'- ~ 'i

Offshore Pipeline
Design, Analysis,
and Methods

Aa H. Mousselli
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Tulaa, Oklahoma
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Contents

Copynght :iC: 1<JK l by

1\·nn\\\:11 l'uhllshing c·omp.my
1421 South Shcndan Road•l'. O 1\ox 1260
Tul~a. Oklalwma 74101 List of Tables IX
6?.7 /0'2 List of Figures IX
MOU

Mnu"dh, AH
Othhor~ ptp~III1L' d~'t)'.ll, .tn.tly'l' .. 111d m•·tl11•d,
1 lntroduction
1.1 General 1
Rthlu•gr;~phy 0~34 1.2 Ovcrvicw of Oil and Gas Productions 2
ln.:luJL'' inJL·x. 1.21 ldcntification of Prospcct Arcas 4
1 l'L·trnkum tn ,uhmL·rgL·d l.tnJ,._ l'tpc htll'' ! C.t,, :"-J.l!ur.tl. m
'uhrnL·rgl'll lanJo;---l'ipte ltllL''· 1.22 Ac4uisitions of Rights and Pcrmits 4
1 'Tttk. l.2J Exploration Phasc 4
TI" HN ..~.M64 (,(,~.:;'44 HO 2')(l.N 1.24 Dcvclopmcnt and Production Phasc S
ISBN 0--H7Hl4-IS6-l
1.3 Typcs of Subsca Pipclincs ()

I.J 1 Flow Lines (lntraficld Lines) 6

All rights re-,erv..:d. No part ot thts book may be repro- 1.32 Gathcring Lincs (lntcrfidd Lincs) {¡
JucL·d, ~tored 111 a retrit·v,¡) ~yst..:m, or tr;ln~cnbed in any
I .."B Trunk Lincs 7
iorm or by ;my nwan~. dcctronic or mechanical, mLiuJ-
ing photocopymg ami r..:cording, wnhout the wnttt·n 1.34 Loading (Unloadingl Lincs 7
p..:rm¡~sion ol thc publishn.
2 Hazards and Protection Concepts
Prmtcd in th..: Unit..:d Stat..:s ol Am..:nca
2.1 Hazard Detcrmination (Marine Survcy) K
2.11 Purpose of Survey ')
2 J 4 S HS H4 H3 H2 Hl 2.12 Elements of Survcy ')
2.121 Oceanographic Data l)
2.122 Soil lnvestigations 10
2.123 Echo Sounder/Bathymetry Data u
2.124 Side Sean Sonar Mcthod u
2.125 Subbottom Profiling Mcthod 16
2.126 Magnctic Anomaly Dctcction IK

V
 2.2 lks1gn anJ l'rutection Concepts IH
2.21 Route Sekction 19
2.22 Pipeline l'rotection Methods 21

3 Design Evaluations and Pipe Parameters 5 Pipeline Trenchlng Methods

5.1 General
3.1 General 23 '106
5.2 Factors Affecting Burial Requirements 107
:u Interna! l'rcssurc 2·l
5.21 Hydrodynamic Effects
.~u Buckk Analys1s r
_:> 100
5.22 Spans and Obstructions 108
3.31 General 2.'1
5.23 Soil Strength Deterioration Duc to
3 ..U Local Bu e klmg 25
26 Wave Loading 108
.LB Buckk l'ropagation
2H 5.24 Fishing Activities 108
3.34 Buckk Arrcstms
13 5.25 Anchoring 109
.1.4 HyJrodynall11C Forces
5.3 Pipe Trenching Mcthods 109
3.5 Vortcx-Inducnl Oscillations ·lH
SJ 5.31 Jetting Method 110
3.6 Pipdmc·Silii Stahilay Analysis
5.32 Mcchanical Cutting IlO
3.61 Settkmcnt and Flotation 53
5.33 Fluidization Mcthod ll 1
.1.62 Soil Strength Dctcrioration SS
5.34 Plowing Method 114
3.7 Effccts of Lngc Soil Movcmcnts .'16
{)() 5.4 Technical Evaluations and Limitations liS
.1.K Eficcts of ScahnJ lrn:gulantics
{)1 5.41 Soil Parameters Il S
J.Kl Strc~:-cs Duc to Low Dcprcssions
5.42 Water Depth Il S
3.82 Strcsscs Due to Elcvated Ob~tructions ()2
3.1) Scour anJ Erosion 69 5.43 Pipe Sizc and Wcight 116
5.44 Production Rate llH
4 lnstallation Methods and Analysis 72
5.45 Sea Statc
5.46 Trcnch Stabihty
liH
ll K
4. l General
72 5.47 Spoil Disposal 11 R
4.2 Lay-Bargc Mcthod
73 5.5 Conceptual Evaluation 119
4.21 Dcscriptwn of Mcthod
5.6 Trcnching Rcgulations anJ Expcricnces 121
4.22 Lay-Analys1s Mcthods 80
81) 5.61 Gulf of Mcxicu (USA) 123
4.221 Bcam Method (Small Dcflcctions)
4.222 Nonlinear Beam Method 88 5.62 North Sea 12S
4.223 Natural Catenary Method 88 5.621 United Kingdom I25
4.224 Stiffcncd Catenary Method 89 5.622 Norway 126
4.225 Finitc Element Method 90 5.623 thc Nethcrlands 126
4.226 Mcthod for Thick Concrete Coating 5.63 Japan 127
90
5.64 Australia l2H
4.227 Dynamic Effects <)5
5.7 Comments on Regulations anJ Expcricnccs 12H
4 .. ~ Rn:l-ltngc Mcthod 96
4.4 Tow Mcthod
4.41 Make-Up Arca
98
99
6 Pipe Connection and Positioning Systems
6. l General !.B
4.42 Typcs of Tnw installations 100
6.2 Pipeline Conncction Systcms U.\
4.421 Surface and Bclow-Surface Tow lOO
6.21 Flanged Mcthod 1.1-l
4.422 Off-Bottom Tow I03
6.22 Atmosphenc Welding 13')
4.423 Bottom Tow 104
6.23 Hyperbaric Wclding l,1(,
vi 6.24 Mcchanical Conncctors 137
1).241 Big-Jnch Marine Systcms !1H
Vil
 ó.242 Camcron 138
ó.243 Grippcr 139
ó.244 HydroTcch 141 8.3 Riser-Pipeline Flexihility IHO
6.2.'1 Compari~on ot Conncction Mcthods 143 8.31 Interna! Pressure IHll
ó3 End Positioning Mcthods 146 8.32 Water Tcmperaturc u-n
ó.JI Cenera! 146 8.33 Contcnts Tcmpcrature IH 1
6.32 lmti.Hum and Tcnn1nat1on Method 146 8.34 Residual Tcnsion IHI
ó ..H Str.11ght-ln Tow Mcthod 14K 8.3S Soil Friction 1Hl
6.34 1ktil'L"tion with 11uuyancy 141) IHI
8.36 Dcsign Options
IH2
7 Subsea Pipeline Repair Systems IS4
8.4 Typical North Sea Installation..,
8.41 Amoco Montrosc 182
7.1 Cenera! 8.42 BNOC Dunlin Tic-In IHJ
7.2 Rcp.lir Mcth1lds and Pr<ICticcs 155 un
8.43 RNOC Thistlc
7.21 Surhcc Welding ISó 1H)
8.44 ELF/Norge Frigg Fidd
7.22 Hypnb.nic Wcldmg IS7 IH3
8.45 BP Fortics
7.2J Mcclunical Conncctors 158 8.46 Mobil lkryl and Statfjord IH4
7.24 full Encirclcmcnt Slcevcs (Clamps) 162 1H·-l
8.47 OXY Piper F1cld
72.'1 Flexible l'ipc Rcpair 162 8.48 Phillips Ekofisk Complcx IH4
Stocking l'wgrams for Mcchamcal Rcpair Tools 163 8.49 Shcll Expro Brcnt SystL·m IH)
Compari-.un of Rcpair Methods 163 Bibliography JI{(¡
7.41 Tcc~mical Fcaturcs 164
Indcx J')(l
7.42 EX!'L'rience 16S
7.4.) Weathcr Scnsit1vity 166
7.44 Avaih1hility 166
7.4.'1 Time and Costs 168

8 Pipeline Risers 168

H.l Cenera!
K.l Riser Systems 168
K 21 Flangcd Connections 169
H.22 Hypcrbaric Wclding 169
H.B Mechanical Connectors 169
H.l4 Suhsca Atmospheric Welding 170
H.lS Surface Welding 170
H.26 J-Tubc Mcthod 170
H.27 Rcversc J-Tuhc 176
8.28 Bcnding Shoc 178
8.29 Barcfoot Riser 178
8.210 Comparison of Methods 178
8.21 O1 Technical Comparison 178
8.2101 Economics 180

Vili

IX
 List of Tables

List of Figures

2.1 Spn:IJI Con:,tderations-Pipeline & Riser lmtallation 22

in Unstable Arcas
3.1 Buckk Propagation Pressure
l.l Schematic of Hydmcarbon Production 3
3.2 Rccommended Cocfficients for Pipe Dcsign
(Exposcd Pipe) 2.1 Soil Piston Corer 11
3.3 Pipe Propertics Formulas 6H 2.2 Piston Corcr Opcratinn l2
4.1 Comparison of Pipelay Analysis Mcthods ¡.;(, 2.3 Side-Scan Sonar Fish 14
:) . 1 Ma¡or Underwatcr Trcnching Machines 112 2.4 Seafloor Mapping Recordcr 14
5.2 Conceptual Evaluation of Trenching mcthods 120 2.5 Seafloor Mapping Rccurd 15
5.3 Oifshorc Pipeline Burial requircmcnts 122 2.6 O.R.E Subbottom Profiling Systcm 16
5.4 Pipclmc Trcnching Expcricnces 1.10 2.7 EG&G Boomcr Slcd 17
7.1 Comparisun of l'ipc Emcrgcncy Rcpatr Mcthmis 1(lCl 2.R Subbottom Profth: Rl·cord IH
2.9 Flow Diagram of Routc ,mJ Wcight Dcsign 20
3.1 Typical Pipeline Buckk MoJes 2H
3.2 Typcs of Bucklc ArrL·'->tl•I' 30
3.3 Hydrodynamic Forces on Ptpe 34
3.4 Definition of Linear Wavc Paramctcrs J')
3.5 Regions of Validity ol \Vavc Thcories J()
3.6 Summary-Lincar ¡Airyl Wavc Characteristics 37
3.7 Wave Length ami Hct_¡.;ht Variations with Depth 3Y
3.H Drag Cocfficicnt vs. Rcynolds Number 41
3.9 Drag Cocfficicnt for Difkrent 42
Keulcgan-Carpenter Values
3.10 Lift Codficicnt vs. Reynold~ Number 43
3.11 Vortex-lnduced Chu!Ltttllll~ 4Y
3.12 Variations of Stwuhal Numhcr so
3.13 Strouhal Numhcr v-;. Drag Cocfficicnt 51
3.14 Ptpc Stabtltty in Sotls 54
X
3.15 Storm-lnduu·J Btltt()lll Pres-;urcs ')')

()
 e•·:··, ··· ~ ,., .-., '. -.· .

3.1 () Soil Force Cudtici,·nt Sl)

317 Sod Force Ovn (, 111 l'ipt· 60
J.IH 1'1pc Ct>nhgur;t!H>ll Duc t11 LtJ\V Dcprl·~sion ()! 5.5 Pipe Bcnding During Trcnching 11 7
J.IY Maximum Strv~s Duc to Low lkprc~~wn ()J 1 jl)
5.6 Spoil Rcmoval Principies
3.20 Strc~s a t M ilbp.ln 6J
3.21 Ddkction at l\l¡d..,p,ln 64 6.1 Big-Inch Marine End Conncctur 131)
322 lnJuced P1pe Sp;ms M 6.2 Cameron Collct Conncctor 140
3.23 1'1pc Dlll' to Ekvated Uhstructiun 65 6.3 Gripper Grip and Sea! Conncctor 142
3.24 Sp;m Duc to Elcvatn! Oh-,truction 65 6.4 HydroTech HydroCouplc Conncctors 144-145
3.2S Max1mum Strc~s lluc tll Ekvatcd Ohstruction ()6 6.5 Pipeline lnitiation 147
.1.26 Mudes ot Crain Tr.m~pmt 70 6.6 Pipe Termination Pull Hcad 148
3.27 Currcnt Vc!ocitv t()r Scdln1l'nt Tr<ll1Splllt 71 6.7 Straight-ln Tow 14l)
6.8 Deflection with Buoyancy ISO
4.1 CtmvcntHln;d L1y l\.11¡.;c 7J !52
4.2 6.9 Vertical Dcflcction
Cuatcd l'ipl' luillts 74 15J
.u 6.10 Draw-Down Tcchmque
Co;Jtcd Fí,·ld l11111t 75
4.4 l'ípc Ovcr Ramp 76 7.1 Subsea Rcpair by Flcxdorgc Mcchanical Conncctors ISlJ
4 ..:1 Subsca Rcpair by Grippcr Mcchanical Conncctors ]()()
Stcrn Ramp Suppu1 t 77 7.2
4.ó Diving Bdl 78 7.3 Subsca Repair by HydroTcch Mcchamcal Conncctors 1() 1
4.7 Divíng lkll and 1kcomprcss1u11 Chambcr 79 171
8.1 Lockhccd Riscr Conncction Systcm
4.8 Sectional Stingn fm Lngc S1=cJ P1pc 80 172
8.2 Pipe Pick-Up Stcps for Riscr Sctting
4.9 Flo;ltcd Stmgcr l'riur tu SL1hbing 81 17.1
4.10 Stingcr Drawb.n SL'Ctlun
8.3 Riser Lowcr Elbow (Tubc Turnl
82 17.1
4.11 Stingcr Hmgc
8.4 Riser Sctting Procedurc
83 174
8.5 Riscr Sctting Continucs
4.12 Stingcr Rolkr Supp,,rts 84 175
4.13 C:onvcntíon;ll Lay-lbrgc \ll'tlwd
8.6 Riser Clampcd Posit1on
84 176
4.14 8.7 Riser Clamp
Typical Tcnsion and Sungn Variations 8S 177
4.1.:1 F.R.D. uf Pipe String
8.8 lllustration of Pipe Pull Through J-Tubc
87
4.16 Coated-Pipc Bundl'll Stittncss 91
4)7 Stiffness D1str1hut 11 •n 92
418 l\1aximum Ser, ...,.., v.., .'\s..,umcd St dfncss 9S
4!l) Rcel-HargL.· Mctlwd 97
4.20 Tow Strlllg M.tke-Up Yard 100
·UI Surlace row 101
4.22 lklow-Slll tace Tow 101
4.23 RAT Mcthud 102
4.24 Off- Hottom Tow 103
4.25 Bottom Tow 104
5.1 P1pe-Trcnching 1kfinition<., 106
5.2 Jet Bargc 11 !ustr;lt 1!!11 111
5.3 Spm! Rcmoval hy C:omprcs-..ed Air 112
5.4 Sand Fluidizatiun Burial Mcthod 113
xii

