STRUCTURE

OF SPERM

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 Structure of sperm

A mature sperm is 60 µ long.

Mature human sperm cell has snake like structure. It has following parts
• Head
• Neck
• Middle piece
• Tail

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Head:

It is spherical in shape consisting of large nucleus.

A dome shaped acrosome present on the nucleus. It develops from Golgi
apparatus and it is made up of mucopolysaccharide and acid phosphates.

The acrosome contains the enzymes which are used to digest the
granulose cells of the ovum to fertilize the ovum.
The head also contain the nucleus which consist of the genetic material
from the male i.e. 23 chromosomes.
It is about 3 to 5 µ in length and up to 3 µ width.

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Neck:

It contains centrioles which are proximal centriole and distal centriole.

Distal centriole gives rise to axial filament of the sperm which runs up to
the end of the tail.
It is a connection between the head and the mid piece of the sperm.

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Mid-piece:

It is tubular structure in which mitochondria are spirally arranged.

The middle piece is seen behind the neck.
Middle piece is called power house of sperm because it gives energy to
the sperm to swim in the female genital tract.
Body is cylindrical with a length of 5 to 9 µ and the thickness of 1 µ.
The body of the sperm consists of a central core called axial filament,
covered by thin cytoplasmic capsule.
Axial filament starts from posterior end knob of the neck. It passes
through the body and a perforated disc called end disk or end ring
centriole.
In the body, the axial filament is surrounded by a closely wound spiral
filament consisting of mitochondria.
The spiral arrangement of mitochondria is called nebenbern.

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Tail:

It arises from middle piece and it is the end part of the sperm. It contains
axial filaments.
Tail helps the sperm to swim in the female genital tract. It is the main
part of sperm to move.
Chief or main piece is enclosed by cytoplasmic capsule and has an axial
thread. It is 40 to 50 µ long
Terminal or end piece has only the axial filament.

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SEMEN

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 Introduction:
Semen is a white or grey fluid that contains sperms. It is the
collection of fluids from testes, seminal vesicles, prostate gland and
bulbourethral glands. Semen is discharged during sexual act and the
process of discharge of semen is called ejaculation.

Testes contribute sperms. Prostate secretion gives milky appearance

to the semen. Secretions from seminal vesicles and bulbourethral glands
provide mucoid consistency to semen.

Nature of sperm:
At the time of ejaculation, human semen is liquid in nature.
Immediately, it coagulates and after some time it becomes liquid once again
(secondary liquefaction). Fibrinogen secreted from the seminal vesicle is
converted into a weak coagulum by the clotting enzymes secreted from
prostate gland. Coagulum is liquefied after about 30 minutes, as it is lysed
by fibrinolysin produced in prostate gland. When semen is ejaculated, the
sperms are non-motile due to the viscosity of coagulum. When the coagulum
dissolves, the sperms become motile.

Properties of semen:
1. Specific gravity: 1.028
2. Volume: 2 mL to 6 mL per ejaculation
3. Reaction: It is alkaline with a pH of 7.5. Alkalinity is due to the
prostate fluid.

Function of male accessory sex glands:

Although the accessory sex gland secretions are not absolutely
essential for fertilization, they do greatly facilitate the process

Seminal vesicles
Prostate gland
Bulbourethral gland

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 Seminal vesicles:

The seminal vesicles provide;

(1) Supply fructose, which serves as the primary energy source for
ejaculated sperm.
(2) Secrete prostaglandins, which stimulate contractions of the smooth
muscle in both the male and female reproductive tracts, thereby helping to
transport sperm from their storage site in the male to the site of fertilization
in the female oviduct.
(3) Provide about 60% of the semen volume, which helps wash the sperm
into the urethra and also dilutes the thick mass of sperm, enabling them to
become mobile.
(4) Secrete fibrinogen, a precursor of fibrin, which forms the meshwork of
a clot.

Prostate gland:

The prostate gland provides;

(1) secretes an alkaline fluid that neutralizes the acidic vaginal secretions,
an important function because sperm are more viable in a slightly alkaline
environment;
(2) Provides clotting enzymes.
(3) Releases prostate specific antigen. The prostatic clotting enzymes act on
fibrinogen from the seminal vesicles to produce fibrin, which “clots” the
semen, thus helping keep the ejaculated sperm in the female reproductive
tract during withdrawal of the penis.

