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LEAK ANALYSIS IN PIPES USING TRANSIENTS

B. Brunone and M. Ferrante

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Perugia

L. Ubertini
Department of Hydraulics and Transportation, University of Rome “La Sapienza”

1. INTRODUCTION
Many problems face engineers in the design and maintenance of water distribution
networks. These problems can be grouped into two types: network characteristic
definition problems, and problems associated with computer hydraulic modeling. The
network characteristic definition problems involve physical parameters such as unknown
pipe and valve layouts, unauthorized users of water, and pipes deteriorating and forming
leaks. Computer hydraulic modeling can pose uncertainty, not necessarily with the
accuracy of the software package, but rather with the confidence in parameters used in the
models. Some of the largest issues in water distribution are calibration of models and
detecting leaks.
It has been estimated that, as an example, within the Asia-Pacific region, as well as
in most European countries, at least 25 % of the water supply is being lost from water
distribution networks. This is very costly for both the water utility who directly loses
money and the consumer who is indirectly penalized through increases in water rates.
There is no completely satisfactory method for finding leaks or unauthorized use of water
at present without costly meter reading and exact quantification of flows. Although there
have been methods in the past that can quantify and locate leaks, they have only really
been for single long pipelines rather than networked systems.
The aim of the present paper is to show that leak detection and evaluation in pipe
systems can be reached by means of unsteady-state tests that minimize both time
consuming and costs for Water Supply Companies as well as minimize the risks for the
integrity of conduits.
In the paper, first the traditional techniques for leak detection are described;
second, principles on which the proposed technique is based are analyzed; third numerical
and experimental evidence of the effects of leaks on pressure transient are shown.

2. “TRADITIONAL” TECHNIQUES FOR LEAK DETECTION

The detection of leaks in pipe networks is an important issue. The presence of leaks
in a network will lower the hydraulic efficiency of that network. In most countries water is
a finite resource and leaks deplete that store. This usually results in a higher cost of water
to the population. The detection of leaks can also find unauthorized use of water whereby
people are stealing this valuable resource. In pipe networks that transport potentially
hazardous fluids, the detection of leaks can stop or minimize any contamination of the
environment. Leaks can be a precursor to failure of pipes if they are subjected to extra
pressure events. There are many different techniques to prove the existence and location of
leaks, with most coming from the field of oil and gas where the consequences of leaks are
the most severe.

2.1 Hydrostatic Method

The traditional method of determining and locating leaks is to test each length of
pipe line as it is layed. This involves pressurizing the pipe with a low-cost liquid, usually
water. Pressure sensors are then positioned in the pipe to see if there is any reduction of
pressure that could mean the presence of a leak. This is a good technique because leaks can
be found when the pipe has just been placed and the leaking pipe can be easily replaced
with a non-faulty member. The only problem with this method is that it cannot easily be
done with existing pipe networks, due to the fact that part of the network has to be shut
down. Another traditional technique is just to measure the inflow and compare it with the
outflow. If there are any differences there must be leaks. It should be said that this is a
very cost efficient way to show the existence of leaks. A drawback with this is that the
number and location of leaks are unknown, thus tracking them down can be a problem.

2.2 Acoustical Method

This procedure uses the correlation between acoustic velocity and pressure in a
liquid filled pipeline to detect leaks. This method has been used to test the integrity of
pipelines in the oil and gas field. The manner in which this technique is set up is to have at
one end of the pipeline a pressure gauge and a few meters apart from it a sound
transmitter. The sound transmitter generates signals in the range of 2 to 1,000 Hz with an
amplitude of about 1 kPa. The signal travels down the pipe then the transducer detects
and records the echo. Using the time difference between the outgoing and incoming
signals, the acoustic velocity can be calculated. Readings of both pressure and acoustic
velocity are then taken at about half hour intervals so a graph can be drawn up. If there
are no leaks the acoustic velocity curve will mimic the pressure curve, if there is a leak the
acoustic velocity curve will link, and not correlate after the leak occurs. The leakage rate
can also be estimated based on the difference between the acoustic velocity and the
pressure and the measured pressure change/volume change.
The advantage in using this technique is that there are no temperature
measurements needed, not like other hydrostatic methods (especially for gas pipelines)
where multiple temperature readings are needed to check if the pressure drops can be
attributed to temperature drops. Also the equipment can be set up at just one end of the
pipe meaning, that data telemetry is not needed for very long pipes and other pipes do not
need to be excavated to install sensors. Disadvantages of this technique are few, but some
are very important. One of the most important is the presence of air in a pipeline. This
reduces the bulk modulus and density of the liquid and can cause large reductions in the
acoustic velocity. Another is the amount of suspended solids in the liquid. Suspended
solids will increase the density of the liquid and cause a decrease in the acoustic velocity.
These decreases in the acoustic velocity can be initially interpreted as leaks. The last
problem is noise that can be detected by the transducer which may come from the
environment or electrical equipment. While the method detects the presence of a leak, the
location cannot be determined. This is not a problem when testing the integrity of pipes or
connections, but is a drawback if the leak is to be repaired.