XIII
1 lntroduction

1.1 General

Thc evcr-increasing dcmand for oil and gas has resulted in a substan-
tial incrcasc of offshorc projccts for finding and producing hydrocarbons.
Since the first offshorc pipclines wcrc laid in the Gulf of Mexico,
thousands of miles of pipdines !uve bcen constructed offshore in
various arcas of thc world, including the North Sea, the Gulf of Mexico,
thc Mediterrancan, Australia, Southcast Asia, and Latin America. Sorne
pipelines were installed in water depths of nearly 2,000 ft. Pipelines as
large as 56 in. in diametcr wcrc also installed. A variety of construction
C4uipmcnt was used to install thesc pipclines, including the conven-
tionallay-barge method, red barge, and various pull and tow methods.
As thesc installations were maJe in increasingly dcep water, special-
izcd tcchnical and dcsign problems had to be solved. An offshorc
pipeline installed at any watn dcpth must be dcsigncd such that it
maintains its intcgrity during construction and during operating
lifctime. During construction, thc pipclinc is exposcd to various bend
ing strcsses as it is la1d from thc surfacc vesscl to thc seabed and due tu
lateral currents and various dynamic cunditions. After the pipe rests on
the seabed, it is exposed to sevcral poten tia! risks of damage dueto wavc
ami current conditions in thc arca, soil instability, anchors, fishing
trawls, and other bazards.
After thc pipeline size has bcen determincd based on the flow condi-
tions and friction charactcnsucs, the pipcline-design work typically
involves the cvaluation of wavc, currcnt, and bottom conditions along
thc pipeline routc frum wh1ch sekction of the pipe parameters can be
made. This involves thc cvaluation of soil strengths under static and
 f<".··-·•·""'·,

stonn conJttions and iJcntlficatitm of the buttom katures tu Jdinc any lntroductlon
slope-movcmcnt tcndcnCJc'S ami limits of unstable arcas.
Pipe ruutL' ¡s ~clcctcd t<• nunim1ze forccs ot possible sod lllllVcmcnts
on thc pipclllle anJ to JV<lld any obstructions or hazarJs whtch may
occur alung thc plpcllllL' r•mtc. Spccificattons of pipe material and
~rccific gr.1vitiL·~ .1rc Jll.llk ~u that thc ptpe can rcsist hydrmlynamic
forccs ;tnd nuinLilll V<'l tlcal stabdtty during its liktmw. Thc Jcsign
work .d~o typJc;dlv tllV< .!ves analy~is ol thc pipeline undt·r opcrating
condiuon<., tncluJ¡ng p1l·~sun: dkcts, thcnnal cxpansion, ;md storm Acquisition of rights & permits
loads <•n thc p1pc.
Othcr consttkra t hlll'> m el u de sdcct ion ol thc most fcastble and • Marine survey
economic method im 1nstallmg the pipeline ;md connecting it toan
• Geological & geophysical investigation
offshorc facdtty Thcsc abo includc protection mcthods including
trcnching of the pipe hclow thc ..,eahnl <lllll riscr m~tallatlllllS. In decp • Rig-site survey
water and for n:LHtvely I.Hgc-dtamctcr pipelines, the design work also
involves an analy~¡s of thc bucklmg charactcristics of thc pipe! me undcr Drill exploratory well
various condniun~ and :-.pccifications of huckle arrcstors such that an
accidental huckk is locally limited. Ye!>
This book pro vides ;muven·iew of thc various princtpks and practices
of offshore pipeline deo.;ign .md mcthods. This includes detem1ination
and evaluation of thc v.nious hazards, protection methods including Test well
trenching, installatl<ln mcthod~ and analysis pf the various methods,
bucklíng analysis ;md o.;clectton of the various pipeline p;Hameters,
connection methmb and .m.dysis, riser installatiPn and analysis, opera-
tions analysis, ami Pther o.;pecJali:::ed pwhlems. Design formulas are also
presented whercvcr app!Jcable. Ex<lmpk probkms are given to illustrate
an3lysis and cJicuLJtloJh 111 common subm:nme-pipeline de-;ign proh-
lems. This provides the h.1~1c ;md varHJU'> principies of offshure pipeline No
design in a concisc mannn and can he u~ed as a reference book for basic
designs of offshure pipe! ineo.;.
Fietd development study & design

1.2 Overview of Oil and Gas Production Design submarine pipeline, Design & fabricate
including sizing, coating, production equipment
Offshore pipelines h.1vc an important role in the overall t<lsks of
offshore 01! ami gas production. A schematic diagr:1m (Figure 1.1) shows methods, & operation lnstall production equipment
the various Jspects of this from thc initial stagcs of acquiring rights to
search for oil and gas tu thc point where production of thcse hydrocar- lnstall pipeline. survey. and test
bons begms. Thc variuus pluses can generally be dívidcd into four
catcgories: (ll identification of prospcct arcas, (21 obtaining the rights fm
exploration, (3)exploratwn phasc, (4) developmcnt phase, :1nd (5) pro-
duction and transportation phase.

1.1 Schcmatic uf hl·drucLirl't'n ¡nuducuun

1.21 ldentificatlon of Prospect Areas
This phase Jd1nes the general geological arcas where potcntial hy-
Jrocarbon prospects may exist. This is usually baseJ on an evaluatron of
the archeological ami geological histories of the arcas, wJth possrble
study ot geophysical and seismic Jata of the arcas.
1.22 Acquisitlons of Rights and Permita
Aftt:r prL'IHmnary scarches to define potential arcas of hydrocarbon
rcscrvuns are complcted, thc right to Jrill exploratory wells in offshore
tr;Jch l11lht he acquired from thc variuus owners of these arcas: In the
United ',tates, thcsc rights are usually acquired through successtul brJs
011 specrtic tracts in an uffshore lcase sale cunducted by the states for
statc-ownnl LmJs anJ by the Bureau of Land Managcment of the
Departmcnt oí Intenor for the federally owncd arcas of the Outer
Continental Shelf. These rights can also be obtained from governmcnts
10 forcrgn countries by certain contractual agrcements between the
oper;1trng companies and the owner guvernments or natlonal ()JI com-
panies. Oftcn iurergn governments have provrsrons to share 111 the
hydrocarhuns produccd rt thcy are found.
1.23 Exploration Phase
Thc llpt:rat ing company c1 mducts various gcolugical and gcotechnrcal
survcys 111 the are a to a~scss the possibility of finding oil ami gas in thc
specrtic tract. If thc survey data indicatcs that hydH~carbons may be
found in the specific tract, then exploratory wclls are dnlled m the arca.
Exploratory dnlling i~ usually done by various types of drilling ngs
lkpcml1ng upon water Jepth in the arca. Jack-up ngs, whrch can he
tloatcJ .md towed to s1te then set on slte for drilling, can he used m
n:latrvdy shalluw water. In rclativcly Jeep water, other typcs of drilling
ngs arL· uscd, incluJing the ship-shaped drilling rig and thc scmisubmer-
siblc Jrill vesscl. These vcssels can he moored in order to mamtam
position during drilling. However, in vcry decp water,. the mooring
system is either suppkmented or rcplaccd by a dynam1c posttlOnmg
system for station keeping. . . . . which has both drilling and production cquipmcnt. In the subsea
Aftcr the drilling vesscl positions on site, the casmg p1pe 1s dnven
helow thc seabeJ and cemented in place. The blowout prcventor stack Í'>
next installed in place to minimizc risks of a blowout, which may occur
due to accumulations of oil and gas during drilling. During the drilling
lntroduct10n \ 5
phasc, various data can also be collccted on the formations clown the
well hole. After the exploratory well is drilled, other confirmation wells
may also be drilled and funhcr data may be gathered to estímate and
confirm the oil and gas reserves which may be produced from' the
reservoir.
1.24 Development and Productlon Phase
After al! information relating to the geological and geotechnical data
of the rescrvoir is analyzed and correlated with information obtaincd
from exploratory drilling, technical and economic studies for develop-
ing the field and producing the hydrocarbons begin. These include an
evaluation of alternatives for building an offshorc fixed structure for
drilling and producing, muluplc ~tructurcs for Jrillmg and producing,
subsea production systcms with an offshore tnminal, and other drilling
or producing systems.
Field-development studies are done to evaluare the various dcvelop-
ment alternativcs and the time schcdules and costs associatcd with
these alternatives. Other dcvclopmcnt options includc a def]muon uf
the number of wells to be drillcd, sdcction of the most fca~ihk typc of
production facility, oil and gJs prucessing, powcr-gcneration systems,
and other operational factors. Because of thc co~t and time involved in
constructing an offshore producing facility, rt is gcnerally dcsirahlc to
dril! and produce using the same facility Simultancous drillíng and
production is somctimes undesirahlc for safcty rcason~, and oftcn thcre
are separatc structurcs for drillmg .md prmluctwn.
Yarious typcs of pruduct1on facilities exist, including surface ami
subsea production systcms. Thc surtacc-proJuction systcm typically 1<>
made up of a fixcd offshorc platform e4uipped with hoth drilling and
production cquipmcnt. Oil, ga<>, or both are transponed to ~horc vta
submarinc pipelincs. In othcr case!>, thc crude may he transponed by a
submarine pipeline to an uJbhorc terminal then loaded to a tankc1
which thcn transports the crude to !>hure.
The subsea production system typicall y is m ade up of a floating vesscl
production system, all drilled wells are completed on the scabed. Thesc
wells are connected to and supponcd by a subsca templa te. The crudc is
thcn transponed by a submarinc pipeline toan offshore terminal whcre
it can be loaded into a storagc anda transportation facility. The main
advantages to subsca production facilities are that the production sys-
tem is less costly than fixcd platforms, it can be used in very decp water,
and it pmviJes carlicr pruJuctHlll than woulJ lJ;¡vc ilL'cll '"'LllllL'd by .1
surfJcc pruJuctiun facd,ty. Thc systcm 1s abo dcsirabk in TL'IlH>tL' arcas
and íor m;ngmal tic!J Jevclopmcnts.
In cert;iin cases whcrc n:servuir hydrocarhon deposus cmnot be
JrilkJ anJ produccJ from the samc surbce producing facility, a comhi-
nation of the surface production systcm and the subsea production
systcm can he uscJ. In this case, thc remote wclls are scrv1cetl by a
common subsc.1 manifuld. Productiun risers thcn connect thc subsea
m;mifniJ to thc surbcc productJon bcility.
If gas~~ found, a pipeline JS requned, although various schemes have
been proposeJ for ofbhore use of gas-power gcneration, ammonia
pbnts, etc. If gas is assuciated with oil productwn, it mmt either be
tlared ¡usually ilkgal in large quantities), used for process power, rem-
)ected, or pipdmed tu shore. Devdopment often procccds 111 phascs: tl)
mi productionitlarc, 12\ gas reinjection, and (3) gas production and
transm ission tu shorc
1.3 Types of Subsea Pipelines
Thcrc are four gcncral cbssificatJuns of offo.,horc pipclincs, Jcpcnding
on thc lmc funcuon. Ccnain pipe sizcs anJ opcratmg pre~surc may dlso
be associ;Hnl wnh each linc clao.,s¡ficatHm. These classJtic.llion.., are
tlow !mes or 111 traticld 1mes, gathcrmg l in es or interticld lmes, trunk
lines, anJ luadmg (unlo,Jding) lincs.
1.31 Flowlines (lntrafield Unes)
A tlowlmc connects a well toa platform or subsea maniluld. Usually
the line has a smallthameter and may be bundlcd. How insHic of it may
be at hi~h pres:-.urc. Thc tlowline is useJ whcre reservoir prL·ssure 15
suftic1ent w tlow the !luid through the line wllhnut boust ¡pump or
compre::.sor).
1.32 Gathering Unes (lnterfield Unes)
A gathering line connects from one (multiwell) platform to another
platform and is usually a small- to medium-diamcter line but can be
large diameter, too. Thc line may be a bundled oil, gas, condensate, or
two-phase tlow. The range of operating pressure is usually between
1,000-1,400 psi. Flow in the lines is done by booster pumps orcompres-
lntroduct10n 1 l
sors which are often installed on thc platform. A gathering line may also
transmit the product from a drilling platform toa separate production
platform.
1.33 Trunk Llnes
A trunk line handlcs the combined flow from one or many platforms
to shore. The line is usually of large diameter and can either be oil or gas.
Booster pumps or comprcssors must be provided at intermediate plat-
forms for very long trunk lines. A trunk line is usually a common
carrier, carrying product owncd by many producers.
1.34 Loadlng (Unloading) Unes
These lines usually cunnect a pruductiun platform and a load:ing
facility or a subsea manifold and a loading facility. The lines can be
small or large diameter and carry liquid only. Connection may be from a
shore facil ity toan offshore loading or unluading terminal, as in the case
of the Louisiana Offshore 011 Pon (LOOP).
Loadin~ lines are usu;11ly short, ranging from 1 to 3 miles long,
although m the case of LOOP, the unloading line is about 21 miles long.
The loading facility may be temporary, such as an early production
facility, to pro vide limited pruduct shipment umil a gatheringor a trunk
linc can be completeJ. The loading line can be used with a permanent
loading facility for small rcscrvoirs and in rcmote areas.
Severa! considcrations are usually made to determine the size of the
pipeline. These considcrat1un.., includc the typc of hydrocarbon con-
tents bcing pumpcJ into the p1pcline, throughput in the pipeline which
is the volume of cuntent.., ro he tramported by the pipeline, pump and
comprcssor capacity Jt thc ¡'umping station, pressurc losses along the
pipeline length, anJ the plpclinc-rout~: Jetails. From all of these consid-
cratiuns, calculatillns can be madc to size the pipeline so the rcquired
throughput is obtained with a mínimum loss of energy.
Detcrmining the size of a o.;uhmarine pipeline has many similar
aspects to sizing an onshore pipeline. The main considerations involve
tlow and hydraulic calculations to accoum for the friction losses be-
tween contents and thc pipeline and to insure an efficient mode of
transporting the contents toa given location. Throughout this book, it
will be assumed that the pipeline size has heen determined, and othcr
considerations will he analy:::cJ rcgarding mechanical and structural
dcsign of the suhmarine pipl'11ne.
1

