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Treatment of Behavioral Problems - Behavior - Merck Veterinary
Treatment of Behavioral Problems - Behavior - Merck Veterinary
Treatment of Behavioral Problems - Behavior - Merck Veterinary
Veterinary Manual
Veterinary / Behavior / Behavioral Medicine Introduction
Treatment of Behavioral
Problems
By Gary M. Landsberg, BSc, DVM, MRCVS, DACVB, DECAWBM, Director,
Veterinary Affairs and Product Development, CanCog Technologies, and
Veterinary Behaviourist, North Toronto Veterinary Behaviour Specialty Clinic
In companion animals, the treatment of behavior problems varies with diagnosis and
prognosis. In general, the program begins with prevention and avoidance of problems, while
the owner develops effective strategies to modify the pet’s behavior so that it might gradually
be reintroduced to the problem situations while achieving a desirable outcome. Initially,
prevention is necessary to avoid further compromising the pet’s welfare and to ensure safety
in cases of aggression. Repetition of the behavior further aggravates the problem if the pet
successfully accomplishes its intended goal (eg, escape or retreat from the stimulus), while
each exposure in which the outcome is unpleasant can condition further anxiety.
Improvement is generally a slow and gradual process; therefore, owners must have realistic
expectations of what might be achieved. Modifications to the environment may be required,
so that the pet can be kept away from the stimuli (or the sights or sounds of the stimuli) that
incite the problem or from the areas in which the problem occurs. Modifying the pet’s
behavior is accomplished by applying the principles of learning and behavior modification,
primarily achieving and rewarding desirable outcomes along with use of products that
improve safety, reduce anxiety, or help to achieve the desired response more effectively (eg,
muzzles, head halters, no-pull harnesses, etc). Drugs and natural products may also be
indicated for some pets and some problems.
Most of the humane, passive, or positive techniques involved in behavior modification are
not hard to learn and together with preventive strategies are very successful. In fact, dogs
trained with rewards have fewer behavior problems, less fear, and less avoidance than dogs
trained with punishment. The following is a short review of the basic principles involved in
the techniques and their associated strategies.
Classical Conditioning:
The pairing of an unconditioned stimulus with a neutral stimulus results in a conditioned
stimulus and a conditioned response. Classical conditioning can occur in both positive and
negative ways. Examples of a positive conditioned emotional response are the pairing of a
clicker with favored treats (for clicker training) or a doorbell signaling visitors (for pets
enthused about meeting new people).
Operant Conditioning:
Operant conditioning is a method based on making an association between a behavior and
consequences of that behavior. The results either increase or decrease the likelihood of
future responses. There are four types of behavior-consequence relations: positive and
negative punishment and positive and negative reinforcement. Reinforcement increases the
likelihood a behavior will be repeated, and punishment leads to a reduction in behavior.
Negative refers to the removal of a stimulus, and positive refers to the application of a
stimulus.
Punishment cannot be used to achieve desirable behaviors, only to stop what is undesirable.
If the goal is to make the pet fearful of repeating a behavior (eg, garbage raiding, taking
things from counters, chewing plants) or to keep the pet away from an area (room, couch,
bed), then environmental punishment or pet-activated punishment (eg, motion detector
alarms or sprays, upside-down carpet runners, aversive tastes, double-sided tape, or bark-
activated sprays) or remote punishment (eg, spraying water while out of sight, remote-
activated alarm or spray) might be most appropriate. However, before focusing on how to
stop what is undesirable, the owner should first focus on providing a desirable alternative
(eg, where to sleep, where to climb, what to chew).
Second-order Reinforcers:
Signals that can be used at a distance to convey that the reward is coming are second-order
reinforcers. Commonly used second-order reinforcers are words (eg, “Good dog!”), clickers,
or whistles. By repeatedly and continuously pairing these with a primary reward such as a
toy or treat, second-order reinforcers can elicit the same response that the reward would, as
long as the pairing is repeatedly maintained. Clicker training requires frequent practice and
excellent timing, but once achieved the animal can be reinforced each time the desired
behavior is observed. Clicker training is an excellent way to immediately “mark” desirable
responses, gradually shape new or more desirable behaviors (eg, longer, more relaxed), or
associate a positive emotional response with the stimulus. (A useful resource is
www.clickertraining.com.)