2.3 Inverse Steady-State Method

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 The use of inverse steady state analysis to find leaks was carried out by Pudar and
Liggett (1992). The data consisted of flows and pressures at various positions in the
network. The approach behind the analysis was to set up the steady state equations and
include a leak area at nodes. An orifice equation was applied to calculate flow due to
pressure loss. An objective function was then created which was the sum of the squares of
the differences in measurable properties such as pressures and flows. The transition then
followed a minimization process to fit the leak areas to the measured values. Pudar and
Liggett concluded that inverse steady state leak detection would only be commercially
possible if there was massive data for a system.

3. THE PROPOSED TECHNIQUE

The technique here proposed for leak detection is part of the class of the Transient
Analysis Methods which are based on the properties of transmission and reflection of
pressure waves (Brunone 1989, 1999; Brunone and Ferrante 1999; Jönsson 1994, 1995;
Liggett and Chen, 1994).
When a pressure wave due to a change of the flow propagates in an intact pipe, it is
modified by friction forces which cause the progressive damping and smoothing of
pressure peaks (e.g. Brunone et al. 1995). Devices, changes in pipe characteristics, sediment
or air accumulation, and leaks all abruptly affect the characteristics of the pressure wave
(Brunone 1989, 1999; Brunone and Ferrante 1999; Jönsson 1994, 1995). Specifically, a leak
has three effects on the resultant pressure graph. The first effect is when the initial
pressure wave reaches the leak. It will produce a reflection which can be seen when it
arrives back at the section where the pressure wave has been determined. The amplitude of
the reflected wave increases with increasing the dimension of the leak. The time difference
between the initial transient wave and the reflected wave can then be measured and the
location down the pipe can be calculated by the following equation:

∆t  a
s = (1)
2

where: s = distance to the leak from the section where the pressure wave has been
produced,
∆T = time difference between the initial transient wave and the reflected wave,
a = wave propagation velocity.

Moreover, by considering partial reflection of pressure waves which takes place at a

leak, the discharge behavior of the leak itself can be assessed.

The second effect is the distortion in the oscillatory peaks and troughs that occur
after the main pressure rise has occurred.
The third and last effect due to the leakage is a reduction in the amplitude of the
oscillatory pattern after the main pressure rise has occurred.

Thus, for a given change of the flow, the presence of a leak can be detected by
analyzing the pressure signal, that is the pressure time-history at a section of the pipe. Of
course, the larger and the faster the flow change which gives rise to transient, and then the
larger and the steeper the pressure wave, the better the leak detection. The measured
pressure signal can be compared with the predictions of a numerical model for the same
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transient assuming the pipe to be intact. Alternatively, experimental values previously
obtained, such as when the pipe was just built, can be taken into account.

4. NUMERICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE OF THE EFFECTS OF LEAKS

ON PRESSURE TRANSIENT

Numerical modeling
Firstly, the possibility of locating a leak on the basis of transient tests is shown by
discussing the results of numerical simulations; details of the numerical model are given in
(Brunone 1989, 1999) as well as in Appendix I.
Example refers to an iron outfall pipe with diameter D = 300 mm, length L = 1000
m, characteristic roughness ε = 0.4 mm (Colebrook-White equation), a = 1250 m/s.
Transients are caused by an increase ∆ho of the piezometric head in the initial section
created, for example, by a pressurized tank truck. The pressure signal, hm, is shown (Fig. 1)
at the measurement section (s = sm = 50 m) downstream of the controlled valve whose action
gives rise to the transient ( ∆ho = 5 m). In the graph, the bold line represents an intact pipe,
whereas the thin lines refer to a damaged pipe where, at the section s = 400 m, a leak of
different discharge behavior is located: C A = 20, 80 and 180 mm2, respectively, with
C  and A being the coefficient of discharge and the area of the leak. Furthermore, the
dimensionless time θ = t/τ is considered, with t being the time since the beginning of the
valve motion and τ = 2L/a. Fig. 1 shows that for the intact pipe, hm is practically constant
and equal to ∆ho in the time interval [θ1, θ3], with θ1 = sm/(2L), the time at which the
pressure wave approaches section m, and θ3 = 1 - sm/L, the time when the pressure wave,
reflected back at the end diffuser, arrives at section m. For a damaged pipe, by contrast, at
θ2 = s /L - θ1, a reduction y of hm occurs, an effect which increases with increasing C A .