2
Hazards and Protection Concepts
2.1 Hazard Determination (Marine Survey)
Vari<lll'i haz;~rds With potential risks of damJge to a submarme
pipeline m;¡y cxist alung a proposed pipeline routc. Thcse ha:ards are
duc toL·Jther natur;d causes ur man·made activitics and can bL· cLtssiticd
intu thlce categmics: ( 1) h<I:ards which can occur during thc constn~c.:·
tion pl·riud, (2) h;¡:;.nci-; wh1ch can occur aftcr the pipdmc has bcen
installnl on the ..,cabed, ,mJ (3) hazards which can occur both Junng thL·
construct Íllll period ami during opcrations.
Natural hazards ,m: th<hl' caused by the environment, includmg wavc
.tnd cuncnt forces wh1ch m.ty cause pipeline instability at tlw scJbcd.
unsuppllrtcd spans, soil movements, and earthquakcs. MJn·mddc
hazards includc dragging anchors, dropped anchors, fishing activitics,
and di se arded objccb ldt on the seabed such as sunken vcsscls or dcbns
ldt by Clll1'itruction vcssds.
To mmimizc potc'Iltl,ll risks of damage to the pipeline, thcsc haz;nJs
must hr~t be idcntifled in thc specific site, then measures be tJken to
protcct thc pipeline from these hazards. The protection mcthoJs m·
elude trcnching thc pipeline bclow the seabed, anchoring of thc
pipdmc, incrcao.;cd cuncrctc coating, and strengthening thc pipeline. A
common w ,¡y for protccting the pipeline is to trench it bdow thc
seatloor.
To idcntiíy thc hazards which may exist along a proposed pipeline
routc, data must be gathcrcd regarding waves, surface and subsurface
currents, hottom currents, soil conditions on the seabcd, soil movemcnt
tendcncies, and other Jata. In areas where active offshore installations
are made, cnvironmental data can usually be obtained from government
8
Hazards and Proteci10n Concepts 1 ~J
and public resources. Various operating companies often have proprie·
tary data for those arcas. In remote arcas and where data is unavailable a
marine survey is made to gather such data. '
2.11 Purpose of Survey
The objective of a marine survey is to:
• Establish an understanding of the general geotechnical activities in
the area, including recent deposits.
• Idcntify faults, volcanic activity, gas vents, movement tcndcncics,
and depressions and obstmctions which may be present along thc
proposcd pipe route.
• Assess the stability of the arca sediments, including cont inuous
crosion and deposits.
• Dctem1ine water depth/bathymetry along the proposed routc.
• Determine subbottom features and stratigraphy along the route.
• Obtam data on the environmental conditions in the arca, including
waves, surface currents, and bottom currents.
2.12 Elements of Survey
O~e principal clement of a marine pipeline survey is continuous
profilmg of the seabottom conditions along the pipeline route. This 1s
usually done by 11) towing a devicc callcd a "fish" at sorne depth along
the proposed ro u te and continuously recording data on charts a board thc
towing vesscl, and (21 collecting discrcte station surveys where data is
gathered at local stations along the route. Th1s includes the deployment
of current meters, soil sampling, and collection of other pertinent data
2.121 Oceanographic Data
The oceanographic survey gathers data on wind wave and currcnt
conditions existing along thc proposed pipeline ro~te. Th,is data repre·
sems. the envuonmental conditions during the constmction period of
the ptpelme and during its operating lifetime. Duration of the construc·
tlon period is aHected by many factors, including the pipe parameters,
sue charactensucs, and the typc of equipment and methods used for
installation.
 ·(\'',·F;

1( , _IIStiC J6itll( gn 1 IS, [l Híi:Óc

G~n~rally, th~ most s~v~r~ signdicant wav~ anJ st~aJy-curr~nt com-

hmations wl11ch occur once pcr 100 ycars are u~cJ tn define oc~an­
ogr<lphic condlttons on thc pipdme Juring its lifctimc. Similarly, the
most scv~rc comhinatHlll ol wav~ and st~aJy currcnt whtch may occur
once Juring thc constructwn scason are uscd w define thc oc~anog-
raphic cumhtion~ on tlw ptpclinc during constructton.. . .
Anothcr impmLmt a.;pcct ,¡{ the environnwntal Jau ts thJt mtorma-
tion can he ohtamnl wl11ch hclp-. 111 Lktcrmining opcrationallunits of
thc con'>tructing vc~scl, uptimum pcnods ím construction, ami sekc-
tion of tlw most ÍL'a:-.thlc cun~rruction mcthod.
Charactenst ic~, 1! thc tJHISt s..:Vl'IL' uccan w aves w hich nuy ucc ur once
per lOO ycars can usually he 11btamcJ from puhlishcJ Jau. Data to be
useJ m th~ hydrodynamtc-stahiluy analysis of thc pipeline includc thc
LÜr~ctiun ui thc Jccpwatcr \V~tvc, thc ~ignificant pcriod, ~md the sig-
nifican! hctght oi thc w.1vc. Thc significant wavc hL·ight is thc average of
the highcst one-third ut the ohservcd wavc heights in a given wave
populat1on. The maximum observcd wav~ hcight usually corrc'>ponds
to thc Clllnhincd encrgy ui <.,l'\'L'fal wavcs having differcnt wavc hc1ghts,
Jirections, phase angk-.,, ami periodo.;.
2.122 Soil lnvestigations
Hazards and Protection Concepts \ 11
• Gravity corer, a de vice that consists of a wcighted coring tu be which
rdics on gravity to penetrare the seabcd. This method is not effec-
tive where grave! or rock materials are encountered on the seab~d
sincc the corc pcnetrates vcry little in these materials.
• Piston gravity corer (Modificd Kullcnberg), a device that consists
of a steel barrel (usually lO ft long) with a plastic tube liner, core
retainer, anda cutting bit at the lower end (Figure 2.1 ). The de vice is
rigged with driving weights, usually 400-500 lb. The sample-core
length depends on the type of soils and varíes from lO ft in soft clays
and silt to 8ft in sand, and about l ft in stiff clay. Little penetration,
if any, can be obtained in the case of rock sediments. The devicc's
operation is shown in Figure 2.2.
• Drilled corc sampler, a device that uses a drilled pis tonto obtain soil
samples to a large dcpth bclow the seabed.
• Vibrocorer, a dcvice that is self-powered and capable of obtaining a
4-in. diameter core of up to 20 ft long. The driving force in the
vibracorer is obtaincd from a vibrator motor housed in a pressure
casing and driven through ckctrical cables supplied from thc sur-
face vessel.

Thc purpose ot oht.11ning '>oil ~:1mpks is to iLknufy thc sml charac-

teristics along thc ptpcl111c ruutc. Thc<;c ch;n:JCtl'Tistics are useJ in thc
'1
Jes1gn of thc suhmaflne p1pclmc, includmgdcterminatiun of rcsistancc
of the suil to pipclmc moven1L'Ilt, soil-strcngth dctcrimation duc to
cyclic-wave loadings, nenching rcquircmcnts if the pipe is to be
____ ,._
-r
~-- \
.,.,-,..
trenchcd below the seabed, and loaJ-bcaring capacity of thc soils.
Soil propcrtics nlTLkd fnr thc pipeline dcsign include tl1l" folluwing:
t ....
• General classificatiun of ~mis ;mJ the grain-si::c distributions of thc
soil samplcs.
• Specific grav1ty oi the sods.
• Soil moisture contcnt.
• Consistancy m AttL·rhcrg limih.
• Undisturbcd shear strcngth 111 clavcy suils.
• Remulded (disturbed) shear strcngth or sensitivity.
• Permcability.

Various dcvices can be used for obtaining soil samples, including thc
fullowing:
2.1 Sull ¡nston corer
 '
1

2.123 Echo Sounder/Bathymetry Data

Hazarus and Protect10n Concepts

Echo sounders are used tome asure dcpth of thc scafloor (water depth).
1 13

Severa! types of echo soundcrs are availablc. Sorne have high precision
for increased accuracy of dcpth mcasuremcnts. The principie of the
echo-sounding instrumcnt consists of transmitting a controlled high-
Weights frequency acoustic signa! to thc scabcd from an undcrwater transducer.
As the signa! is retlectcd on thc o.eafluor and receivcd by the transducer,
/ thc time difference betwccn initial transmission and the receiving
Ro pe
pcriod is mcasured accurately.
After corrections and calihrations havc hcen accountcd for regarding
the speed of the acoustic signa! in water, de pth of the transduccr, and
other conditions, the time dllkrencc can thcn be calibratcd to produce
the water depth ata particular station. This typically is provided by a
continuous depth plot as the survcy vesscl travels along thc proposed
route. Water depth can be mcasured w ith an accuracy of ± 0.1% to 1% of
water depth, depending nn prccision ot thc ::.pccific instruments used .

•
2.124 Side-Scan Sonar Method
Pis ton The principie of thc siJc-scan sonar mcthod (seafloor mapping) is
based on sending a widc beam of discrcte sonic pulses from a towcd
transduccr fish (Figure 2.3) abovc the scabed. Thc towcd transduccr
cmits thcse acoustic pulses which sean thc seabed on either sidc of
thc transduccr. Reflections oí thco.c pulc,cs trom ob)ccts on thc seabcd
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
are receivcd by the same tran'>duccr.
Reflected signals are rccordcd conunuously on a chart aboard the
towing vessel. Thcsc signab rcprcsL·nt refkctwns from various obiects
on the seabed, such as grave!, outcrops, and pipclincs. The intcnsity of
the reflected signa! depcnds on thc objcct from which it has been
J 2 l'ht()/1 ,·urcr o¡¡eration reflected. For examplc, a signJI rcprcsenting a retlection from rocks
would be darker than a reflcction signa! from sanJ.
By studying the intensity of thc rcflccted signals and images on the
• Lr.1h sampkr, a dcvicc uscd in unconsolidatcd-seabcd settlcmcnts. recorded chart, it is possible to interpret the sonar reflections in a
Thc sampkr is lowcrcd to the seatloor wherc soil enters an cnclo- geological manner and to cstimatc thc size and height of various ob-
surc in thc sJmpkr. The sampler is then closed and retumcd to thc jects on the seabcd. Thc sonar iish is normally towed between 30 to
o.ur!JCC. SO ft from the seabed. An EC&C ~eafloor mapping recorder is shown in
• Umlcrwatcr cameras can also he used for visual examination of thc Figure 2.4.
-.c:~bcd --;cdimt:nts, particularly clay outcrops and bouldns. Yaluable information for submarinc p1pelines can be obtaincd
from the side-scan sonar rccords. This information includes thc
following:
 't"._'l _')·':,;,

lliozarcf.s and Protcclton Concepts \ 15

• Idcntification uf the various katurcs on thc scabcd which may exist

along a proposed route, including dcpress10ns, obstructions, rock
outcrops, sand waves, and mud ílows.
• Position of pipe inside the trench it the pipe has bccn trcnched. ,
• Anchor scouring marks or trawl marks which may have occurred
in thc vicinity of the pipeline route. An example of thc side-scan
sonar record showing mud-tlow features and the pipe is shown in
Figure 2.5.

.... ·~ ·JII.-...:J..·: yt. · "'··' : r,

,.-,.

·Pipe in trench

2 .'1 Se uf1o u r m ul' Jllll x 1, ·e u 1,1 cr

'------------------------------------'
 '·' ,, ' . '
Urt:;l _ SICJfl. .. ySIS, ,. ·~ .v1etliv"~

2.125 Subbottom Profiling Method

Hazar(J:, ancf Proteclton Concepts 1 17
Tlw "uhhllttllm proliling mcthod is a continuous-rdlcc·nun profiling
• Towcd transduccr vehiclc anJ cable asst:mbly.
t~-c hilic¡uc· w h le h pruv 1des data on the gcological structu re ami cumposi-
• Transccivcr.
tiuniWil<.';Hh th.: ~<:;Jhnl. A controll.:d pulse o! aeoustic encrgy is cmitted
• Paper graphic rccorder.
tr<Jil1 .1 t<lwnl ,~.l~mie ~uurcc and dnectcd toward th~· seahnl. \Vhcnevcr
• Winch to accommodate taircd cable.
the ctllllted ~ign.d "tukcs .m acoust1c interface, a portion of the signa! is
rctkLt<.·d .mJ detccted b~, the towcd hydrophonc. An illustration of EG&G Buomcr skd is sbown in Figure 2.7. An
Thc ,·an• IUs intl'ffaces usually indica te a changc 111 the ;lcoustic illustration of records obtaincd by thc subbottom profiling method is
vclurny, wh1ch. 111 tu1n, means a change in thc gcological propcrtics of shown in Figure 2.8.
tlw ~nlt mcn t ~- Su eh e hangcs are dctected by t he refkc tcd s ignals and are
recurdul on ;1 machinc abPard the towing vcssd. By approximating thc
spc.·cd nt thc ;JC<>ll,tic "ign.d in thcsc various geological sedimcnts ami
mca-.unng tlw t 1111cs ui rdlcctions, dcpths of thcsc ditfcrcnt gc·ologic
llltL'I!.lu·~ cm hc detcttmned.
Thc t \pe tll snl11ncms bctween thc interface bmmdane<; cm thcn be
mtcrprctcJ ha,nl un .1 study of thc continuous reflccti•m protiling in
corrcbt Hlll wtth soil curing samplcs obtaincd in thc flcld. An examplc oí
thc suhb(lltlilll·pndiling systcm is shown in Ftgure 2.6. This systcm i~
madc h\ l)cL';J!l R\'sea'ch Eqwpment Inc. (0 R.E.) and cuJhbt~ uf:

- ~-
-~~-~~ -
~ ...._~ .:.... ·:•:..\: ----

2. 7 EG<YC boomer slcd


· 100m··
2.126 Magnetíc Anomaly Detectíon
Thc m:~gnctumc:tcr IS uscd for anomaly dc:tectiun al\)ng a pmposcd
pipclmc routc. Thc mcthod is bascd on detccting _changL'" in thc mag-
netic ticld caused by metal ohjech on tlll' ~L';lhed. rl11s lll'>trumcnt can
he uscd tu deteet metal oh)ccts such a" ()thn pipclincs or wrL·ckcd sh1ps
which may cxist nearthL~ proposcd pipe route A sensor 1s wwe.d ncar thc
SL·atloor, and thc unlt 1s tuncd tu tlll' local L'arth magnl'tJc hdd leve!
Amh1cnt carth magnctic fiL·Id and ch.~nge-. duL· w local ,mom.diL'S are
rccordcd on a continuous chart.
2.2 Desígn and Protection Concepts
As statcd carlin, ;lll olfshmc pipclmc rL·sting on thL· . . cabed cm be
exposcd to vanou'> typL'S uf hazards. The spccific hazarcb and SL·verity of
Hazaros and Protection Concepts 1 19
thcse hazards depend on the pipeline-si te location For cxamplc, in the
Gulf of Mcxico, Mississippi Delta arca, thc pipeline may be exposcd to
mud slides and turbidity currents as well as to potcntial scvere stor_m
action and other bottom instabilitics. In the ncar-shore areas, the
pipeline is often exposed to high hydrodynamic forces if exposed on the
seabcd. In other arcas of the world such as offshore California, pipelines
are designcd considering earthquakes as well as faultings which may
occur in the area.
A flow diagram of the main dcsign considcratiuns for selecting the
pipe weight and route and maximi::ing safcty m potcntially unstablc
scabottoms is shown in Figure 2.9. Spccial considcrations of pipeline
installations in unstablc seabottoms are listcd in Tahlc 2.1.
2.21 Route Selection
Based on the above discussions for idcnufying thc varíous hazards
along a proposcd pipeline routc, thc basic critcria in selccting pipeline
routcs, particularly in unstable scahottoms, Include thc following:
• Avoid bottom obstructions or possible pipe spans which may exist
along the proposed route.
• Avoid other pipeline crossings whcncvcr possiblc.
• Avoid anchoring areas if prescnt.
• Minimize pipe lcngth in unstahk sea fltHH'> anJ route tlll' p1pe in a
relatively more stable arca, if these can he iJcntilicJ.
• Avoid any mounded obstniction-, and dcpre<.sions which may cau~L·
spans to the extcnt possiblc.
• In mud-flow arcas, rnmimizc any ~oil-movuncnt ri~ks of damage to
the pipe by routmg the pipe 111 '>uch a way that it runs in thc samc
dircction as thc rnud tlow. This can be accomplishcd by having the
pipeline routed in a dircction perpendicular to the bottom dcpth
contours.
Other factors may also have to Iw considcreJ in sdccting the pipeline
mute, Jepending on thc spcnfic sitc arca, induding bottom Lwlts,
particular! y in earthquaké arcas, rock outcrops, tlshing·trawl activities,
and, in certain arcas, possible tloating ice. In additiun, othcr consid-
erar ions for selccting a pipe! in e ro u te m ay in e lude a study of thc hiologic
activlties in the arca, including e mal rcds, environmc:ntal aspects in thc
arca, anJ economic trade-offs.
 't-".:1'

f-1azards and Protection Concepts 1 21

Tabla 2.1 Speclal Considerations for Pipeline & Rlser lnstallatlon In Unstable
Areas