Bulbourethral gland

During sexual arousal, the bulbourethral glands secrete mucus like

substance that provides lubrication for sexual intercourse.

Composition of semen:

Semen contains 10% sperms and 90% of fluid part, which is called
seminal plasma. Seminal plasma contains the products from seminal vesicle

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and prostate gland. It also has small amount of secretions from the mucus
glands, particularly the bulbourethral glands.

Semen analysis:

Analysis of semen evaluates the qualities of semen, which is useful to

investigate the infertility.
Parameters of semen analysis:
1. Volume
2. Reaction and pH
3. Liquefaction
4. Sperm count
5. Morphology of sperm
6. Motility of sperms
7. Pus cells and RBCs
8. Fructose level.

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 Quality of semen required for fertility:
Minimum required qualities of semen for fertility are:
1. Volume of semen per ejaculation must be at least 2 mL
2. Sperm count must be at least 20 million/mL
3. Number of sperms in each ejaculation must be at least 40 million
4. 75% of sperms per ejaculation must be alive
5. 50% of sperms must be motile
6. 30% of sperms must have normal shape and structure
7. Sperms with head defect must be less than 35%
8. Sperms with mid-piece defect must be less than 20%
9. Sperms with tail defect must be less than 20%.

APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY

Azoospermia:
Azoospermia is the condition characterized by lack of sperm in semen.
It is a congenital disease. It is also caused by excess use of corticosteroids
and androgens.

Oligozoospermia:
Oligozoospermia is the low sperm count with less than 20 million of
sperms/mL of semen. Oligozoospermia causes infertility.

Teratozoospermia:

Teratozoospermia is the condition characterized by presence of

sperms with abnormal morphology. It is also called teratospermia. It occurs
in Crohn’s disease, Hodgkin disease and celiac disease. The abnormal
morphology of sperm results in infertility.

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Aspermia:
Aspermia is the lack of semen. It occurs due to retrograde
ejaculation. Retrograde ejaculation is the entrance of semen into urinary
bladder instead of entering urethra. It is due to dysfunction of sphincter of
the bladder, which is caused by prostatic surgery or excess use of drugs.
Aspermia leads to infertility.

Oligospermia:
Oligospermia is a genetic disorder characterized by low volume of
semen.

Hematospermia:
Hematospermia is the appearance of blood in sperm. It
occurs due to infection of urethra or prostate. It is also common in
congenital bleeding disorder.

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 Spermatogen-
esis
During formation of the embryo, the primordial germ cells migrate into the
testes and become immature germ cells called spermatogonia, which lie in
two or three layers of the inner surfaces of the seminiferous tubules. At
puberty the spermatogonia begin to undergo mitotic division and continually
proliferate and differentiate through definite stages of development to form
sperm. About 250 m (800 ft) of sperm-producing seminiferous tubules are
packed within the testes. Two functionally important cell types are present in
these tubules: germ cells, most of which are in various stages of sperm
development, and Sertoli cells, which provide crucial support for
spermatogenesis

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 Spermatogenesis is the process by which the male gametes called
spermatozoa (sperms) are formed from the primitive spermatogenic cells
(spermatogonia) in the testis. It takes 74 days for the formation of sperm
from a primitive germ cell. Throughout the process of spermatogenesis, the
spermatogenic cells have cytoplasmic attachment with Sertoli cells. Sertoli
cells supply all the necessary materials for spermatogenesis through the
cytoplasmic attachment. Spermatogenesis occurs in the seminiferous tubules
during active sexual life as the result of stimulation by anterior pituitary
gonadotropic hormones. Spermatogenesis begins at an average age of 13
years and continues throughout most of the remainder of life but decreases
markedly in old age.

Spermatogenesis occurs in four stages:

1. Stage of proliferation
2. Stage of growth
3. Stage of maturation
4. Stage of transformation

1. Stage of Proliferation:

Each spermatogonium contains diploid number (23 pairs) of

chromosomes. One member of each pair is from maternal origin and the
other one from paternal origin. The 23 pairs include 22 pairs of autosomal
chromosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes. Sex chromosomes are one
X chromosome and one Y-chromosome. During the proliferative stage,
spermatogonia divide by mitosis, without any change in chromosomal
number. In man, there are usually seven generations of spermatogonia. The
last generation enters the stage of growth as primary spermatocyte. During
this stage, the spermatogonia migrate along with Sertoli cells towards the
lumen of seminiferous tubule.