Premack Principle:
When a more desirable behavior is made contingent on a less desirable behavior, the less
desirable behavior is more likely to be repeated. Thus, the more desirable behavior serves as
the reinforcer. For example, if a pet wants to go out or cross the street for its walk, the owner
can train a sit-stay before each of these behaviors. A horse or dog that wants to walk ahead
can be taught that walking on a slack rein or leash will result in this behavior.
Overlearning:
Overlearning is the repeated evocation and expression of an already learned response. It is a
phenomenon frequently used in training for specific events but may be underused in
preventing fearful responses in dogs. Overlearning accomplishes three things: it delays
forgetting, it increases the resistance to extinction, and it increases the probability that the
response will become a “knee-jerk” one, or response of first choice, when the circumstances
are similar.
Shaping:
Shaping works through gradual approximations and allows the animal to be rewarded
initially for any behavior that resembles the desired behavior. For instance, when teaching a
puppy to sit, providing a food reward for a slight squat will increase the probability that
squatting will be repeated. This squatting behavior is then rewarded only when it more
closely resembles a sit, and finally, when it becomes a true sit. Shaping can also be used to
reward an increase in duration of or progressively more relaxed behaviors.
Extinction:
The ending of a behavior once all reinforcement is removed is termed extinction. For
example, if people pet a dog that jumps up on them for attention, the behavior continues; if
they stop, the dog will eventually extinguish its response because the reward is no longer
there. However, any form of intermittent reinforcement—even occasional petting of the dog
in response to its jumping—will prolong the performance of the response. Valuable rewards,
a long history of performance, and intermittent reinforcement all increase resistance to
extinction. Owners also must be prepared for the intensity of the behavior to initially
increase before it is extinguished. Giving in will make extinction even more difficult as the
animal learns that higher intensity behaviors achieve the desired outcome.
Habituation:
Habituation is a gradual lessening of a response to a stimulus. Usually this occurs with
repeated presentation of a stimulus whereby the animal learns that it does not signal
anything important. For example, horses placed in a pasture bordering a road may at first
run away when traffic passes but eventually learn to ignore it. Stimuli associated with
potentially adverse consequences are more difficult to extinguish with habituation than other
stimuli. In prey species, responses to sounds associated with predators would be difficult to
habituate, because they have been selected for and generally are adaptive. If the fear
response is too intense, instead of habituation the animal may become increasingly more
fearful of the stimulus. This is termed sensitization.
If an extended interval has occurred since the time an animal last experienced a stimulus to
which it had habituated, the animal may again react when reexposed to the stimulus. This is
termed spontaneous recovery.
Flooding:
This is used to treat fears of harmless stimuli by forcing the animal to stay in the presence of
the stimuli until the fear is extinguished. This procedure is seldom effective and has welfare
implications in dogs, because it initially enhances fear and cannot be stopped until all
physiologic and emotional signs of fear are gone. If done improperly, flooding may therefore
increase problem behaviors. In practice, a controlled level of flooding is quite often used as a
component of behavior modification, in which the stimulus is presented at a level that is low
enough to cause mild fear and the pet is not removed until it habituates. This can then be
combined with reinforcement, ie, the pet is positively reinforced or the stimulus removed
(negative reinforcement) when the fear response subsides or abates.
Response Substitution:
This involves the replacement of an undesirable response with a desirable one. For example,
high-value rewards can be used to train desirable target behaviors that are alternatives to the
undesirable behavior. However, if the behavior is part of the pet’s natural repertoire (eg,
greeting, barking), it can be particularly difficult to train alternative behaviors. Specific
examples of response substitution include training a dog to sit or lie down as an alternative
to jumping up, mounting, or play biting; or to sit, walk on loose leash, or back up for dogs
forging ahead or running out the door. Training should begin in a variety of environments
where success can be most readily achieved. The desired endpoint for the new response is for
the animal to be quiet and calm. Therefore, the owner must learn to read the look in the eyes,
body posture, facial expressions, and breathing to be able to gradually shape the desired
behavior. Training could then move to environments with increasing distractions and
locations where the problem is most likely to arise. Alternatively, the pet might be enticed to
engage in a behavior that is incompatible with the undesirable behavior, eg, teaching the dog
to fetch a toy when visitors arrive instead of jumping up.
To replace the undesirable behavior with one that is desirable, response substitution can be
coupled with desensitization by beginning training with stimuli of low enough intensity
while training the target behaviors (eg, relaxation) with high-value rewards. However, for
pets that are fearful or anxious, the focus should be on desensitization and
counterconditioning to change the pet’s emotional state rather than the behavioral response.
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