Route Selection
• Environmcntal dcsign criteria
• Hazard cvaluation
Mud slidcs
lldPnhty candrdate prpehne rou1os U 1n mud sltdo area. Soil lil¡udaction
L~vh) should 00 ~cleelt-d lo parallel duectron of Slrde
Spans
IOclerrnrne 9oneralrzed soil condilfOOS and 5tratrgraphy Pipeline Design
~ng condrdale routes
• Hydrodyn,unic stabdny analysis
• Buckling an..1lysís
Pt:>t tcwn ~l ,1 st.lbdrty analysrs
Strength >Jtleru)rahon dunng storm condrllons
• Liqucfaction/stability analysis
Potentrar ol large scrl movements ond rnduced lurces • Thcrmal loadlflcxtbility analysis
• Riscr dcsign rccommcndations
--~~-----~~-----. • Conncction tic-m rccommcndations
Establrsh latt'rJ· frrnt0n Select saiest prpe ~oute. and dr•termrne • Sakty JOitJttvalvc rccommcndations
coeffrcrf!n!s ol ·~·~>VSPii deplh of sorl aHected by swrrn loacts.
prpe a1o11g rout•· rf any
Spcu{tcot u1n.'
• Matcnals, mst,JI!Jtton
Determrne requrrcd p•~ s~.,ufu Dr. Herrrunf> reqwred prpE" specrflc Specrty sale r an9e ol p1pe Evoludte u/r,·mtJII\"C\
gravrly {when e)(posed) bas.ed O'' gravrty (exposed) based on spec•hc gr avrty rn hquef•ed sorl.
hydrodynamiL stabrlrty duong
construchlwr. SG.c
hydrodynaml{. ~tabrhty durrng
operatron SG 0 SGIIoat < SG < SG sonk
• l'ipdinc n'cr dcsigns
• lnstallat ion mcthod~
• Huna! rccommcndations
• Cost tradc-olts
• Altcrnativc hids
Yes
l't·rmtt 1\pp/l(:tJt 11111
• Dcsign rcpmt

Yes

2.22 Pipeline Protectlon Methods

Specihc graVIIy requwemenls Specrfic gtavrty requiremenls.

lect specific grav1ty such lhat pt
emama on or ne81 mudhne.
Methods exist to protcct thc pipclmc from risks of damage due to
5G (dum>¡¡ conslructoon) > SGc SG (during constructoon) >
SGc G (during conslructoon) > SGc environmental and other hazanls. Thcsc include the following:
(pope and S~ <SG <SGsrnk
SG (Pipe and SG
SGo < SG Conlent) < SG srnk O < SG conlenl) < sink

• Increase pipeline wcight coatmg, wall thickness, or both.

• Anchor the pipeline by using gravity anchors, screw anchors, or
other typcs of anchoring arrangcmcnts.
• Strcngthen thc pipe.
2. 9 Flow dwgrum of wute and weight design
• Bury the pipl'line hdow thc kvcl of thc scabcd.
• Provide enginl'crcd t-illing material ovcr the pipeline, including
gravcl, concrctl' mats, and sandhags.
 rr• .• ,-

l
2 Jllsh pe !ir 1 SIS, 18li1C

In most cases, the pipeline is buried below the seabed w protect it

from these hazards. However, in sorne cases burial may advcrsdy affect
the safety of the pipeline as was discussed earlier in arcas of large soil
movements. As will be discussed in Chapter 5, burial of an offshore
pipeline may also be mandatory by the regulatory authorities in cenain
water depths ami arcas offshore.
In general, burial protects the pipe against wave and currcnt actions,
including hydrodynamic lift and drag, and scour. Exposing thc pipeline
may be preferred in certain arcas where mud slides occur nver the pipe
length, where earthquakes may be present producing high soil forces
along the pipe length, and where faults may be present.
By increasing the weight coating of the pipeline, the pipe may resist
hydrodynamic forccs due to current and wave action, and resist vibra-
tion dfects due to vortex shedding. The increascd concrete coating,
however, may complicate the installation operation and increase the
3 Design Evaluations and Pipe Parameters

cost of installing the pipeline. A systematic and balanced design proce-

dure should be followed as outlined in Figure 2.9 tn sdect the most
feasible method for protecting the pipeline against existing hazards in a
specific arca.
As will be discussed la ter, the pipeline mayal so be cxposcJ to hazards
of damage during construction, such as incrcascd bending stresses and
the poten tia! threat of buckling. Selection of thc installation parametcrs
and buckle design considcrations are discussed in Chapter 3. Pipeline
protection by burial is discussed in detail in Chapter S.
3.1 General
To ensure maximum safcty to thc pipclme, the pipe parameters
should be carefully evaluated and selected. Thc various design tasks are
discussed and analyzed in this chapter. Sdcction of pipe parameters as a
result of the various analyses is also discussed.
In general, submarine-pipeline design requircs careful examination of
the following design elements:

• Linc sizing.
• Route selection.
• Hydrodynamic stability analysis (install.nwn and opcrating
lifetimc).
• Soils liqudaction analysis (safc rangc of pipe spccific gravity).
• Soils movement analysis (loads imposcd .m pipdinc).
• Ice movement and scour data.
• Pipe protection mcthods/burial rcquircmL'nts.
• Pipe buckling analysis.
• Thermal load/flexib1lity analysis (cxpan~ion loops, restraints, if
any). _
• Pipe lay analysis (vcssd motions; tension, stingcr n:quircmcnts).
• Route plans anJ profilcs.
• Riser dcsigns.
• Connection tic-in safety jomt designs.
• Shore crossing design.
• Permit applications, dcsign report.
• Specifications, materials, installat ion.

23
L--. 1
Althtlllgh somt· of tht·se ckmcnts may not lit in ccrtamlnstallatwns,
most applicat!olls Jnclutk evaluat1onsot tlow plllpcrtit.:s, hyJroJynamic
Íl>rccs, Interna! pressurc, vortcx-inJuccJ pipt.: oscillation, pipcline-soils
stahd1ty, pipe bul'lzllll.'~• dtccts of largc soil movcments, geologic faults,
bottom obstructlons, ,111d Jepresswns which may induce spans of thc
pipe! me.
Dcs1gn paramctn~ art· carcfully dt.:termincJ so thc pipe can withstand
iorccs applicd tll i t du n ng const ructiun, anJ Juring t he opl·ra ting
liktimc. lkcJusc· thc p1pdme is fillcJ anJ oftcn buricd bcluw thc mud
lim: dunng operat!Oih. 1t can wlthstand more scvcre hydroJynamic
forccs Juring upcr,Jtl<H1 th;lll dunng construction.
Dunng opc·ratlllll u! thc pipclint.:, otht.:r hazards must bt.: cvaluatcd,
including stonn-mduu·d suils' hunzontal and vertical inst~Jbility. Al so,
conncctwns tu uthh<>lt' rJsers or subsea tie-ins are designed such that
opcratmg stre'->'>t'S dul tu thcrmal expansions, interna! prcssure, and
othcr loads rcmam Wlthtn S;JÍe lnnits.
3.2 Interna! Pressure
Aftcr the pipe :-.IZt has bccn dctcnnincd, pipe-wall thickness is
sclcctcd so thc maximum tangcntial (hoop) suess due to interna)
pressurc docs not ext:ccJ thc allowable stress as outlined by American
National Standard CJdc íor Prcssure Piping (ANSI 831.8, 1975) and
minimum Federal Sakty Standards for gas lines relating to transporta-
tton ot natur;d ga'> h\' pipeline ¡l'art Jl.)2, title 49, Code of Federal
Rcgulation~). Thc:-.c codcs statc that a design factor of 0.5 should be
uscd for thc nscr a11d the pipe linc ncar the platform anda design factor of
0.72 be uscd tor p1pc away from thc platform. For oil pipelincs, the
govermng ende' are ANSI B31.4 and part 195, tit)e 49, Code of Federal
Regubtll•ll'>.
Thc hoop ~tres" dul· to interna! prcssurc (P) is given by:
(3.1)
Whcrc: •rt~ ho"p stress duc to prcssurc P, psi
1' infl'JIIal pressurc in pipe, psi
() nominal outsidc diameter of pipe, in.
- pipe-wall thickncss, in.
Des1gn Evaluations and Pipe Parameters 1 ?~)
A tempcrature derating factor is used íf the product temperature
excecds 250oF. Also, a longitudinal joint factor must be used where
applicable (not for scamless pipe).
3.3 Buckle Analysis
3.31 General
_As_ pipeline installations moved into deep water, the problem of
p1peh~e collapse causcd by the incrcased hydrostatic pressure became
stgmficant. Ptpe collapsc depends on many factors, including the pipc-
dtamete~/wall·thtckncss ratm (D/t), strcss-strain properties, initial
ovahzat10n (out of roundness), hydrostatic pressure, and hcnding mo-
ment m the pipe. Axial tension was also reported to influencc the
collapse characteristics of the pipeline, although toa lcsscr extent than
bending or hydrostatic pressure.
Pipe buckling can be deflned as thc tlattening or excessive ovaling of
the ptpc cross section. Thc bucklc can be "dry" where pipe docs nut
rupture or "wet" whcrc pipe ruptures and fills with water.
3.32 Local Buckling
Tht.: critica) elastic huckling prcssure of a theoretically perfcct pipe
(perfcctly _round w!th a constant thickness and flawless material) duc to
hydrost<ltlc-prcssurc loading only is given by the following expression:
lE t ( t y
P,. = ¡~-:;-- D ~' (3.2)
Where: P,. = critica! collapse prcssurc for perfcct pipe, psi
E = clasttc modulus, psi
v = Poisson's rat1o
O = pipe diamctcr, in.
= pipc-wall thickncss, 111.
The critica! clastic huckling pressurc is valid for a perfect pipe with a
vcry large 0/t ratio (greatcr than 250). In practice, residual ovalization in
the p1pe IS prcsent, and significant dcformation of the pipe surfacc may
2b VlfShOre t-'ip€11118 U8S1Qr1, ArldlySiS, 311U IYI8!hOu~

occur prior to collapse. Hencc, the hydrostatic collapsc prcssurc is also a Oestgn Evaluatwns and Pipe Parameters 1 27
function of thc yicld propcrties of the pipe matcnal.
An expression for determining thc critica! buckling prc~surc uf pcr- and propagates along the pipe, causing collapse of thc pipe along its
fect pipe which accounts for the pipe yield stress is aduptcd from the traveling length_ The driving cncrgy which causes a buckle to propagate
Rules for the Dcsign Construction and lnspcction of Submarine is the hydrostatic prcssure.
Pipelmcs ami Pipeline Riscrs by Det norskc Ycrit.l'i (DnV), 1')7('- This The nature of a propagating bucklc is that a grcater pressure leve! is
critica! buckling pressure IPcl is given by: required to initiate a propagating bucklc (callcd buckk initiation pres-
sure, Ptl than the pressure req uired to maintain propagation of the
t 2 buckle (called buckle propagation pressure, Pp)· As a consequence to this,
P,. = 2 cr,. -- for cr,. :S -- Y a buckle initiated in an offshore pipeline propagates and collapses the
() 3
line until the externa! pressure becomes equal to or less than the

P, -= 2Y _..!__
D
[r- _!_( y)
3
2
3rr,.
2
] for cr,. :> ~
3
Y (3.3)
propagating pressure_ This assumes that pipe properties (particularly
wall thickness) remain the samc. A number of propagating buckle
modes have been reported from experimental studies. These are shown
2 in Figure 3.1.
Where: a,. = E(-t-) (3.4) Theoretical and experimental investigations were made by various
D-t
organizations to study the bucklc-propagation phenomenon and to
Y = pipe specified yield stress (corrc~ponding to
determine the buckle-propagation prcssure for offshore pipelines. These
0.005 strain) studies ha ve resulted in similar, rather simple expressions for calculat-
ing thc propagation pressure (P,,):
Computer programs have been dcvdopcd by various organizJtions to
prcdict the collapsc prcssurc of pipe undcr thc combinnl intlucncc of
pressurc, axial forces, bending, and accountingof pipe out of-roundncss. PP = 6Y (~Y'' (Battcllc) (3.6)
An appHlXlmate exprcssion for the critica! combinatinn oi bcnding
2
momcnt (M) ;md externa! prcssurc (P) is reponed in thc DnV codc as: (3.7)
Pv = 1.15 rrY (-t-) (DnV)
D-t

(-~)'
M,.
·j- R_ = 1
r,.
(.LS)
If D is much greater than t (as is the case in most applications), then thc
sccond cxprcssion bccomcs:
Whcrc: M,. = critica! bcnding momcnt wlwn P = O
P, = critica! net externa! prcssurc whcn M O (3.8)
(( = l + .100 p
Dlt r .
A comparison of the propagating pressurc as calculated by these expres-
sions is shown in Table 3.1. As sccn in this, considerable difference is
notcd bctwecn the rcsults for low D/t ratios, whcreas the rcsults are
similar for large D/t ratios. Thc cxprcssion rcported by Dn Vis considercd
3.33 Buckle Propagation
vcry conservative for th<; low Dlt ratios.
Laboratory cxpcnmcnts on pipe buckling ulnductcd hy Battcllc It is intercsting to note that thc propagation pressure depends only on
Columbus Laboratorics in the early l970s rcveakd a bucklc phcnomcna the pipe yield stress and on thc D/t ratio and does not depend on the
referred toas a "propagating buckle ." This describes thc situation whcre stress state of the pipe. The nature of causing a buckle in the pipe
a transvcrse dcnt (which may have been caused by cxccssivc bcnding or depends on the pipe paramcters as well as externa! forces applied on the
by any other cause) eh mges its configuration into a lungitudinal buckle pipe. In contrast, the propagation phenomenon addresses the pipe-
buckle traveling due to hydrostatic prcssurc after a buckle has been
initiated.
2l , _ ffshc _ yMlL .(JII,, 'itll!l

Des1gn Evaluations and Pipe Parameters 1 2'!