2. Stage of Growth:

In this stage, the primary spermatocyte grows into a large cell.

Apart from growth, there is no other change in spermatocyte during this
stage

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3. Stage of Maturation:

After reaching the full size, each primary spermatocyte quickly

undergoes meiotic or maturation division, which occurs in two phases:
First meiotic division
Second meiotic division

First meiotic division:

In the first phase, each primary spermatocyte divides into two

secondary spermatocytes. The significance of the first meiotic division is that

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each secondary spermatocyte receives only the haploid or half the number of
chromosomes. 23 chromosomes include 22 autosomes and a X or a Y
chromosome.

Second meiotic division:

During this phase, each secondary spermatocyte undergoes second

meiotic division, resulting in two smaller cells called spermatids. Each
spermatid has haploid number of chromosomes.

o Sex Chromosomes:

In each spermatogonium, one of the 23 pairs of chromosomes

carries the genetic information that determines the sex of each eventual
offspring. This pair is composed of one X chromosome, which is called the
female chromosome, and one Y chromosome, the male chromosome. During
meiotic division, the male Y chromosome goes to one spermatid that then
becomes a male sperm, and the female X chromosome goes to another
spermatid that becomes a female sperm. The sex of the eventual offspring is
determined by which of these two types of sperm fertilizes the ovum.

4. Stage of Transformation:

There is no further division. Spermatids are transformed into

matured spermatozoa (sperms), by means of spermeogenesis and released
by spermination.

Spermeogenesis:
Spermeogenesis is the process by which spermatids become matured
spermatozoa.
Changes taking place during spermeogenesis:
i. Condensation of nuclear material
ii. Formation of acrosome, mitochondrial spiral filament and tail structures
iii. Removal of extraneous (extra volume of nonessential) cytoplasm.

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 Spermination:

Spermination is the process by which the matured sperms are

released from Sertoli cells into the lumen of seminiferous tubules.

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Factors affecting spermatogenesis:

Spermatogenesis is influenced by:

1. Sertoli cells
2. Hormones
3. Other factors

1. Role of Sertoli Cell in Spermatogenesis:

Sertoli cells influence spermatogenesis by:

Supporting and nourishing the germ cells.
Providing hormonal substances necessary for spermatogenesis.
Secreting androgen-binding protein (ABP), which is essential for
testosterone activity, particularly on spermatogenesis.
Releasing sperms into the lumen of seminiferous tubules
(spermination).
The Sertoli cells have an important phagocytic function. They engulf
the cytoplasm extruded from the spermatids during their remodeling,
and they destroy defective germ cells that fail to successfully complete
all stages of spermatogenesis.
The Sertoli cells are the site of action for control of spermatogenesis
by both testosterone and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH). Sertoli
cells have distinct receptors for each of these hormones. The Sertoli
cells themselves release another hormone, inhibin, which acts in
negative-feedback fashion to regulate FSH secretion.
During fetal development, Sertoli cells also secrete Mullerian-
inhibiting factor.

2. Role of Hormones in Spermatogenesis:

Spermatogenesis is influenced by many hormones, which act either

directly or indirectly.
Hormones necessary for spermatogenesis are:
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Testosterone
• Estrogen
• Luteinizing hormone (LH)
• Growth hormone (GH)
• Inhibin

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 • Activin

Follicle-stimulating hormone:
Follicle-stimulating hormone is responsible for the initiation of
spermatogenesis. It binds with Sertoli cells and spermatogonia and induces
the proliferation of spermatogonia. It also stimulates the formation of
estrogen and androgen-binding protein from Sertoli cells.

Testosterone:
Testosterone is responsible for the sequence of remaining stages in
spermatogenesis. It is also responsible for the maintenance of
spermatogenesis. Testosterone activity is largely influenced by androgen-
binding protein.

Estrogen:
Estrogen is formed from testosterone in Sertoli cells. It is necessary
for spermeogenesis.

