering performance of clay deposits is also
affected by the total moisture content and by the energy with which this
moisture is held. For instance, the moisture content influences their consistency
and strength, and the energy with which moisture is held influences their volume
change characteristics.

One of the most notable montmorillonite characteristics of clays from the

engineering point of view is their susceptibility to slow volume changes that can
occur independent of loading due to swelling or shrinkage.

In the field of highway materials, montmorillonite usually means trouble.

It is similar to illite, but bonding between layers is virtually absent, consisting
only of the sharing of such ions and water as may be adsorbed in the interlayer
position. The layers spread apart to accommodate water and ions almost without
limit, depending on the availability of water and the nature of dissolved ions. At
the other extreme, severe drying will collapse the interlayer space. If drying is not
too severe, the dehydration – rehydration process is largely reversible so that large
volume changes without liquefaction occur when dry clay is moistened. It is not
uncommon for a montmorillonite clay to adsorb many times its dry weight in
water before becoming liquid. The associated swelling is capable of exerting
pressures of several tons per square foot. On the other hand, extensive shrinkage
with drying from the wet condition has been responsible for a number of failures
of shallow foundations placed on montmorillonitic clay.

The term montmorillonite actually denotes a group of clay minerals. All

have the basic 2:1 mica structure, either as dioctahedral of trioctahedral minerals,
but none has a firmly bound interlayer cation of fixed composition as in the case
of mica. Considerable isomorphous substitutions is common so that the mineral

11
lattice carries large amounts of unbalanced positive valence charge. This result in
an accumulation of dissolved ions around the layers. The type of montmorillonite
and the nature of the associated dissolved ions bear heavily on the amount of
interlayer water adsorption and consequent swell that may occur. Accordingly,
different montmorillonitic soils often differ appreciably in engineering behavior,
although all tend to be highly plastic and troublesome.

Montmorillonite is found in a wide variety of geologic materials.

However, it is a fragile mineral and easily destroyed by oxidation and attack by
acids during severe chemical weathering in soils. This is particularly true of
trioctahedral montmorillonites having magnesium and ferrous iron in the
octahedral layer. The compositional requirements of such clay demand an
environment rich in these elements for the formation and preservation of the
mineral. This is provided by the decay of ferromagnesian rocks and minerals, such
as those associated with basalt and volcanic ash, under conditions of impeded
drainage. Thus, the mineral is found in soils with a high-water table overlying
dark igneous rocks in humid areas and in soils in semiarid and arid regions where
volcanic activity is a part of recent geologic history. Soils and sedimentary rocks
high in organic matter are likely to contain montmorillonite and the mineral
persists, together with illite, in sedimen derived from sources areas rich in
montmorillonite. Dioctahedral montmorillonite derived from degraded illites is
less persistent. The expanded clay mica has a tendency to rebuild itself in
seawater or, in the presence of severe chemical weathering in surface soils of
warm, humid regions, to accept interlayer material such as aluminum hydroxide to
become a type of chlorite. (5)

2.4 Causes of Roadway Failure

Most civil engineering operations are carried out in soil and, obviously,
poor soil conditions will be encountered on some construction sites. If such soil

12
cannot be removed, then its engineering behavior can often be enhanced by some
method of ground treatment. Poor soil conditions usually are attributable to an
excess of ground water or a lack of strength, and associated deformability.
Treatment methods are therefore aimed at preventing ingress of groundwater to or
removing it from the site in question on the one hand or improving soil strength
on the other.

Groundwater flow becomes more significant as the permeability of the soil

increases. The fact that groundwater flow is much slower in silts and clays than
in sands and gravels does not mean that there are no problems associated with
groundwater in the two former soil types. For example, quick conditions and
piping are associated with silts and ground heave with expanding clay soils.
Conversely, inundation with water can lead to some loess soils collapsing. Other
problems associated with groundwater are dissolution of minerals such as gypsum
in gypsiferous sands and the hydration of others, for example, anhydrite. Yet other
minerals break down rapidly in the presence of groundwater, like pyrite; the
resulting sulphate ions, when carried in solution, can attack concrete foundations.

Soils with low strength are also highly deformable. Lack of strength leads
to soil failing if it is overloaded. However, this is not a frequent occurrence in
civil engineering construction. Much more important is soil deformation which, in
terms of structures erected at the ground surface, gives rise to settlement. Some of
the most problematic soils include: peat and organic soils; quick clays, residual
montmorillonitic clays and verve clays, which may be sensitive to extra-
sensitive; and loosely packed saturated alluvial, estuarine or marine sands, silts
and muds.