/~ ·-ce_:_-_.__ ~-
1 1
Tabla 3.1 Buckle Propagation Pressure
1 , -1
\~ Pipe Dit Ratio •p. = 6Y h:d
2t '·,
t )'
ti',.= l.ISrrY(-
.D-t
% Differcncc
Bending buckle ------- ~----~--~
--·-- ·---·--· ·-------
lO 6,440 2,(,76 58
20 1,LlR 600 47
30 413 258 38
40 201 143 29
so 115 90 21
60 73 63 14
70 so 46 9
80 36 35 3
90 27 27 o
lOO 21 22 --5
U-buckle
Note: 24-in OD perfect pipe and API X-60 Cradc.
•formula after paper #OTC 2680, Ofbhorc T.:chnology Conft:rence, Houston, IY76,
by T. Johns, et al.
tFormula after Det Norskc Vcritas (LJnV), "Rules lor Dcsign, Construction and lnspcction
of Submarine Pipclines," 1976.

Dog-bone buckle
+ length as long as the hydrostatic prcssure exceeds the propagation pres-
sure (P.,). This could damagc a substantiallength of the line and result in
great economic losscs. It would al so be very uneconomical to design the
pipeline with sufficicnt wall thickncss such that thc propagation dcpth
(corresponding to propagation prcssure) would be greater than water
depth along the pipe length. Accordingly, rneans have been found to limit
the length of damaged pipe by the me uf buckle arrcstors.

() --~ 3----tr----
-~
Flattening buckle
3.1 Typlcul ¡npclllle huckle mode,
In principie, the bucklc arrcstor 1s a segment of pipe stronger than the
main pipe, thus requiring additional energy to plastically deform it and
flatten it. This is usually done by increasing the wall thickness of the
arrestar to withstand tlattening by a propagating buckle.
Various types of externa! anJ Interna! bucklc arrestors exist, including
integral ring, welded ring, weldeJ sleeve, heavy-wall integral cylinder,
and grouted frce-ring buckle arrestms. Thesc are illustratcd in Figure 3.2
and are listed as follows:

•Integral ring, a hcavy-wall nng with thc same ID anda greater 00

3.34 Buckle Arrestors
As statcd, a pipc-localtzcd bucklc initiatcd by cxcessive bcnding during
laying, anchor dent, or any other cause propagates along the pipeline
than the pipc-the most-cikctive externa! type.
• Wcldcd ring, a sleeve weldcJ onto thc ()[) of the pipe.
• Free ring, a slcevc which is ~llppl'll ovcr the pipe. Thc annular space
betwccn thc slccvc ID ;md plpt· ()!) 1s gruuted. Free rings are usually
made from hcavy wall p1pt: ami art: cconomical, but thcy are bcst
suitcd to shallow water.
 r
•. l.
;1!)11 e: :IHU/1~
••. 1 "
JffshL - _¡gn, . ,SIS, L · eflii:L _

Design Evaluations and Pipe Parameters 1 31

• Interna! ring, a section of hcavy-wall pipe with the same 00 and

smaller ID than the linc pipt.:. This is thc most effective type, but the
smaller ID may restrict pipeline pigging operations.

Design of buckle arrestors includes selection of the spacings of

Pipe t ---.tfgcal dng bu3:'estm arrestors and arrestor parameters, including diameter, wall thicknesa,
grade, length, and type of arrestor. These parameters are selected such
that a traveling buckle in the pipeline under hydrostatic pressure does
not "cross over" the heavy-walled arrestar. The cross-over pressure is
defined as the net hydrostatic pressure required to allow a traveling
buckle in the pipeline to penetrate the arrestor and continue to propa-
gate in the pipeline on the othcr side of the arrestor. Accordingly, the
buckle arrestor should be dcsigncd such that the cross-over pressure is
Welded ring buckle arrestar
safely greater than the expcctt:d hydrostatic pressure on the buckle
Pipe
arrestor.
Selection of the number anJ spacings of buckle arrestors along the
pipeline is strictly a matter of economics. Installation of buckle arres-
tors to limit the amount of pipe damage should a buckle occur is a form
of risk insurance to limit time anJ economic losses. Since the risk of
Pipe .,.
::: ~:,~:~~ ~leeve buckF'estm pipe buckle is generally gn·atcst during pipe laying, it seems logical to
select the length spacings bctwccn buckle arrestors to equal the length
of pipe suspended free span. Howcver, selection of spacings and the
number of buckle arrestors oftcn Lkpends on many factors, including
case of repair, evaluation of risks in the arca, modc of installation, and
Heavy-wall integral cylinder othcr cconomic factors. In many cases, huckle arrcstors have becn
~ buckle arrestor spaced at intcrvals ot 400- SlXl ft a long thc pipe lcngth, although

·¡~E:;:ss:s.ss:s:s::::::;:s:?--:::1___¡
Pipe
spacing~ of as muchas 1,.100 lt havc been used.
Free-ring bucklc arrestors m ay cost from ahout $500 to $2,000 or more
each to install. Thc ordcr of 111<i~nitudc installed cost is about three
times that of thc material co<>t alone. Integral ring and welded-ring
......-Grouted free-ring buckle arrestar arrcstors are more cxpcnsivc due to addcd fabrication, machining, and
Pipe welding costs.
It is important to note that buckle-arrestor requirements depend on
-------+- water depth. Long subsea pipclincs are typically divided into shorter
.M"Grout
scgments, depending on water depth. Appropriate design criteria are
used for each segmcnt . .Differcnt bucklc-arrestor designs and spacings
are used for the various pipeline segments. Pipe-wall thicknesses and
' \ Concrete weight coating material grades are also graduated to fit thc buckling and laying re-
quirements of various water dcpths along the pipeline route. A single
3.2 Types o{ buckle arrestors
huckle-arrestor dcsign will havc limitcd application. The optimum
dcsign for maximum water Jepth wíll be overdesigned for a large portian
of many pipeline routcs.
 U lis:

Des1gn Evaluaoons and P1pe Parameters 1 35

Free-stream velocity, Uo Celeroty

D•rect•on of Propoqatton

u
Concrete coating
Steel pipe NOTE o) ')'OCosi]_f-~-lfJ-1
b) For q.ven orrqm ( •: o) wuve profde tS !!hown
lor 1 3T/4, 7T/4,11T/4
~X e) T}: a= H/2 uf w!Jtt: cresf
r¡ =·o- HJ;: ot wave lrouqh

Seabed
3.4 De{inition of linear wave parameters (u/lt'r '-.h11r, l'r<Hcctt"n
F, Manual, 1977)

tion, consideration is madc of thc linear, small <lrnplnudc, osciiLltory-

wave theory. Formulas for calculating thc dJ!krcnt wavc charactcristics
as a function of wave height, period, wavc ph;Jsc angk, and water dcpth
W ,- Total submerged weight of pipe, including concrete
are given in Figure 3.6.
coating anrl wrap, steel pipe, and contents, lb/ft lt is important to note tlut thc dccpwatcr '>tgmticant wavc hcíght and
wave direction change as the wave travcls ItHo ..,hallow water due to
Fu Drag force, lb
combined effects of shoaling, rdraction, ddraction, trie tu m, pcrcolation,
F, lnertia force. lb and reflections. An illustration of thc changcs tn thc dccpwatcr wavc
length (L.,) is shown in Figure 3.7 for Jiffcrcnt water dcpths.
FL Lift force, lb
So the pipeline rcmains stahlc on thc scahcd. o.;ummatHm of all forccs on
N Normal force, lb the pipe must satisfy thc static cquihlmum cqu,Jttun givcn hy:
F, .~ Friction resistance, lb
Horizontal forces (x): FD t F1 -- F, -- W sm H O (3.11)
U - Flow velocity in boundary layer, ft/sec
O Slope of seabed, o Vertical forces (y): N + F~, - W cos <-> , O (3.12)

Where the symbols are dcscribed in Figure J.J.

J.3 H1·cirodynamJc forcn on pipe If pipe is resting on thc seabcd with lntlc l'mhcdrncnt into thc
soil, then the lateral resisting force (F,) can he rclatcd to thc normal force
(N) by:
i"
'
3b 1 Uffst1ore r-1peline ueéi1gn. '" 1<11ySIS, i111u 1v1etllcr '"

Design Evalua/ions and Pipe Parameters 1 37

---.-----=.-=-=..:-: -. ••-:-:,.:-::-.----,
SHAllOW Wil.l(lt

t<E
r-~-~-- r-;;~~.--,cc.,c-.

.,.¡u.(lf--~)·1'"'
-/~<t<i
_.
-f>t
~

(. j . [i ···~ 1-!p-)
¡ J •••• l .. t'" l ·1~ •o•ll (-l:•)
l•l··*·'·'
'''
( t

O Ol
e,' e • /ti '• • .,, 'f (' • ,.... ~;::t,ll J e ,,.¡,.*
i'1 ~ •... ,.., ..,.. '""'"""'
,
•1 .... ·~····· •' j ~fF too9 ~ j ~ cot~!,!7;~;,•::l) '"' •. •t • "f' ••• '
O O<
0008 -
t] Vt•l~ll .. , !tf 11 • -} 1 ,, .. B .. ' '!l t'l ~.J!..!J..!..!~~
Uollfl••lll
.... ' •. •t .~ ···'
l ••••• ~o••·c•o &c:••••o•••"'
Ol106 ti Ht••IO""fl O,•JH(f)'tlfl 1••9

ooo• j~~ ~.! ~·-l!J:l. COl S o, •~lM{f)' • Jf'- cuB

l Utll/ltHl)

..'l:'.. ~J.~ •.,.s (.- ..¡. • Jfl IIA B

l•ni\{1•<1/L J

0002 - ( i l' • ~ 1 e~• i) ( ~~"-!~;1';;,~'t' Ut 8 e.¡ • ..a.p- c.. ,

... ,.,. ,.,

H
tri 0001

:p
--~-----'--~-
P 'Ptt"'l 11

j' ..
lll.
.

: 1 1 2 1T t
1 8== T wave period, t = time
. J : 1 j !i T
! i! ,.
1 '

,_ 1:1 ·J 3.6 Summary-linear (A¡n·¡ wuv1' 'iltJrricii'TJ\tin (after Shorc Protcction

Manual, 1977)
Lwe~ (h1;r j t1 ~ch 1

: : ; ! 1 ji
' ; ' ! ';, 1
' '' li Thc minimum pipe suhmcrgnl wc1ght ¡Wl for an air-fillcd pipe during
1 1 1 '
,. ' construction and for matcrwl tilkd pipe Juring opcration can thcn be
ooz 004 006 o1 o 2 o'(.· .. dctcrmincd using Equation J 14 in thL' torm:

W = fu + F¡ + ¡.t F, (3.15)
J.S /~egJu/1\ o[ va/u/ity of wave tht'tlf!C\ (t!IIL'r '>lwrc l'rotn:tHlll J1. cos (-) + sin t-)
/1.\,lllual, [')77)
For a lcvcl scafloor with (-) O, Equation 3.15 bccomcs:

F, ~ ¡..t N (3.1.3) 1
W = FL + -(.F ll -t- f:,l (3.16)
/.1.
Whcrc ¡1. is thc lateral fnction codticicnt bctWl'U1 pipe ::.urL1cc anJ thc
The flow-induccd drag anJ incrtia forccs on the pipeline can 'be
scahcd qlculated by adopting an cxprcssion Jcrivcd by Morrison (1950) for
Cumhmmg cquations .1.11 ami .1.12 anJ using Equation 3. U yidJs
computing the horizontal forccs mJuccJ by a uniform fluid flow over a
cylindcr. Thcse forccs are givcn hy:

Fll + F1 + J1. (F 1 ~ W cos <->) W sin(-) (3.14)

__t_ fJ e, 1> u,' (3.17)
2
,.,
;
r.~ :··:'!; ;·;:.•

3~ JffSI1._. _ .. pel11 __ ~ _ ~IQ11. _ ,'SIS, , ··,einc

1

F1 (.1.1 H1 Design Evaluations and Pipe Pararrreters 1 3'

Whnc F,, drdg torce per unit lcngth oí pipe, lbs

incrt¡,¡J force pcr unit length of pipe, lhs H
F,
f! Jensity of fluid, 2 slug/f(1 for sed watcr
[) pipe OU, ft
U,. cfkctivc horizontal water-pdrtlck vcluclly 1.0
ovcr I'IPC hcight, ft/scc 0.8
du -- honzontal water particle accelt:ration
ovcr pipe, ft/scc~
0.6
hydwdynamic Jrag coefficient
0.4
-~ hydwJynamic inntia or mass codficicnt

Thc tlltal furcc is a cumhmdtion of an incrtia force plus ;J drag !urce un

thc p1pe. The im:rua-turce comrxment is derivcd from an ,malys1'- ut
forces on a body in an accelcrated flow of an ideal nonviscull'i tlllw. Th~·
-oi..J
velocity and accelcratwn tcnns dueto the combineJ effecr oí wavcs anJ
0.10 d
currents must be evaluated over the pipeline depth and the torcL· mte-
gratcdnn:r the pipeline diameter. Typically, the velocity anJ accl'IL·rdtllll1 0.08 L
tem1s are evaluated at lm ahovc the seabed bascd on standard waw
theorics as describcd earlier. A boundary layer is then assumcd from l m
al:x1VC the scahcd to thc scahed where the velocity terms vanish
The 1/7th powcr law is commonly used to approximate thc honzontal
vdocity profilc (U) versus dcpth in the boundary layer:

u -~ (_)'_)''7 (3.19)
U, Y..