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 Luteinizing Hormone:
In males, this hormone is called interstitial cell stimulating hormone.
It is essential for the secretion of testosterone from Leydig cells.

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 Growth Hormone:
Growth hormone is essential for the general metabolic processes in
testis. It is also necessary for the proliferation of spermatogonia. In pituitary
dwarfs, the spermatogenesis is severely affected.

Inhibin

Inhibin is a peptide hormone and serves as a transforming growth

factor. It is secreted by Sertoli cells. In females, it is secreted by granulosa
cells of ovarian follicles. Its secretion is stimulated by FSH.
Inhibin plays an important role in the regulation of spermatogenesis
by inhibiting FSH secretion through feedback mechanism. FSH secreted
from anterior pituitary induces spermatogenesis by stimulating Sertoli cells.
It also stimulates the secretion of inhibin from Sertoli cells. So, when the
rate of spermatogenesis increases, there is a simultaneous increase in
inhibin secretion also. Inhibin in turn, acts on anterior pituitary and inhibits
the secretion of FSH, leading to decrease in the pace of spermatogenesis.
It is believed that inhibin also inhibits FSH secretion indirectly by
inhibiting GnRH secretion from hypothalamus.

Activin

Activin is also a peptide hormone secreted in gonads along with

inhibin. The exact location of its secretion in testis is not known. It is
suggested that activin is secreted by Sertoli cells and Leydig cells.
Activin has opposite actions of inhibin. It increases the secretion of
FSH and accelerates spermatogenesis.

3. Role of Other Factors in Spermatogenesis:

Increase in body temperature:

Increase in body temperature prevents spermatogenesis. Normally,
the temperature in scrotum is about 2°C less than the body temperature.
This low temperature is essential for spermatogenesis. When the
temperature increases, the spermatogenesis stops. It is very common in
cryptorchidism (undescended testes).
In cryptorchidism, the testes are in the abdomen, where the
temperature is always higher than that of scrotum. High temperature in the

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abdomen causes degeneration of seminiferous tubules and stoppage of
spermatogenesis.

Diseases:

Infectious diseases such as mumps cause degeneration of

seminiferous tubules and stoppage of spermatogenesis.

Maturation of Sperm

The epididymis and ductus deferens serve as the sperm’s exit

route from the testis. As they leave the testis, the sperm are capable of
neither movement nor fertilization. They gain both capabilities during their
passage through the epididymis. Th is maturational process is stimulated by
the testosterone retained within the tubular fluid bound to androgen-binding
protein. Sperm’s capacity to fertilize is enhanced even further by exposure to
secretions of the female reproductive tract. This enhancement of sperm’s
capacity in the male and female reproductive tracts is known as
capacitation. Scientists believe that defensin, a protein secreted by the
epididymis that defends sperm from microorganisms, may serve a second
role by boosting sperm’s motility. The epididymis also concentrates the
sperm a hundredfold by absorbing most of the fluid that enters from the
seminiferous tubules. The maturing sperm are slowly moved through the
epididymis into the ductus deferens by rhythmic contractions of the smooth
muscle in the walls of these tubes.
The ductus deferens serves as an important site for sperm
storage. Because the tightly packed sperm are relatively inactive and their
metabolic needs are accordingly low, they can be stored in the ductus
deferens for up to two months, even though they have no nutrient blood
supply and are nourished only by simple sugars present in the tubular
secretions.

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Physiology of the Mature Sperm:
The normal motile, fertile sperm are capable of flagellated
movement through the fluid medium at velocities of 1 to 4 mm/min. The
activity of sperm is greatly enhanced in a neutral and slightly alkaline
medium, as exists in the ejaculated semen, but it is greatly depressed in a
mildly acidic medium. A strong acidic medium can cause the rapid death of
sperm.
The activity of sperm increases markedly with increasing
temperature, but so does the rate of metabolism, causing the life of the
sperm to be considerably shortened. Although sperm can live for many
weeks in the suppressed state in the genital ducts of the testes, the life
expectancy of ejaculated sperm in the female genital tract is only 1 to 2
days.

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STRUCTURE
OF OVUM

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 Size and shape:
The egg cell (ovum) is the largest human cell. It measures 0.15 to 0.2 mm
and is just visible to the naked eye. The cell consists of a large amount of
cytoplasm (cell fluid) in which the nucleus is dissolved.