Laboratory Tests
With respect to the case of an intact pipe, numerical simulations confirm that, when
a pressure wave arrives at the orifice node, a part of it is transmitted and the other part is
reflected back, with the reflection phenomenon depending on the characteristics of the
leak. Therefore, as already mentioned, the pressure signal conveys information about the
state of the system: not only the presence of a leakage, but also its location and size.

An experimental apparatus has been designed and constructed to investigate

unsteady-state flow processes in pressurized pipes in the Laboratory of Hydraulics of the
Department of Water and Structural Engineering of the University of Perugia, Italy. The
apparatus consists of (Fig. 2):

(i) upstream pressurized tank (air vessel) in which the pressure can be held nearly
constant; in fact, during tests the speed of two submerged pumps, drawing water
from the recycling reservoir, can be varied;

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(ii) polyethylene pipe, 352 m in length of internal diameter 93.8 mm and wall thickness
of 8.1 mm; the pipe is arranged in concentric circles with bends having a minimum
radius equal to 1.5 m and is almost horizontal, except for the last short part;

(iii) downstream hand operated quick-closure ball valve that discharges into a free
surface tank.

In order to simulate a leak, a device with a variable diameter orifice at its wall has
been used (Fig.2). Pressure has been measured at the upstream tank and at the downstream
end section of the pipe (the measurement section in Fig. 2). Pressure transducers are of the
strain-gauge type, with a recording range of 0 to 60 m of water, an accuracy of 0.5% of the
full-range scale and a time response of 50 ms. Output signals from pressure transducers are
read directly into a PC at a rate of 130 Hz.

Transient events have been caused by quick closure of the end valve. The device
simulating the leak has been placed at a distance s = 128.12 m from the end section of the
pipe. In tests, different values of the orifice diameter have been considered in order to
evaluate the effects of the dimension of the leak on the characteristics of the pressure
signal, for a given shape of the leak. Furthermore, some tests have concerned an intact pipe
with the orifice simulating the leak closed by a disk. As a result of the pressure signal
analysis extended to all tests, the mean value of the velocity of the water hammer wave a =
359.9 m/s has been estimated; small differences in the a value from test to test can be
explained with the existence of small trapped air volumes.

To allow detailed discussion, only four of the experimental results from the
laboratory apparatus are chosen as entirely typical of the remainder. The related traces of
pressure signal, hm, observed at the measurement section are shown in Figs. 3 to 6, where
the reference datum for hm is the floor of the laboratory and t is time since data acquisition.

Transient of Fig. 3 corresponds to the intact-pipe condition. Thus, it can be assumed

as a reference for no-leak conditions during transients.

Transients of Figs. 4 to 6 correspond to damaged-pipe conditions. In these plots it is

evident that the pressure wave reflected at the leak modifies the pressure signal giving rise
to a dent. Furthermore, the presence of the leak causes a faster damping of the pressure
signal.
In Table I, the diameter d of the orifice simulating the leak along with the
experimental values of ∆hm, y and ∆t are given, where ∆hm = maximum value of the
overpressure due to the closure of the valve; y = piezometric head reduction (dent) due to
the leak; ∆t = t1 – t0, with t0 = time at which closure begins and t1 = time when the reflected
wave arrives at the measurement section. As can be seen from Table I, in order to make
easier the evaluation of the effects of the leak, the value of ∆hm is almost the same for the
chosen transients. As expected, for a given ∆hm, the larger d, the larger the dent y.

Table I. Characteristics of transients

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 Test d ∆hm y ∆t
(no.) (mm) (m) (m) (s)
1 --- 16.75 --- ---
2 4.9 15.70 1.04 0.728
3 9.9 15.05 2.49 0.727
4 15.9 15.97 4.47 0.719

On the basis of the knowledge of ∆t and a, the calculated value of leak location, s ,
can be obtained through Eq. (1). In Table II, the values of s along with those of the
relevant percentage error, ε , in the leak location:

ε =
(s  − s)100 (2)
s

are shown.

Table II. Leak location on the basis of test results

Test s ε
(no.) (m) (%)
1 --- ---
2 131.00 2.25
3 130.82 2.11
4 129.55 1.12

Basing on Table II, it can be seen that for all considered cases the error in leak
location is acceptable. Moreover, for given ∆hm and shape of the leak, the smaller d the
greater ε because of uncertainty in determining the actual time at which the reflected
wave reaches the measurement section. In other words, the larger ∆hm, and then y, the
more evident the discontinuity in the pressure signal due to the reflected wave.