Whcre: U horizontal particle velocity at a d = Water depth, ft

hcight y from the seafloor in the boundary Lo = Deepwater wave length, ft
!ayer, ft/sec
U,= measured or calculated horizontal paruclc L = Wave length, ft
vclocity at height Yo, ft/sec Ho = Deepwater wave height, ft

As stated abo ve, U, is usually calculated in the free strcam at abom l m 3.7 Wave length and he1ght \'<lrJtllJr¡m w1th depth
above bottom. In reality, depth of the boundary layer dcpends un thc
bottom roughncss ami flow Reynolds' number. ,
Thc effective vclocity (U.) to be used in Equation 3.17 can be obtaincd
from the fnllowing awraging expression:
J
ll

u;= r~ u!¡ y) dy (J.20)

 'f'' ~

4( JffstK tgn, , SIS, C etho<

Design Evatuat1ons and Pipe Parameters 1 <'11
Substitutmg E4uation 3.19 in EljUéltion 3.20 yrclds thc Ítlllowmg:

u~ =o. 77R u~ (D/y.,)"

2
"" (3.21)
3.0
Tlw hit force (F 1 ) cm similarly be obtaincd lrum thc following
cxprcssion:

Thc ma¡m lhfticulty 111 calculating lift, dr;Jg, .md iiwru.d !mees is
dctcrmuution of thc IIft codtiucnt, drag codticicnt, ami rncnul
codficient. Fm ste;ldy-tlmv cunditions, the dr.1g nll'iticicnt(C 11 ) dcpcnds
un thc tluw Rcynolds numbcrs ;md rnughm·so.., uf pipe ~urLlcc. The
Rcynold~ numbcr is dctincd hy thc following 05 Roughness coefficient
Co 0.4
R = !J,. D (3.23) k, = 0.02
l'
V
0.3
Whcrc: l' = kinematic viscosity of the fluid about k2 = 0.0007
0.2
1.0 x 1o-'' ft~ /se e for sea w;ltcr)

Pipe ruughncss codficicnt ¡k) is Jdincd as:

0.1 1 1
k ~~.in !in.
D 3 4 5 105 2 3 4 5 1()6
Whcrc: e = hcight of roughness Re

Extcnsive measurcmcnts havc bccn madc for finding thc drag J.li Urug LUL'/lJuent \'\. l<cynu/,/, IIUJili>l'r lo(tcr /unes¡
codt1cicnt in a unidircctional, stcady-st;ltc llnw ovcr a pi¡wlmc .md for
nonstcady tlows. Drag codficients wcrc me;Jsllll:d .1s a function of thc
Rcynolds number. Results are shown in Figure .~X Ccr1L'LIIly, thc Jrag Rcynolds numbcr, prpc roughnL·ss, as well as thc Kculcgan-Carpcnter
codficicnt V<Hics from O.() to 2.0, dcpcndmg on thc tlow Rcynolds numbcr (K), which is ddincd as
numbcr.
Although drag cocfticrents ha ve bccn mca~urcJ fur stcady tluw'>, thc~c K= U,.I (3.24)
rcsults are usually uscJ fur osullatory tlows associ.ltcll wtth wavcs by D
selccting thc maximum valuc of t he comhi ncJ currcnt and w avc-mduced
Where: T = oscrllatory waw pcnoJ, scc.
vclocity over thc pipe scction. Bccausc vclocity of the tlow vancs ovcr thc
pipe diametcr dueto bounJary-laycr ctfccts, thc cffec ll ve vclou ty is u sed
An illustration of the variation of drag cocfficicnt with Reynolds.
to evaluatc the tlow Rcynolds numbcr thcn to dctcrmmc the cunespund-
numbcr for constant valucs of K ís shown in Figure 3.9. This can also be
ing drag cocfficicnt. used to determine thc drag codtlcient for a particular application. How
Expcrimcnts to mc;hliTL' Jrag codficicnts tor ;1 wavc-induccd tlscilla-
e ver, use of Figure 3.R for dctcrmrníng the drag codficicnt ís ade 4 uatc for
tory tlow ovcr pipe showL·d that thc drag coc!hucnt dq'L·nds on thc
offshorc pipclmc des1gn.
Experimcnts ha ve also becn cunductcd 111 thc past for measurements 0 {
 Design Evafuations and Pipe Parameters 1 43

20~0 k~' 15
1.8 30 .60'\.
. 8 ·. ·:. .
.4Ü·· ' \ 2.0
1.6 e,,
1.5
6 80
14
e 1.0
<1l -'
ü ()

-o
Q)
Steady flow ...;
e
<1l
ü ü 0.5
Ol
6 ;¡::
ro
.._ Q)
o 0.4
o
-ü

::::¡
0.3

0.2

Re x 10 5
o. 2t.____.L_L_jL_L_.I.-.-L.J.._j_L.LJL-----l..~:-'-7-'~:-'--L-I--'-;-'
0.1 0.2 0.5 2 3 4 5 10 0.1
3 4 5 1Q5 2 3 4 5 1()6
Reynolds number
Reynolds number, Re
J. Y Prog cui'/IICl<'lll {or ¡/¡f(aenl Keulcg<lli-CcJr¡wnter \'dlue' (d!Úr \.Ir¡'};.;; ci 1

J. JO Lift coeff¡¡;ient vs. Revno/,}, llllmhcr

1if thL· l1tt codfiucnt (C 1 ) and the incrtial codticient (C, 1 ) Thc lih
cndfici<:nt :liso Jcpends on the Rcynolds numhn :md p1pc runghn,·ss
coeftincnt (k 1for;) stcady-state flow' The lift coefticient (e 1) dcpL'llds ( 11)
the J{L·ynolds numhcr as wcll as the Keulcgan-Carpentcr numher (KI tor Table 3.2 Recommended Coefficlents for Pipe Design (Exposed Pipe)
oscillatory tlows. Variation of the lift coefficient versu-; thc Reynulds
Re
numher lor steJdy-state flows is shown in Figure 3.10. e"
lnvcst 1gatiuns of thc incrtia coefficient (CM) for a nonviscuus, accclcr- Re<S.O x 10' u l. S 2.0
ated tluid tlow over a pipeline have shown that thc mean valuc uf C,1 5.0 x lO'< Re< 1.0 x JO' 1.2 1.0 2.0
gencrally varics from 1.5 to 2.5, depending on the flow Reynulds
number. 1.0 x IO'<Re<2.5 x HY' l.'iJ- __ Re:_ 1.2- Re 2 .0
3 x w·· s x w·,
Based on the above discussions, recommended values of the hydrody-
07 0.7 2.5 Re .
namic codficients, ICnL (C¡,}, and ICM), to be used for calculating hydro- S X 10'
dynamic forces on an offshore pipeline are summarized in Tablc 3.2. S.O x IO'<Re 07 0.7 l. S
Note:Thc rccommcndcd codi llll'lll' .trL' lnr u"~ 10 prJctical pipd111c dcs1¡;ns wherc pipe 1s
cxposcd and p1pc surlacc has slo¡;ht rou¡;IH•c"
 ,. , . , ..
' ietho '
4 Jffst" :'SIS,;

EXAMPLE PROBLEM Destgn EvaluattOns and Pipe Parameters J 45

--· ---·-----------
Given.· Soil Type Coef/icient of Friction
----------·--- - - · - · - - - - - - - - - · -------
P1pe OD = 24 in. Clay 0.3-0.6
Efkctivc combinnl partick vclocity - 1 lt'scc. Sand 0.5-0.7
Calculare hydrodyn.unic codhc1ents for p1pe de'-iig11. Grave! 0.5
-----------·---------

Solutwn: Thcse values are greatly affectcd if pipe is cmbedded in the soil. They aré
Calculare Reynolds number: reduccd for an uncoated steel pipe or for a thin-film, epoxy-coated pipe.
An example is givcn to illustrate thc procedure for deterrnining the
Re-=-~º-
,, required pipe submerged wcight to resist hydrodynamic forces. The
proccdure illustrates calculation of the bottorn particle velocity and
1.0 X 24 acceleration, and lift and drag forces on the pipe.
J.() X 10 ·, X 12

= 2 x ur· EXAMPLE PROBLEM:

Given:
Therdure·
Significant wave hcight, H,, = 10 ft
C¡, = l.S3- ~-e= O.H6 Significant wavc period, T = 10 sec
3 X J()'
Water depth, d = 100 ft
Re Wave direction is normal tu pipe axis
e = 1.2 ------
S ~<Hf'
O.HO
Pipe 00 = 1 ft
Scabcd slope = O
Assurnc a clay bottom w1th J.l. ce O.S

The codticient of friction betwcen pipe surbce and the soilmust also Sol u t ion:
be detcrmined tn calcula te t he lateral soil-resisting forccs un thL· p1pelim:. A. Check if linear thcory is valid:
This codticient of frict11m depends on the surface coati11g oltlll' pipe ~llld
the bottom soil charactcnstics. Thc frictio11 cudllcient ab(l dcpends 011 J lOO
0.031
the ,kpth of emhednwnt of the pipeline in tlw '>llli. gT 32.2 X 10 .,. . 1()
In rcality, whcn pipe is rcsting 011 the bottom, thc ~od kluw the
pipehne Jcfurms slightly As thc pipdine moVL''> latnally. sod lails As secn frorn Figure 3.5, !mear ¡Airy) thcory can be u sed to describe
underneath the pipeluw and further bteral nwvcmcnt ol rhc pipdme wave charactcristics.
would cause the soil to Jdorm laterally, thcn:by incre;lsing tlll' rcsisting
forces to thc pipe rnovemcnt. R. Deepwater wave kngth ~~ g1vcn hy:
Experimental rncasurements in thc past havc i11dicatcd that thc Tt
coefficient of friction between the pipe and the seabeJ s< ni cm vary L = ...&.e =- S 12 T~
" 2rr ·.
between 0.5 to 0.9, Jepending on the pipe coating and the type of soil. ln
general, the following coefficients of friction are used betwecn concretc- Lo = S 12ft
coateJ pipe and the various types of soils:
i_ =
100 = 0.20
Lo 512
 ¡·,:-:··,:.•.''

From Figure 3. 7, the corn:sponding J/L is: Oes1gn Evaluations and Pipe Parameters 1 47
J . . F. Substituting in Equation 3.17, the drag force is:
- = O.l2S
L
anJ the wave hcight ration Juc to shoaling dlccts is: fu= ~p C]) D U~
H
--=O.n
H.,
fl> = l_ X 2 X 1.08 X 1 X 1.82 = 1.97 lb/ft
2
From thcsc, thc wave lcngth and wave height at J lOO ft are: Similarly the lift force is:
L = 444.4 ft
FL = ~Pelo u;
H ~ 9.2 ft

e Paniclc vclocity IS given by Figure 3.6: f¡ . = l_

2X 2 X 0.93 X 1 X 1.82 = 1.69 lb/ft

U = H _gi__ cosh [ 2 rr (z + d)/L]. cos(_1_7!_~-) The maximum drag force occurs at t = O. The inertia force
2 L cosh (2 rr d/L) T is given by Equation 3.18:
At y., = 1 ft from the seabed, z + d = 1 ft and F, = p CM (rr 0 2 /4) (du/dt)

U = _!:! _gi_ cosh (0.014) cos

2 L cosh (1.415)
2 1T

T
t Where: du/dt = g rr H
L
cosh [2 rr (z + d)/L] sin (-2Trr
cosh (2 rr J/L)
t)
Th1s vclocity is maximum when: t = O, This term vanishes at t = O.

U (max)~ 21.. 32 ·2 ~ x - 1- ~e 1.53 ft!scc In general, both the drag force and inertial force must be cvalu·
2 444.4 218
ated ata given time and added to yield thc combincd drag forces on
D. Calculatc dfcctive vclocity from Equation 3.21: the pipe. The maximum combined drag forces would be used in
Equation 3.16 to determine requircd pipe submerged wcight. In
U¡.= 0.77H (U~) (D/yo)" 2 ""
this example, it is assumed that the maximum combined Jrag
U~.= 0.778 (1.53 2 ) (1/1)02 " 6 = 1.82 forces occur at t = O, ami thus this maximum force equals Fn.
or U, = 1.35 h/sec
G. Now substituting in Equation 3.16 for a leve) seafloor, the required
E. Calculatc Rcynolds number: pipe submerged weight is:

R = U,. D = 1.35 X 1 = l. 3 S x lO;

,. V }0·5

1
This defines the hydrodynamic coefficicnts: w = 1.69 + - - X 1CJ7 = S.ó3 lb/ft
O.S
e])= 1.08
C 1 = 0.93 Note that the above problem considered the bottom·induced particlc
CM= 2.0 vclocity duc to wavcs. In general, currcnts may also be prcscnt, and
these must be added to the wavc·induced bottom velocity to compute
lift and drag. Also, only shoalmg effects wcrc considered for computing
H. H othcr dft:cts are significant, i.e., rcfraction, then thcsc should be Oes1gn Evalua/10ns and Pipe Parameters 1 49
considcrcJ in calculating shallow-watcr wavc paramcters.

3.5 Vortex-lnduced Oscillations Flow direction

WhL·n w.ltt.:r currcnts tlow across thc pipeline, vorticcs (L·ddJc-,1 occur
Jown..,¡rcam trom the pipe. Thcsc vortJccs are causcd hy thc tlow
turbukncL· and instahJ!Jty bchmJ thc pipe. Yortex shcddu1,l~ c.ILhL"S a
penoJJc changc in the nct hydrodynamic pressurc on thc pipe, which
nuy C.lll'>t: <1 pipe span to vibratc.
FrL·..¡ucncy of the vortcx sheJding dcpcnJs on pipe Jiamctcr <llld the
tlow vclocny. li thc \ortcx irequcncy, also rderrcd to .1" Stwulul
trcqucncy, 1s synchronJzcJ wJth one uf thc natural ht:t.jllclllll'' ot thL·

t
p1pclmc ..,pan, thcn rc~on.Jnce occurs and the pipe span nll!Jtc". Pipe
dam.1¡.;cs h.1ve bccn rcpurtcd Juc w voncx-induced osci1Lltllll1'- 111 thc
p1pc:lmc Cross-flow oscillahon
I'Ipclinc oscdbt1ons mav occur in thc cross-tlow Jircctlllll .111d thc
m-luw dircction lli thc tlow. By far thc more scrious u~cillatJllib are
thosc wh1ch occur 111 thc cross-tlow dircction. ln-hnc o"uiL1unn~ .HL' .... ...
not gcncr.dly cons1dncd t•J cause scrious oscillation prohkm.., in thc ln-tine oscillations
pipe, although somc L'Xccptions to this havc bcen rcportcd \'ortcx-
mduccd p1pc oscillation,; are dlmtr;ltcd in figure J.ll. .111 VurtcX-III!iuccd U\CIJiat iun'
Pipeline tatlurco; which may be causcJ by vortcx-cxcitcd IIHitilli1S can
he prl'VL'Iltcd if thc vurtl'x-shcdding trequcncy is suificiently Ln tnHn tlw
natural lrL'lJLIL'ncv ol tlll' pipe span such that Jynarnic osulbt!llll'> ot thc
Hocrncr ( 19651 found that thc Strouhal numbcr can be rclateJ to thc
pipe arL' minim1zcd. Thc vortcx-shedding frcqucncy is ¡..:1vu1 by thc
te ,Jluw 1ng: dr..Jg codficü:nt through thc following rclationship:

S = 0.21 /(C"Iu ''· (3.26)

sv ¡.:U'))
1)
This formula is al so plottcd in Figure .1.13. For most practica! pipeline
Whcrc ( = Yortcx-shcJJing frequency, cps prohlcms, thc Strouhal number is taken as 0.2.
S -~ Struuhal number Natural frequency of the pipe span depends on the pipe stiffness, end
V '~ Flow vl'locity, ftíscc conditions of the pipe span, lcngth of thc span, and combined mass uf
() Diamctcr of thc pipeline, ft the pipe, including its contents and addcd mass around the pipe. This
addcd mass is genera JI y 1 to 2 times thc mass of water displaced by the
Thc Strouhal numhcr is a function of the Reynolds numhcr of thc pipe. Thc fundamcntali1atural frcqucncy for vibration of the pipe span is
flow, as shuwn in Figure 3.12. The Jrag coefficient is also a fu11Ltion of givcn in the following formula:
the Rcynolds numbcr which, in turn, is a function of thc water tlow
vclucity, pipe Jiamcter, and kincmatic viscosity of water.
f-e@ (3.271
~~- P._jM
 ....
¡G l~ t lf.