Components:
Ooplasm
Germinal vesicles
Germinal spot
Zona pellucida
Corona radiate

Ooplasm:

The ooplasm (yolk) comprises of two main pats

• Formative yolk:

The cytoplasm of ordinary animal cell with its spongioplasm is

termed as the formative yolk.

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• Nutritive yolk:
It consists of numerous rounded granules of fatty and albuminoidal
substances imbedded in the cytoplasm. In the mammalian ovum the
nutritive yolk is extremely small in amount, and is of service in
nourishing the embryo in the early stages of its development only.

Germinal Vesicle:

The germinal vesicle or nucleus is a large spherical body.

It first occupies a nearly central position, but becomes eccentric as the
growth of the ovum proceeds.
Its structure is that of an ordinary cell-nucleus
The nucleus is enclosed by a delicate nuclear membrane, and contains in
its interior a well-defined nucleolus or germinal spot.

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Zona pellucida:

The zona pellucida (zona striata) is a thick membrane.

Under the higher powers of the microscope, is seen to be radially
striated.
It persists for some time after fertilization has occurred, and may serve
for protection during the earlier stages of segmentation.
It is not yet determined whether the zona striata is a product of the
cytoplasm of the ovum or of the cells of the corona radiata, or both.

Corona radiata:

The corona radiata consists of two or three strata of cells.

They are derived from the cells of the follicle.

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 They adhere to the outer surface of the zona striata when the ovum is
set free from the follicle.
The cells are radially arranged around the zona, those of the innermost
layer being columnar in shape.
The cells of the corona radiata soon disappear; in some animals they
secrete, or are replaced by, a layer of adhesive protein, which may
assist in protecting and nourishing the ovum.

Vitelline membrane:

The vitelline membrane is a structure surrounding the outer surface of

the plasma membrane of an ovum.

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 It is composed mostly of protein fibers, with protein receptors needed
for sperm binding which, in turn, are bound to sperm plasma
membrane receptors.
The species-specificity between these receptors contributes to
prevention of breeding between different species.

Perivitelline space:
The perivitelline space is the space between the zona pellucida and
the cell membrane of an oocyte or fertilized ovum.
In the slow block to polyspermy, the cortical granules released from
the ovum are deposited in the perivitelline space.

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 Oogenesis

The production of eggs is called oogenesis.It is not a continual

process, but occurs in a rhythm called the ovarian cycle, and for each
original germ cell (oogonium), it produces only one functional gamete. The
other daughter cells are tiny polar bodies that soon die.

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 The female primordial germ cells arise, like those of the male,
from the yolk sac of the embryo. They colonize the gonadal ridges in the first
5 to 6 weeks and then differentiate into oogonia. Oogonia multiply until the
fifth month of gestation, reach 6 to 7 million in numbers, and then go into a
state of arrested development until shortly before birth. At that time, some of
them transform into primary oocytes and go as far as early meiosis I. Any
stage from the primary oocyte to the time of fertilization can be called an
egg, or ovum.

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 Most primary oocytes degenerate even before a girl is born; only
2 million remain at birth. Furthermore, most of these degenerate during
childhood, and by the onset of puberty, only about 400,000 remain. This is
generally thought to be the female’s lifetime supply of germ cells. The
degeneration of oocytes and follicles without maturation is called atresia.
During a woman’s reproductive years, about 20 to 25 oocytes and
follicles begin to develop each month. Normally just one of these reaches
maturity and ovulates, and the rest degenerate. The stages of oogenesis are
accompanied by pronounced changes in the follicle.

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 The primary oocyte is initially enclosed in a primordial follicle,
composed of a single layer of squamous follicular cells applied tightly to the
oocyte. About 3 days before the menstrual period begins, pituitary secretion
of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates several primordial follicles
to develop into primary follicles. The follicular cells thicken into a cuboidal
epithelium, multiply, and become stratified. They are now called granulosa
cells. The ovarian stroma adjacent to the follicle condenses into a fibrous
capsule called the theca folliculi. The theca and granulosa cells collaborate
to synthesize estrogens. Among other effects, estrogens stimulate re-growth
of the uterine lining (endometrium) after menstruation.