On the basis of the value of y, the discharge behavior of the leak can be determined
using inverse transient calculations (Brunone 1999).

Results of both numerical simulation and laboratory tests carried out on a long pipe
confirm the reliability and validity of the proposed technique, at least when a simple pipe
system is considered. The transient tests proposed do not require complex equipment to be
carried out, in fact pressure measurement at only one section is needed, and do not give rise
to dangerous over-pressures (about 10 – 15 m of water column). The state of the pipe can
then be determined periodically by comparing the present pressure signal with the one
recorded, as an example, just after the construction corresponding to an intact pipe.

REFERENCES
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Brunone, B. (1989). “A technique for leak detection in wastewater outfalls. Numerical
experiments”, Congress on ‘Wastewater Outfalls’, Ischia, Italy, Univ. of Naples, D.223-236
(in Italian).
Brunone, B. (1999). “A transient test-based technique for leak detection in outfall pipes”, J.
Water Resour. Plng. and Mgmt., ASCE (in press).
Brunone, B., and Ferrante, M. (1999). “On leak detection in single pipes using unsteady-state
tests”, In M.H. Hamza (Editor): Modeling and Simulation, IASTED ACTA PRESS,
Anaheim, California, 268-272.
Brunone, B., Golia, U.M., and Greco, M. (1995). “Effects of two-dimensionality on pipe
transients modeling”, J. Hydr. Engrg., ASCE, 121(12), 906-912.
Jönsson, L. (1994). “Detection of leaks using pressure transients”, Report, Univ. of Lund,
Sweden.
Jönsson, L. (1995). “Leak detection in pipelines using hydraulic transients. Laboratory
measurements”, Report, Univ. of Lund, Sweden.
Liggett, J. A., and Chen, L. (1994). “Inverse transient analysis in pipe networks”, J. Hydr.
Engrg, ASCE, 120(8), 934 -955.
Pudar, R.S., and Liggett, J.A. (1992). “Leaks in pipe networks”, J. Hydr. Engrg, ASCE,
118(7), 1031-1046.
Wylie, E. B., and Streeter, V. L. (1993). “Fluid transients in systems”, Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.

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APPENDIX I – NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF TRANSIENTS IN DAMAGED PIPES

When numerically modeling unsteady-state flow in pressurized pipes (Wylie and

Streeter 1993), the instantaneous value at time t of the discharge through a leak, Qt , can be
visualized as occurring through a lateral orifice. Thus Qt is assumed to be given by the
traditional equation:
Qt = C  A 2 g (ht − z  ) (A1)
in which C  and A are the coefficient of discharge and the area of the orifice, respectively; g
is the acceleration due to gravity; ht and z  are the piezometric head and the elevation at
the orifice node, respectively.
To obtain the time-history of ht and Qt , the differential equations for transient flow
can be used. When the method of characteristics is considered, within a finite-difference
approximation, at the orifice node, along with at any interior computational node, the
following equations can be written:
ht = Cu − Bu Qut (A2)
ht = C d + Bd Qdt (A3)
for the reach length ∆s upstream (along the C characteristic line) and downstream (along
+

the C- characteristic line) the orifice node, respectively. In (A2) and (A3), the condition of a
common piezometric head, ht = hut = hdt , at the orifice node is assumed and Qut ( Qdt ) is the
upstream (downstream) discharge and s = axial co-ordinate, with s = 0 at the initial section
of the pipe. In (A2) and (A3), coefficients are defined as: Cu = ht −−1∆t + BQt −−1∆t ;
Bu = B + R Q t −−1∆t ; C d = ht +−1∆t − BQt +−1∆t ; Bd = B + R Qt +−1∆t ; where ht −1
− ∆t − ∆t
and Qt −1 − ∆t
( ht +1 and
− ∆t
Qt +1 ) are the piezometric head and the discharge at the node upstream (downstream) the
orifice node at time t − ∆t , respectively; ∆t = time step; B = a / (gA) is the pipe
characteristic impedance; A = cross-sectional area of the pipe; R = λ ∆s / (2 gDA2 ) is the pipe
resistance coefficient; λ = Darcy-Weisbach friction factor and D = pipe internal diameter.
Furthermore, at any time t the continuity equation must be satisfied at the orifice
node:
Qut = Qdt + Qt (A4)
The boundary conditions to be satisfied both at the upstream and downstream end
section of the pipe depend on the characteristics of the induced action, which gives rise to
he pressure wave, along with on those of the pipe.