Design Evaluations and Pipe Parameters 1 51

0.3

._
0.2
)
lí
Q)
.o V ... 0.4
E Q)
:::¡ .o
e E
co :S
.e e
:::¡ (ij
'· 2 0.1 .t:
:S
(J)

-
...o
( /)
0.2

o
1QJ lOS 1()6
o 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Reynolds number Drag coefficient
J 12 Vunotions o( Stmulwl number J.L1 Strouhal number vs. dwg (uefficient

Whcrc. El =Pipe stiffncss, lhs-ft~ V

L = Span length, ft V¡¡= (3.2H)
fn D
M c., eomhined mass of the pipe and added mass around
thc pipe per unit length of pipe, slugs/ft Where: V Flow vclocity, ft/sec
=
C = eonstant which depends on the end condition of fn Natural frequcncy uf thc pipe span, cps
=
the pipe span O = Pipe diameter, ft

For example, if hoth ends of the pipe span are assumed w he simply
SUpportcJ, e IS rr/2, Of 1.57. lf both enJs are 3SSUffiCJ tO he cJampcJ, e is
3.50. In practice, it is difficult to assess the best modcling of the end
conditions to simula te the assumed end conditions. Thndon.:, in many
pruhlerns tht: lowcst value which corresponds to simply supportcd end
conditions is considcrcd for a conservativc evaluation of the potential of
a vortex-induced oscillation in the pipe span.
Prcvinus studies ha ve shown that thc vortex -cxcited ose illation o{ the
pipe span is a function of the rcduccd vclocity (V 11 ), ddincd by:
Thesc studics also have shown that a pipe span starts to oscillate in
!in e with the flow when the shedding frequcncy is about one-third of the
natural frequency of vibration of thc pipe span. This corresponds to a
value for the reduced velocity of about 1.3. As the flow velocity in-
creases to higher levcls, thcn cross-flow oscillations bcgin to occur, and
this corrcsponds toa reduced velocity of about 5. In this case, the natural
frcquency of the pipe span equals the vortcx-shcdding frequency of thc
flow.
For design purposcs, it is customary to rnaintain thc value of the
reduccd velocity to less than 3.5 (corrcspondmg toa ratio of thc vortex-
shedding frequency to pipe natural frcqucncy of 0.7). Vortex-induced
 u '·'
1
Uil ÍVIl'l

o-.cdlatHlllS 111 thc p1pc wcrc not nhscrvcd for vmtL·x-trL'lJliL'IlC')' valuc'> Oes1gn Evaluat10ns and P1pe Parameters 1 53
whcrL·
Pipe unit weight in air = w. = !!_ (0 2 -0 2 ¡) x Ps g
(.i.2l)) 4
Whcre: Ps g = wcight dcnsity of stccl
LX/\1\li'LL I'ROI\LEM.
Pipe unit mass = Ma = rr (12.75 2 - l 1.75 2 ) ~
/
4 X 144 · 32.2
l'lpL 12 ?C.. 111 ()()X()') lll W'I = 2.m sluglft
Span k11gth = )[)() ft
l'luw VL·louty 2 ftiscc Displaet.'d mass (assurned equal tu added mass)

A-..,llllll' PIJ'l' "1'·111 1., :>llllply '>llppultcd .ll h11th L'lld'> .111d LhLTk tur rr x 12.75 2 x .04~ -~ 1.76 slug/ft
vurtl'X L'XItnl ,,.,uli:l!Ioll'> uf thc plpL· '>P<lll 4 X ) cl4 .32.2

Thcrcfon:, tm;d unit ma'is, M = 2.03 + 1.76 ~' 3. 79 slug/ft

Sulut HJ/l.
A. ( ';dud.Itl' thl' lh·vn,dds numhn Now:
In -- 1 :),0~0 J?-~.S}f/ir_ = 0.70 cps
~.!1_~_::;_ -~ 2. u .
y,i)
R,. 1().
1' 12. X 1() ·, U. 7 tn = 0.49

Exanunmg Equation .).2l) for pipe ~akty from vortex-excitcd

H. Thc vortL'X·L'XClting trcqucncy ¡tJ i!> gi\'L'Il hom Equ;¡¡¡un \_]-,_ o-.c 11 Llnons:

t, C.
SY
D In th1s case:
02x2·:12 (U < 0.49
· ~--~---~ '= O JH cps
12.7S and p1pc is safc from V•Htex cxcJLltHm!>.

( · l'q,c--.pan nJtural hcqucncy for .,unply suppmtl'd c11Lb.

f, ~~¡~ - 3.6 Pipeline-Soil Stability Analysis

Yerttcal ami horizontal ptpeline st<~bilitiL'S necd to be cardully

cxammcJ when ptpc i~ rcstmg on the ~cabed or cmbedded in the soil.
1 '' ~- (D' - D\) (D¡ = insidc pipe diar11etn)
64 Thcsc stahiluies must be analyzcd umkr static conditions as wcll as
under cydic prcssure condittons causeJ by passage of a surface wavc.
Wlwre: [) 1 ·~ D ~ 2 t = 12.7S- 1 = 11.7S in.

=}:J.'! (12.75~ - 11.7S') = 36l.S4 in'

3.61 Settlement and Flotation
64
El ·e 3 v JO' X 361.54 = J,OliS X 10' lb-in.~ When a pqwline is parnally m tutally huncd, 1t may float upward llf
El = 7 ..'-JJ X JO' lh-ft~ ~ettk do\vnw;nd unJn stmm conditions, dcpcndingon the pipe we1ght
(1ncluding nmtent~), sod dcnsity, ;mJ undrained shcar strength of tlw
sud ('ice Figure .3.141.
Y<Hwus cxpcriment-; havc bcen m;tdc to mcasurc soil flotation and
 '
S • , Off··;i<urt• r'rpclr11e uesr911. Mlldlysrs. '
o«u Metl,vu;:,

Oesrgn Ev3fuations and P1pe Parameters 1

If both sides of Equation 3.30 are diviJcJ hy p, the dcnsity of water,

thcn the uppcr and lowcr limlts uf thc pipe specific gravity required for
equilibrium can be calculatcJ from

(3.32)

Whcre: SG = Allowabk range of pipe specific gravity

SG, = SG •., 11 + 2C/pD lowcr limit of SG
SG 2 = SGsc, 11 + 2U¡,IJ uppcr limit of SG

Case A Case 8 3.62 Soil Strength Deterioration

Pipe lending to sink Pipe tending to float Under cyclic loadings of tlll' hott<llll scdimcnts caused hy passagc of a
storm wavc (Figure 3.151, signdicmt cyclic -;trains may dcvclop in clay
8 = 8uoyancy
gencrating large pore pn:'>SlllL'>. t\~ .1 rt -.ult, the soil strcngth after this

l_ W = Submerged weight of pipe

.- = Soil shear resistance to pipe movement
------'

·- -·-- - --·- --·---------

Surface wave

fl''>I'>Lli1Ce torce~. na~vJ (lll tlw~e ~tuJies ¡Cha::zaly, l Y7SI, " Llllgt: uf
.....
""""'111. . ._ _, ... ' MWL
p1pe -;peutic graYitie" may he sekctcd such that the pipL· '" -.tahk. ThL· 4
tullow mg eq tu t llJI1S ha ve be en ;JJopteJ to determine su eh a dcs1gn
rangc. Mean
Differential pressure
" ' - pressure at mudline
A:: t 'o/$7
lqlllvalcnt -.()d dcnsity wcight Jcnslty ut p1pe ;llld
L'Oiltl'll ts :•: R (.L~!J)

(3.31) Pressure couple

~w¿w
\Vh,·rl' ){ \od rcsistance to flc>tatillll m scttlcnll'nt

1 ~ - '--
pcr un1t volumc of pipl', lb'ft'
e . RL'lllllllleJ cohesiVe 'ol1L'ar 'otrcngth
of the suil, lb;ft~ l:.al:ed failure surlace
Shear reslstance
1) OutsH.k Jiamctcr uí p1pc, it

3.15 Storm-inducnl buttu;u {'(['''u''''

 cycl1c luadlilg Ot'l'<lllll'., kss th;m tlll' '>t.ltiL· llllcli,líi1l'J -,hc;lr '>llt'ngth.
In Il11~ L.i~L', tht· lt'!ll<lldcJ (rnluct·dl .,ht·a¡ -.tn:ngth <llthc ~,¡¡f lllLht be
usnl 111 pLlLt' ol Iltt· LIIJdraiJll'.! -.hc;n qllllgth in tktnmming thc
allow;~bk r.mgc ot p1pc <,pcufic gLlVItJl"., rcqllircd for plpt· '>tahdity.
In .~t'nt·J;d, tktt:IIlll11.ltiun of tht· J1Utl'Iltl.d '-<lil-strt·ngth rt·ductíon
whcn o.,uhtc·ctnl tll '>!onn-w,Jvc o.,trc-,sc-. un tite· '>t·ahl'liiu¡uirc·s knuwl-
cdgc uf thc wavc tinw hi..,tory ;mJ thc strc·ngth cluractcrísucs of thc sml.
Lahur,ltury mchurc·lnc·tH'i havc bn·n m.tdc m thc pa~t ¡Lct· and Focht,
IY7:'i! to JetcrmtiH' the cyclic '>!Tt''>'> Jnd untlorm numbn of cycks (S-N
curves) which cau'>t' sud failurc S(lil l.Jilurc nuy hc dcHncd in tcrms of a
cycltc '>tram ;JmplJtuJe. Other tactors, ~uch as the cyclic-loaJ.'ihape anJ
trequency, ~ud srrc·~'>-<,tr,Jin rcl.u Illll'>hip, ;md '>uil penncahdnv, !uve
;Ji~,, hccn dctt'Til1111nl to mJlucmt· tlh· 'illll S-N curvt·.
l'rcv1uu~ studtt'" h.IVL' mdtc.ltt·d that tht dt·tcriora.tion oi sud strcngth
wht·n ~llhJt'ltcd t•' cycltc luadmg tkpcnd'i tHl thc gencration of cxcess
pure (11t'~"llrt·_ Ccncrationuf thv., pt1Tc prt·so.ure is hasically strain depen-
dcnt; ht·nce, :o-mi failurc can he dciitlt'd in tnms of thc cyclic strain
Jmplltudc.
In '>and, tht· porL· prL'""urc may hudd lll' to ;1 ln'L'l equal tu thc vnucal
dkctJVL' ~tTL''>'>, c¡uickly L·au..,ing <,;lnd lh¡udaction. Thu'>, thc failure
poten tl.d lut 'iand I<., n >m mon 1y L'\ .d U;l t L'cl h.hnl ,_ lll t he t.J ti o ul thc e y e !te
c·xccs<; purc pre'>'>llfL' w tlw vcrt:t·,¡J dkcti\ e StrL''>S.
Bccausc of tlw rt-Lltlvdy lnw pt'lllll'aht!Itv uf cLly, ;tccuratc port'-
prcs..,urc mc.JsurL'IllLilh tet¡tltrt· \'try -,Juw r.JtL'" of cyciic luading'>, and
nwst c·yclic IL'~h ••n cL!y do nt>t llll'iutk ;n¡y porc-prcs..,urc mcas-
Utt'lllt'llh Thu'i, L_nlutc cntnia I<>J cLly ;lJc commonly ddincd in tnms
of a cycltc--;rr;,in .l!ll]'lltudc Llll..,nl hv cwlic-'>trcss lo.tding-,_
A '>tonn w.Jn· ts C<>mposed u! an mfillltl' numht·r of trcqucnctcs, and
concc:pts h.Ivc hecn dcvcl,lpl'd wcxprv,c., thc dkcts of irregular cycltc
lnadmgs on o.;oil in tcrms of an cqutv,dcnt numlwr of umform C\·cles of
an a\·cragt· Ulnc ... pu!Jtltng cycltc c.,trc·~-, ' dal watcr-wave train at the sea surface and does not account fur tf¡,
Altn dctnmiilillg thc pt~tcnti.!l and t'Xt•·nt ul sml-strength detcriora-
tion, pipt· '>peL·dic gr.JVIt It'S nwy lw '>t-kt tt·l! '-'llch that thc ptpc rcmams
stahk 111 thc wcak '>tld As gc·ncral e mena. pipt· in un~tahlc soils o.hould
he dt·..,¡gnul ~uch th;Jt ib unit wctght t<. e lose to thc unit weight of thc
!IqudicJ ~tllb.
3.7 Effects of Large Soil Movements
Severa! mcchanisms have been rcpurtcJ tu cause soil movemcnts at
the st·ahcd, including eros10n, turbiJlty (or suspension) currents, rapid
Des1gn Evaluat10ns and P1pe Pararneters !
soil depositions on stccp ~topes, and passage of large surface waves.
Actual fidd measurcment'> havc bccn reporteJ on vertical and lateral
wave-induced movemenb of tlne-grained sediments.
The mechanism of the interaction of ocean wavcs and large movc-
ments of underwater slopes in soft, underconsolidated sediments ~'>
complex. Efforts made to cxplain this mechanism have resultcd in
partial cxplanations due to the various simplifying assumptions m a de_
ln general, gravity forces acting alone on sloped bottoms are not
sufficient to cause a mud slide. However, gravity forccs, when combined
with cyclic wave loadings on the bottom sediment, can cause large s01l
movements.
Wave forces on the scabed can cause sediment instability in two W<IY~
First, as a result of the cyclic stresses and increased pore pressurc cauo.ed
by the traveling wave, the soil shear strcngth may be greatly reduced and
gravity forces may be sufficient to cause slope movements. Second, tht
Jiffcrcntialloading causcd by the wave on thc seabottom will induce
strcsses in the unJerlying soil. If thesc stresses exceed the soil strcngth
significant soil movement may occur.
Finite clement analyses have been used (Wright, 1976) tu calculat,
wavc-induced seabottom movemcnts, wherc the dfect of gravity, cycli,
and permanent soil movements werc considered. A hypcrholic, nu11
linear stress-strain relationship has been assumeJ, but no strain rate <>!
history effects have been included.
A more recent analytical moJel was dcvcluped (Schapery anJ Dunla¡'
1978) to predict storm-induceJ scabottom movemcnt using \'iscocla~tl·
analysis. This model accounted for the soil int:rtia, nonlinear matcTI.I
damping, rate dependcnce uf the soil properties, and down-slope movl
ments induced by wave action. Howevcr, the moJel assumes a sinus<n
additional energy providcd to the wave during its travel dueto wmd
Analyses and expcrimcntal mea~urcmcnts have been made for dL
tcrmining wavc-inJuced ~oil movcments <111d the consequent forces u1
a buricd pile (Marti, 1976). BascJ un laboratory measuremcnts of s01l
movemcnt-induccJ forces on a pilc, thc folluwing rclationship is dt
rivcd to calculatc such forces which cJn be adoptcd to calcutlt•
Jynamic soil-movl'ment forccs un a huril'd pipe:
F = 11.42 (12.'í.IJ n)" (V/D) 11 c. D (.Ln
Wherc: F -= Dynamic sml force pcr unit lcngth of ptpe, lb/ft
D = Pipe diameter, ft
 .-··
V e~ Resultant soil vclocity, ft/scc Oes,gn Evalualtons and Pipe Parameters 1

Cu = Ultimatc soil shear strcngth, psf

n = An exponent which defines the viscoelastic
hchavior of soil 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 Mud line

I hc.thuvc ex pPnt·n t (n) has be en corrclatcd to the 1iquidu y indcx ot sod.