Most primary follicles degenerate with no further

development. In a few, however, the granulosa cells secrete pools of
estrogen-rich follicular fluid. These pools grow and merge until they form a
single fluid-filled cavity, the antrum. The follicle is now called a secondary
(antral) follicle. This is the state of development when menstruation ends
around day 5. (Day 1 of the cycle is regarded as the first day of
menstruation.)

By day 10 or so, all but one of the developing follicles usually

degenerate. That one enlarges to as much as 2.5 cm in diameter and bulges
like a balloon from the surface of the ovary. This mature (graafian31)
follicle is the one destined to ovulate. The oocyte in this follicle is held
against the follicular wall by a mound of granulosa cells called the cumulus
oophorus. A layer of glycoprotein gel called the zona pellucida separates
the granulosa cells from the oocyte and appears as a clear space in
histological sections. The innermost layer of cumulus cells is called the
corona radiata. Microvilli from the corona cells and the oocyte span the
zona pellucida.

The primary oocyte, suspended in prophase I of meiosis, now

completes its division. It divides into a large secondary oocyte and a small
first polar body. Meiosis I reduces the chromosome number by half, so the
secondary oocyte is haploid. It retains as much of the cytoplasm as possible,
so that if it is fertilized, it can divide repeatedly and produce numerous
daughter cells. Splitting each oocyte into four equal but small parts would
run counter to this purpose. The first polar body is simply a way of
discarding the other haploid set of chromosomes; it soon dies. The
secondary oocyte begins meiosis II and then goes into developmental arrest
again until after ovulation. If this egg is fertilized, it completes meiosis II

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and produces a second polar body. If not fertilized, it dies and never finishes
meiosis.

Ovulation, the release of an oocyte, typically occurs on day 14,

the midpoint of the average cycle. As ovulation approaches, the oocyte and
cumulus oophorus become detached from the follicular wall and drift in the
antrum. Ovulation takes only 2 or 3 minutes. A nipplelike stigma appears on
the ovarian surface over the follicle. Follicular fluid seeps from the stigma
for 1 or 2 minutes, and then the follicle ruptures. The remaining follicular
fluid oozes out, carrying the oocyte and cumulus cells.

When the oocyte is expelled, the follicle collapses and bleeds into
the antrum. As the clotted blood is slowly absorbed, granulose and theca
interna cells multiply and fill the antrum, and a dense bed of blood
capillaries grows amid them. The ovulated follicle has now become a
structure called the corpus luteum, named for a yellow lipid that
accumulates in the theca interna cells. These cells are now called lutein
cells. The corpus luteum secretes a large amount of progesterone, which
stimulates the uterus to prepare for possible pregnancy.

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 If pregnancy does not occur, the corpus luteum atrophies from
days 24 to 26—a process called involution. As it does, the level of
circulating progesterone declines and this brings about menstruation. By
day 26 or so, involution is complete and the corpus luteum becomes an
inactive scar, the corpus albicans. If pregnancy occurs, however, the corpus
luteum remains active for about 3 months. Its progesterone is necessary to
sustain the early pregnancy. Eventually the placenta takes over the role of
progesterone secretion, among other functions, and the corpus luteum is no
longer needed.

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 Fertilization
(fusion of sperm and
ovum)

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 The central feature of reproduction is the fusion of the two gamete
pronuclei at fertilization. In humans, the male gametes are spermatozoa,
which are produced from puberty onwards. Female gametes are released as
secondary oocytes in the second meiotic metaphase, usually singly, in a
cyclical fashion. The signal for the completion of the second meiotic division
is fertilization, which stimulates the cell division cycle to resume, completing
meiosis and extruding the second polar body (the second set of redundant
meiotic chromosomes). Fertilization occurs in the ampulla of the uterine
tube and includes five phases.
Ovum transport to the oviduct
Sperm transport to the oviduct
Sperm penetration of corona radiata
Sperm binding and penetration of area pellucida
Fusion of sperm and oocyte cell membrane

Entry of the Ovum Into the Fallopian Tube:

When ovulation occurs,

the ovum, along with a hundred
or more attached granulosa
cells that constitute the corona
radiata, is expelled directly into
the peritoneal cavity and must
then enter one of the fallopian
tubes (also called uterine tubes)
to reach the cavity of the uterus.
The fimbriated ends of each
fallopian tube fall naturally
around the ovaries. The inner
surfaces of the fimbriated
tentacles are lined with ciliated
epithelium, and the cilia are
activated by estrogen from the
ovaries, which causes the cilia to
beat toward the opening, or ostium,
of the involved fallopian tube. One
can actually see a slow fluid
current flowing toward the ostium. By this means, the ovum enters one of the
fallopian tubes.