To the roadway structure are applied the wheel loads of motor vehicles
which may number several million over a period of years. Each time a loads
passes, some deflection of the surface and the underlying layers occurs. If the load
is excessive, repeated applications will cause roughening and cracking that

13
ultimately lead to complete failure. This deflection of the pavement may result
from elastic deformation, from consolidation of the base and sub-soils, or from a
combination of elastic and plastic deformation (Figure 2.1).

Elastic deformation occurs as the live or wheel load temporarily deforms

the foundation materials and compresses the air that fills the voids of the base and
sub-grade. in truly elastic deflection, the surface return to its original position after
the load passes, so that permanent unevenness does not occur, even under
repeated applications of load.

Figure 2.1 Diagram illustrating soil deformation under wheel load

Consolidation deformation occurs the load produces large enough pressure

in the pores of the soil to expel part of the air and water and thus consolidate the
material. Although the consolidation the results from one application of a moving
wheel load is small, the deformation is permanent. It progresses with additional
load repetition until the affected layers become consolidation if the traffic is well
distributed and the pavement settles uniformly as a whole.

Plastic deformation occurs when the fluid and air pressure in the pores of
the sub grade, base material, or paving combine with forces produces by the load
to displace the roadway material. Deflection resulting from plastic deformation is
progressive under load repetition; it constitutes the major cause of failure of

14
roadway surfaces. Figure 2.2 illustrates the usual methods of occurrence. Each is
the result of a shearing-type failure accompanied by movement in the affected
layers. Pavement, base, and sub-grade are all susceptible. however, the parameter
along which failure occurs has the least length if the shortcoming is in the surface
layer, and becomes longer as the source of trouble moves to greater depths (see
Figure 2.2a) since the total applied load in a given instance is constant, it follows
that the unit shearing stress which may be developed become smaller as the
distance below the surface increases. This in turn indicates that the materials in
successive layers downward from the surface may be progressively weaker
without increased likelihood of plastic deformation and failure.

Figure 2.2a. Result of plastic deformation in surface course (left)

and in base (right)

15
 Figure 2.2b. Result of plastic deformation in basement soil

From Figure 2.2b it is also apparent that failure is always to followed by

downward movement under the load and a corresponding upward movement in
adjoining areas. This in turn means that the pavement and other layers have been
subjected to bending in a horizontal plane and have yielded in tension or
compression or both from this, it follows that high beam strength in pavement or
base will strengthen a roadway against plastic deformation. (6)

Soil treatment techniques may be either temporary or permanent. For

example, the use of a wellpoint system for dewatering can be regarded as a
temporary technique, as can freezing. On the other hand, grouting is a permanent
method of ground treatment. The type of technique chosen depends on the nature
of the problem and the type of soil conditions. Cost is obviously a factor that
enters into the equation.

2.5 Pavement Type

A pavement primary purpose is to provide a functional surface for a

specific transportation need. The basic function is to withstand load, under
different seasonal environmental conditions, without deforming or cracking, since
either of these distrees conditions would reduce the functionality of the pavement.
The function of the different layers in the pavement is to spread out the load on
the surface and reduce its intensity with depth, such that the pressure on the
subgrade is much less than the pressure on the surface, and can be tolerated by the
subgrade without undergoing excessive deformation.

The pavement structure which used to Cakar Ayam foundation as subgrade

was flexible pavement and rigid pavement. Principally from the bottom to the top,
flexible pavement structure consists of, subgrade course which laid directly over

16
the natural soil, base course laid over the subgrade, and the top layer was surface
course. Generally the layers in a pavement improve in quality as one goes up from
the bottom to the surface layer. The surface layer, which can be asphalt or
concrete, is the most expensive and stiff/durable layer in the entire pavement
structure. Components of this layer are mostly naturally occurring materials, for
example, asphalt binder is a by-product of the petroleum distillation process and
aggregates are obtained from rock quarries or riverbeds. These materials are
combined and used in different proportions to produce the final material that is
used in the pavement. For example, asphalt binder is mixed with aggregates to
produce hot mix asphalt (HMA) for asphalt pavements, while Portland cement is
mixed with aggregates in Portland cement concrete (PCC) pavements. (3)

In most cases pavement engineers are restricted to using locally available

materials, with or without some modifications, because of economic and practical
reasons. With these available materials it is important to determine what thickness
of each layer, and hence the entire pavement, is required to carry the loads under
different environmental conditions without any problem. This step, known as the
structural design, makes sure that the pavement structure as a whole can withstand
traffic for its design life, even though the traffic might increase and the properties
of the layer might change cyclically and/or progressively during its design life.