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 Sperm transport to the oviduct:

After sperm are deposited in the vagina at ejaculation, they must

travel through the cervical canal, through the uterus, and then up to the egg
in the upper third of the oviduct). The first sperm arrive in the oviduct within
half an hour after ejaculation. Even though sperm are mobile by means of
whip like contractions of their tails, 30 minutes is much too soon for a
sperm’s own mobility to transport it to the site of fertilization. To make this
formidable journey, sperm need the help of the female reproductive tract.

The first hurdle is passage through the cervical canal.

Throughout most of the cycle, because of high progesterone or low estrogen
levels, the cervical mucus is too thick to permit sperm penetration. The
cervical mucus becomes thin and watery enough to permit sperm to
penetrate only when estrogen levels are high, as in the presence of a mature
follicle about to ovulate. Sperm migrate up the cervical canal under their
own power. The canal remains penetrable for only two or three days during
each cycle, around the time of ovulation.

Once sperm have entered the uterus, contractions of the

myometrium churn them around in “washing-machine” fashion.

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This action quickly disperses sperm throughout the uterine cavity. When
sperm reach the oviduct, they are propelled to the fertilization site in the
upper end of the oviduct by upward contractions of the oviduct smooth
muscle. These myometrial and oviduct contractions that facilitate sperm
transport are induced by the high estrogen level just before ovulation, aided
by seminal prostaglandins.

Sperm penetration of corona radiata:

The tail of the sperm is

used to maneuver for final
penetration of the ovum. To fertilize
an ovum, a sperm must first pass
through the corona radiata and zona
pellucida surrounding it. The sperm
penetrates the corona radiata by
means of membrane-bound enzymes
in the surface membrane that
surrounds the head.

Prepared by: Mueen Ahmed Hashmi

 Sperm binding and penetration of the zona pellucida:

Binding:
Sperm can penetrate the zona pellucida only after binding with
specific binding sites on the surface of this layer. The binding partners
between the sperm and ovum were recently identified. Fertilin, a protein
found on the plasma membrane of the sperm, binds with glycoproteins
known as ZP3 in the outer layer of the zona pellucida. Only sperm of the
same species can bind to these zona pellucida sites and pass through.

Prepared by: Mueen Ahmed Hashmi

 Penetration:

Binding of sperm triggers the acrosome reaction, in which the

acrosomal membrane disrupts and the acrosomal enzymes are released.
Stored in the acrosome of the sperm are large quantities of hyaluronidase
and proteolytic enzymes. Hyaluronidase depolymerizes the hyaluronic acid
polymers in the intercellular cement that holds the ovarian granulosa cells
together. The proteolytic enzymes digest proteins in the structural elements
of tissue cells that still adhere to the ovum. The acrosomal enzymes digest
the zona pellucida, enabling the sperm, with its tail still beating, to tunnel a
path through this protective barrier.

Fusion of sperm and oocyte cell membranes:

The first sperm to reach the ovum itself fuses with the plasma
membrane of the ovum (actually a secondary oocyte), and its head enters the
ovum’s cytoplasm. The sperm’s tail is frequently lost in this process, but the
head carries the crucial genetic information. The entire sperm (except the
cell membrane) enters the cytoplasm of the secondary oocyte arrested in
metaphase of meiosis II. The sperm mitochondria and tail degenerate. The
sperm nucleus is now called the male pro-nucleus. Since all sperm
mitochondria degenerate, all mitochondria within the zygote are of maternal
origin (i.e., all mitochondrial DNA is of maternal origin). The secondary
oocyte completes meiosis II, forming a mature ovum and second polar body.
The nucleus of the mature ovum is now called the female pro-nucleus.
Within an hour, the sperm and egg nuclei fuse, thanks to a centrosome
(microtubule organizing center) provided by the sperm that forms
microtubules to bring the male and female chromosome sets together for
uniting. Male and female pro-nuclei fuse, forming a zygote (a new cell
whose genotype is an intermingling of maternal and paternal chromosomes).
The victorious sperm also activates ovum enzymes essential for the early
embryonic developmental program. Thus fertilization accomplishes the dual
events of combining genes from the two parents to form a genetically unique
organism and setting in motion the development of that organism.

Prepared by: Mueen Ahmed Hashmi

 Only One Sperm Enter the Oocyte:

Sperm–egg fusion triggers a chemical change in the ovum’s

surrounding membrane that makes this outer layer impenetrable to the entry
of any more sperm. This phenomenon is known as block to polyspermy
(“many sperm”). Specifically, fertilization-induced release of intracellular
Ca2 into the cytosol triggers the exocytosis of enzyme-filled cortical
granules that are located in the outermost, or cortical, region of the egg into
the space between the egg membrane and the zona pellucida. These enzymes
diff use into the zona pellucida, where they inactivate the ZP3 receptors so
that other sperm reaching the zona pellucida cannot bind with it. The
enzymes also crosslink molecules in the zona pellucida, hardening it and
sealing off tunnels in progress to keep other penetrating sperm from
advancing.

Prepared by: Mueen Ahmed Hashmi

 Infertility
Infertility is the inability to produce the offspring. In females, it is
the inability to conceive a child by natural process or inability to carry
pregnancy till the completion of term. Infertility occurs due to various
factors such as immature reproductive system, defective reproductive
system, endocrine disorders, etc.

INFERTILITY IN MALES

Decreased Sperm Count:

Normal sperm count in a male is about 100 to 150 millions/mL of

semen. Infertility occurs when the sperm count decreases below 20
millions/mL of semen. Sperm count decreases because of disruption of
seminiferous tubules or acute infection in testis. In some males, there is
possibility of sterility (permanent inability to produce offspring) because of
absence of spermatogenesis as in the case of cryptorchidism or
underdeveloped testis.

Abnormal Sperms:

Sometimes, the sperm count may be normal, but the structure of the
sperm may be abnormal. The sperms may be without tail and non-motile or
with two heads or with abnormal head. When a large number of abnormal
sperms are produced infertility occurs.

Obstruction of Reproductive Ducts:

Obstruction of reproductive ducts like vas deferens leads to

infertility.

Prepared by: Mueen Ahmed Hashmi

 Other Disorders:

i. Cryptorchidism
ii. Trauma
iii. Mumps
iv. Long-term use of drugs
v. Alcoholism
vi. Genetic disorders
vii. Hypothalamic disorders
viii. Disorders of pituitary, thyroid and pancreas.

INFERTILITY IN FEMALES

Abnormalities of Ovary:

Sometimes, a thick capsule develops around the ovaries and

prevents ovulation. In some women, ovaries develop cysts (membranous sac
containing fluid) or become fibrotic (hardened tissues resulting from
lymphedema).
In these conditions, maturation and release of ovum does not occur.

Abnormalities of Uterus:

A type of endometrial tissue similar to uterine endometrium grows

in the pelvic cavity surrounding the uterus, fallopian tubes and ovaries. It is
called endometriosis. And, pregnancy does not occur in this condition.
In some cases, there is low grade infection or inflammation or
abnormal hormonal stimulation in the cervix. It leads to the abnormal
secretion of thick mucus in cervix, which prevents entry of sperm and
fertilization of ovum.

Absence of Ovulation:

Ovulation does not occur in some females, because of hyposecretion

of gonadotropic hormones. Quantities of these hormones are not sufficient
enough to cause maturation of ovum or release of ovum. The cycle without
ovulation is known as anovulatory cycle.

Prepared by: Mueen Ahmed Hashmi

 Other Disorders:

i. Diabetes mellitus
ii. Renal diseases
iii. Liver diseases
iv. Hypothalamic disorders
v. Disorders of pituitary gland, thyroid and adrenal glands.

Reference:

• BRS embryology
• Guyton and Hall text-book of medical physiology
• Human physiology by Sherwood
• Human anatomy and physiology by Saladin
• Essential of medical physiology by K Sembulingam

Prepared by: Mueen Ahmed Hashmi