Generally several layers are present in an asphalt pavement. From the

bottom up, the layers are known as the subgrade, subbase, base, and binder and/or
surface. Generally, the bottom most layer is soil, the subbase and/or base layers
can be granular soil, or aggregates or asphalt-aggregate mixtures (mixes), and the
binder and surface are asphalt mixes. While designing, adequate thickness to each
layer is assigned, so as to obtain the desirable properties in the most cost-effective
way. Concrete pavement may not have as many layers, and in many cases the
concrete slab rests on a stabilized subgrade, which consists of soils modified with
some additives.

17
 Once the pavement materials/mix and structure are designed, it must be
constructed properly. To ensure this, the material must be laid down and cured (if
needed) and compacted in the proper so that it has the desirable qualities, such as
density and/or stiffness. While selecting the materials and designing the mix and
the structure, it is important to keep workability in consideration, since the best-
designed mix would be worthless if it cannot be constructed properly.
Furthermore, quality control must be carried out during construction to ensure
strict adherence to specification and hence uniformly good quality over the entire
project duration.

The design procedures presented in the guides are based on the general
AASHTO Road Test equations that relate the loss in pavement serviceability to
the pavement structural section and the load applications. The overall concept of
the AASTHO pavement design procedure is to provide a pavement structure that
is adequate in thickness, composition, and quality to ensure the pavement section
does not reach a terminal serviceability level during its design life.

2.5.1 Flexible pavement

A pavement consisting of asphalt mixes (and aggregate and soil layers)

only is referred to as a flexible pavement, since the pavement layers deflect under
a traffic load. The typical applied concept of a flexible (or asphalt) pavement is
that a layered structure with better materials near the top wou1d distribute the load
in such a way that the resulting stress in the bottom most layer will be small
enough so as to cause no significant deformation of the layer. The bottom most
layer is the existing layer or the existing layer modified with some materials. The
materials and the thicknesses of the different layers will be such as to be able to
withstand the different effects of temperature and moisture due to changes in
season in a specific location. The subbase, in addition to providing structural
support, may also serve as a platform for constructing the base and prevent the
fine materials from the subgrade from contaminating the base layer.

18
 In many cases the pavement can be a full depth asphalt pavement, in which
case all of the layers above the subgrade are composed of hot mix asphalt
constructed in several layers. In other cases the subbase and base may be
combined to form one single layer, as far as materials are concerned, but
constructed in multiple layers. It usually consist of aggregates such as crushes
stone, crushed slag, crushed gravel and sand, or combination of these materials.
Specifications for base course materials are generally considerable more stringent
than for subbase materials in requirement for strength, palsticity, and gradation.
The surface of a flexible structure consist of a mixture of mineral aggregates and
bituminious materials placed as the upper course and usually construted on base
course. In addition to its major fuction as a structual portion of the pavement, it
must also be designed to resist the abrasive forces of traffic, to reduce the amount
of surface water penetrating the pavement, to provide a skid- resistance surface,
and to provide a smooth and uniform riding surface.

The design is base on identifying a flexible pavement structural number

(SN) to withstand the projected level of axle load traffic. For determining the
design structural number (SN) required for spesific conditions, including :

1. The estimated future traffic (W18) for the performance period

2. The reliability (R) which assumes all input is at average value
3. The overall standard deviation (S0)
4. The effective resilient modulus of roadbed material (Mr) and
5. The design serviceability loss ( ΔPSI = p0 - pt )

2.5.2 Rigid pavement

Rigid or concrete pavements, which deflect very little under traffic loads,
differently with flexible pavements. The wearing layer, which is in contact with
the traffic, is Portland cement concrete slab that ranges in thickness between 5 and

19
12 inches depending on traffic loading. The thicker pavements are typical of
heavier and more repetitive loads.

The slab, due to its higher stiffness as characterized by elastic modulus,

usually distributes the loading across a large pavement area. This in turn reduces
the stresses experienced by the underlying base and subgrade layers. Besides
providing a wearing course and a contact surface with traffic, the slab provides
friction, drainage, smoothness, noise control, and waterproofing for the underlying
layers. The rigid slab also following purposes:

1. To provide uniform, stable, and permanent support,

2. To increase the modulus of subgrade reaction (k),
3. To minimize the damaging effects of frost action,
4. To prevent pumping of fine-grained soils at joints, cracks, and edges of the
rigid slab,
5. To provide a working platform for construction equipment

The basic materials in the pavement slab are Portland cement concrete
reinforcing steel load transfer devices, and joint sealing materials. Quality control
on the project to ensure that the materials conform to AASFITO or the agency
specifications will minimize distress resulting from distortion or disintegration
Portland cement concrete. Under the given conditions of a specific project, the
minimum cement factor should be determined on the basis of laboratory tests and
prior experience of strength and durability air entrained concrete should be used
whenever it is necessary to provide resistance to surface deterioration from
freezing and thawing or from salt or to improve the workability of the mix
reinforcing steel. The reinforcing steel used in the slab should have surface
deformations adequate to bond and develop the working stresses the steel. For
smooth wire mesh, this bond is developed through the welded cross wires. For
deformed wire fabric, the bond is developed by deformations on the wire and at

20
the welded intersections joint sealing materials. There basic types of seal ants are
presently used for sealing joints:

1. Liquid sealants these include a wide variety of materials including: asphalt,

hot poured rubber, elastomeric compounds silicone, and polymers. The
materials are placed in the joint in a liquid from and allowed to set. When
using liquid sealants care should be taken to provide the proper shape factor
for the movement expected.

2. Preformed elastomeric seals these are extruded neoprene seals having internal
webs that exert an outward force against the joint face. The site and
installation width depend on the amount of movement expected at the joint.

3. Cork expansion joint filler there are two types of cork fillers; a) standard
expansion joint filler, and b) self-expanding (SE) type. Longitudinal joints are
needed to form cracks at the desired location so that they may be adequately
sealed. They may be keyed, butted, or tied joints, or combinations thereof.
Longitudinal joints should be sawed or formed to a minimum depth of one-
fourth of the slab thickness. Timing of the saw cutting is critical to the crack
formation at the desired location.

The maximum recommended longitudinal joint spacing is 16 feet load-

transfer devices. Mechanical load-transfer devices for transverse joints should
possess the following attributes:

1. The should be simple in design, be practical to install, and permit complete

encasement bye the concrete
2. They should properly distribute the load stresses without overstressing the
concrete at its contact with the device
3. They should offer little restraint to longitudinal movement of the joint at any
time

21
4. They should be mechanical stable under the wheel load weights and
frequencies that will prevail in practice
5. They should be resistant to corrosion when used in those geographic locations
where corrosive elements are a problem (various types of coatings are often
used to minimize corrosion)

Although round dowels are the most commonly used, other mechanical
devices that have proven satisfactory in field installations may also he used
consideration may also be given to omitting load transfer devices from transverse
weakened plane joints in plain jointed concrete pavement when supported on a
treated permeable base. Tie bars, either deformed steel bars or connectors, are
designed to hold the faces of in firm contact. Tie bars are designed to with stand
the maximum tensile forces required to overcome subgrade drag. They are riot
designed to act as load transfer devices. The tensile strength of such connectors
should be equal to that of the deformed bar that would be required. The spacing of
these connectors should conform to the same requirements given for deformed tie
bars in part consideration should be given to the use of corrosion resistant
materials or coatings for both tie bars and dowels where salts are to be applied to
the surface of the pavement.

2.5.3 Maintenance and Rehabilitation

Starting from day one after construction, a pavement starts deteriorating in

quality. Even though properly designed and constructed pavement will not
deteriorate so as to cause total failure within its design life, if no maintenance is
performed, the entire pavement will become totally worthless at the end of its
design life. Furthermore, ingress of water through random openings such as
surface cracks, and well-defined openings such as joints, can lead to quick
deterioration of the quality of the pavement. The best approach is to regularly
perform maintenance operations, similar to any engineered structure or product,
through actions such as joint filling, crack repair or filling, or pothole patching.

22
Note that these operations do not specifically increase the design life but do
prevent its rapid deterioration. For pavements such as those on highways and
airport runways, proper maintenance is critical for the safety of the vehicles and
their occupants.

2.6 Summary Literature

The highway on this natural soil base depends on the nature of the
character of the soil itself or the nature of the soil of each region. Soft soils can be
said to be very unstable in waterlogged conditions, water easily enters between
layers so minerals expand, and when dry minerals shrink. Because of this nature is
very often cause problems in the road. Soft soil problems which have low bearing
capacity as subgrade can be treated by mechanical, such as CAF modification as
reinforcement on subgrade. The literature says that generally CAF is preferred for
use in soft clays, with a bearing capacity of less than 5 t/m2, CAF is more cheaper
than conventional foundations such as piles. By using CAF will be more resistant
to shrinkage and swelling dues to changes in water content and there will be an
increase that resulted in the road becoming and safer when used on the road.

After the pavement material/mix and structure are designed, it must be

constructed properly. To ensure this, the material must be laid down and
compacted in the proper way so that it has the desirable qualties, such as density.
While quality control must be carried out during construction to ensure to the
specifications for uniform quality.

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