Thc maximum static mud-slidc force on thc pipeline c1n be deter-
l11lllL'O baseJ on thc ultima te soil restraming force g1vcn by 1Lmscn 2
t H

1
10
i IW1 ll as fui lows:

f e N, n ¡.\.34) 4
lJ!tJm;ttc soil static force, Jbift
e . Cohc'>JVC (disturbed) shear strcngth, p-.,t
6
[) Pipe di.uneter, ft
N,. -" lk.mng-capacity factor
ThL· hcanng-capautv L1ctor is a function of thc dcpth ol ptpl' t·mbcJ- 8
mcnt ,Js '-hmvn in Figure .1.16.
s, 1!1 ovcrburden prcssure incrcascs w ith pipe cmbcd rncn t h.: 1m\· t he
mud l111e Tlw-. cau-;e-., tlw soil-movemcnt induced furcL· n:t .ll'lpl'lmc to H 10
li1Ut\l'>l' whcn thc pqw is cmhcddcd progrcs..,tvcly dcq1L·r 111 thL· soil.
D
Th1:-. 1'> -.huwn in Fl.~urc .1.17 for a givcn S<lll samp!c.
Thcrdurc, thc pipe ..,huuld be pbccd at or slightly below tlw '>L·,¡Iwd tq
minun1:c torces un thc pipe duc to soil movcmcnt. ThL·~·· torce-> may 12
soun hccumc cxtremc~y large when the depth of pipe hlll ial1-., iJh:rcJscd
B.1'->L'd un thc '>od-muvcment forces on the pipeline and tlw l.ltcral '-.mi
rc-.1st.mce, analysis can he madc to calcula te strcsses in thc pipe induccd 14
hy thc'>e furccs RL'Stdts of thc analysis show that thc possihility (lt pipe
fa tlu re undcr 'ind loadmgs would depcnd on thc pipe strcngth, -.pi! torn·s
whtch incrca~c with Jcpth, and the width of thc mud slidc.
lf f.ulurc occurs, thc mode of failurc will depcnd mainly lll1 thc furccs 16
rcsi-.t111g the pipe movcmcnt and thc extcnt of thc slide w1dth. 11 the
moving soil acts ovcr a short length of thc pipeline and Lngc fmccs are
rcsi'>ting general movcment of thc pipe, thcn a localized hcmling íailure 18
is likcly to occur. However, this condition is vcry unlikcly, and, in
gcncr.d, failurc of thc pipe dueto buildup of largc tensilc luads is much
more !Jkcly to occur.
Sinct: soil-movemcnt forccs on the pipeline are mínimum whcn thc
pipt: is placcd on the scabed, a pipeline installcd in unstablc bottoms J.J6 501/ [uTCC L'IJC(/JLIL'/Jt , ti/lc'f //ti/1\CIJ)

shouiJ be dcs1gned such that it rcmains on or slightly below thc -.cabed

 Destgn Evalual10ns and Ptpe Parameters
250
the hottom irregularities by methods such as prcswecping. These meas
ures are evaluated hased on tcchnical and cconomic considcratium
200 Therefore, to plan the installatitm pmcedure properly, an accurat<
prediction of pipe stresses duc to bot tom irrcgulari ti es is neccssary.

150
3.81 Stresses Due to Low Depressions
(j)
u
.._ Consider the pipe configuration ovcr a low dcprcssion shown n
o 100 Figure 3.18. Two distinct regiuns may be Jefined for the pipe: ( 1) pip·
o span in thc deprcssion givcn by L, alld (21 pipe span outsidc thc dcprl··
U) sion given by 1 on eithcr side of the Jepressiun.
50 Because of the geometrical symmctry \JI thc pipe configuration, onh
half the pipe span nceds tu be considcred. Thc pipe is divided into thie<
principal pipe segments, a11LI a free hndy diagram of thc pipe forccs 1
o ~--~----L----L_ _ _ _ L __ __ L_ _ _ _L _

o 2 3 4 5 6 -~7----'8
Depth of embedment (h), ft
3.17 .\rl!/l"tL·r· IJ\'t'T (J-1/1 pipe L
,~

during rts lifeumc Thrs wdl mmrmizt· ;my nsk~ ol Jamagt· to thc pipe
duc to muJ ~lides.
Howcvcr, whcn thc pipe i~ rwt huriul, 1t Js cxpo~nl tu hyJn,dynamic
lurccs on thc bottorn. Thnl'lorc, thc pipe ~pccilic gravity muc;t he
sckctcd such that thc wc1ght ol pipe (mcludrng contcntsl is hcavy
cnough for thc pipe to rcrnain stahk llllLkr thc most sevcre wavc and
Pipe Configuration
currcnt condiuons dunng Ih IIfcumc, yL·t light cnnugh that tlw plpl'
Jncs nut cmhcd itsclf hclow thc mud lmc.

3.8 Effects of Seabed lrregularities

Durmg installation ot a suhrnannc prpclmc, dw pipclme may cruss

clcvatcd ohstructions or lowcrcd dcprcssrons along its routc. As thcsc
hottom irrcgularities are crosscd, span~ and bcnding strcs~cs will be
T,.

induccd in thc prpc that rnust be maintamcd ata safe leve! tu prcvcnt
damagc. lf thcsc spans and strcsscs wuu]J cxcccd thcir sak leve! thcn
me asures must he takcn cithcr tu altn thc pipeline ruutc m tu min,imizc
Free-Body Diagram

.1.18 1'1[11' con(tgurrlllU/1 ,/¡¡,· I<J /u11 rlq't<"· ,¡un

 shown ill Figure 3.1 H Boundary conditions are rnatchccl ,tppmpnatcly
hL·twl·cn cach two ad,acent pipe scgments. 1 .0 Notes
Rc,ults oí thc computcr analysis may he dcscrihcJ ill tcrnts llÍ
- ,_
~f 1 ~u
0 _9 ~ . ~~ ) ' ' eharactenst1c length
dirnL·n~ionkss paramcters for application to gcnnal prohlcm~. V.iri,i- U)
Ee 1
tion ¡¡f the maximum bcnding stress versus thc dcprc-.-,H,n sp;m is U)
eharactenst1c stress
~ ~
~hown for various vJiuc~ of pipe tension in Figure 3.10 StmiLnly, Vi T 1
:--.trc.,~c-. as wcll a-.; dctlcctions at miJspan are dcpicted in hgurl·~ -~ 2.0 01
e 0.7 13 wL.: D1mensionless tension
ij,
:md 3.21, rc·.,pccttvcly. Note that the maximum stres'> (Jl"LllT'> at the e o6 e PlpC outer radiUS
huundary of tlw low dcprcssiun. ~
U)
U)
An cxam1nation of t hcsc figures rcvcals that these stres-,cs dl'Ucasc a:--. <ll
thc pipe tensmn is incrcased. In particular for Lnge·dcpreS'iiun '>p.ms, eo f3 =5
¡¡;
mclusion of tcns10n substantially reduces pipe strcsscs. Lc·n_¡:th (lt the e
<ll
pipe span inJuced ouLidc thc deprcssion is also depictcd .h .i fu1Jct ion liÍ E f3 = 10
ü
thL· dcprcssion span and tension in Figure J.22. Thc~e pipe span:--. E
:::J
decrc.l'il' in kngth as thc pipe tcnsion is incrcascd. Simdarly, 1t is
s

j
oh:--.nvcd that, fm largc-deprcssion spans, mclusion uf tcnsiun reduces )(

kngths ol induccd spans outside the dcpression. "'

:¿;
o ..L__J
o 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3 5
D1mens1onless span t
3.82 Stresses Due to Elevated Obstructions
3.19 Maximum .\lit:\\ dlll: to low deprn<>ion
Cons1dn the pipe configuration ovcr an clcvatcd ubstruction as
shtJWn 111 Figure J.2J. Lct the elcvation uf the ob~trucoon he i'i and tlw
inJuced suspended pipe span be L. A free-body diagram of the pipe forces Notes
is slwwn in the same Figure 3.23. Sincc the pipe span is syrnmetric ahuut 1.0
L,. ( _!:_1 ) • 1
eharacterist1c length
the (lb-.tructinn, it is sufncient to consider half the pipe ~pan ím tlle 0.9 w
bending analys1s. ~' _; _E e
Tlw pipe-gnvcrning equations are sol ved employing famdt;n nllll1L'TI-
-' -
~ h

0.8
<T.
L,.
eharactensllc stress
e T
cal tL·chniques Bccausc the span lcngth iS not known a pnon, llerauve "'
n.
VI
0.7 {3 -
wl.c
01mens,onless tension
procedures are cmployed to deduce this span lcngth ami pqw forces. D
e P1pe outer rad1us
Rt·-.ult-. ut the solutions are thcn prcsented in term~ ol dilllt"lhtonlcss E 06 '{lo· O
J'JLII11l'ter'i de~erihed earlicr. iií
U) 0.5
CLt¡'h" depictlllg v:niations in induccd p1pe ~pans ;llld rl"-.ulling
U)

~
111.1\llllllm ~trCS'iL'S versus elcvation of thc ob~truction .lfl' '>hown in Vi
U)
0.4
figures J.2o.l and .1.25, respectivcly. lt is obscrvcd that m;lXimurn bend- U)
<ll
e 0.3
illf, sti<''>'>es caused by ekvated ohstructions are Virtually unafketcJ by
vanations m pipe tcnsion. In contrast, pipe spans are incrcased a-; the º
U)
e
<ll
0.2
----{3=5
pipL· tens10n i'> increased. It is noted, howcvcr, that ten~de stress and E
comhmed hl·ncling ami tensilc stress will incrcase when tension m the o 0.1 {3= 10

p1pe is tncreaseJ. Figures 3.24 and 3.25 allow for dircct ulcuLtion of
oo 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
induL·eJ ~pans anJ maximum pipe stresscs fnr a wide range of obstruc-
tion lwights and various tension valucs. 01mensionless span t
L----------··------------------'
3.20 Stress 1.11 mu/.,pun

li3
 •
Notes
1.0 r------------------------------------
0.8 l. ( E 1 ) ' ' Charactcnst1c lcngth
0.6
¡i ~- /

¡~ ~
·'O:__¡
Dimensionless tens1on
0.4
wl.
e
<O
a. ¡1- o

~&
en
D
E 0.2 T . T
fl ~)
iií -j=
e
o
~ 0.1 Pipe configuration
~ 0.08
Q)
o o 06
en
en
~
e 0.04
o
¡¡;
e
<1>
E o 02
o

Free body diagram

l 2/ nct/,. 1 /41/J ;JI /ll/,/'j'tlfl

________ j l - __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

3.23
---

/'¡pe clue lo el.:vuteJ ol>\tructJr>JJ

----- ---- -------------~

----- ---

~---
~-

Notes
20
L. ( E 1 ) ' ' CharactenSIIC lcngth 4.0
18 w 1 /3-10
-__¡ ¡J
T
--
.
01mens1onless tens1on ~
wL /0 ~ 5
1.6
e
¿ f3 =0
!1)
a.
Vl
1.4 3.0
V ------
~
1<::::::.

e ..----------

¿;_ ~
~ 12- ro L__.----
o
a.
<1> 1o
/ /{3 cJO
o.
Cll

~~~
u Cll
2.0

olv
:J Cll
D ..!!?
~ 0.8 - e Notes
en o
·¡¡¡
~
J)

06 tp e L. ( E 1_ ) ' 3 Characterist ic length

e a>
o 1. w
E
e
Vl

<1>
0.4
o • (3 T
--- ---
Oimensionless Tension
s
o 0.2 wL.:

j_ __L_~--~
l l 1 1 1 1
o
O 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 L3.0 __j 0
o 1 o 2.0 3 o 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
Dimensionless span

-----
C:
Dimenstonless Elevation ~- •1 00
3.22 lnduccd ¡npc 'l)(lfiS

64 .)_ 24 S¡hlll clue lo ehTated uh,lfiJc 11<111

tJ'J
U\J IIUlJS

--·-----··--------------------,
Des1gn Evaluations and P1pe Parameters \ 67

Notes
Solution:
0.5 L.: ce: ( _I;_J-) <a Characteristic length
w The first step is to compute the charactcristic lcngth (L,.), charac-.
E 1 <>
~j~ EC
(f)
(f)
O.4 •reo· L
T
Characteristic stress
~Jcc- 1
¡1 0 o teristic stress ((T,.), aml Jimensionlcss tcnsíon 1/3):
._
(l) 1
üí {3 .~ w L.: Dimensionless tension
Le = ( Ewl):r = 184 ft
~
(f)
(f)
~
0.3 C = Pipe Óuter radiu
e EC
o
"ü)
e
(l)
0.2
-r.:- = 74S.H3 lb/ft 2 = 108,696 psi

E T
{3 "lO
i:5 L,.w
E 0.1
::J Where:
E
X
E Elast1c modulu..;, lb/ft~
=
m
2 o __l__~---i--~--~~~~--L El = Stiffncss uf plpL·, lh·ft~
o 1 o 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 W =Pipe suhmcrgcJ weight lb/ft
e = Pipe OUtt:r raJJUs, ft
Oimensionless elevation ~ * 100 T =Axial tcnsion, lbs

_j Dcsired unknowns are nmv d1rectly rcad oíf:

.1.?'i .\LJ\IIlilllll 'tre,, ,/u,· tu .-ln·clCnlu/>strudJOll
l. For a span of 500ft, thc dn11cnsionlcss sp;,m lcngth is givcn by:

L
- == 2.72
EXA/\li'Ll I'ROBU,'\1: L,.
To tllu'itratc th,· use of dnncnsíonlcss graphs for analy~b oí pipe Thc corresponJing valuc <~t llLIXIJTillm dJmcnsionlcss stress for f3 ~
cr<>SsJng h(ltwm dcpn:s~1ons or ohstructíon!:>, consídcr tlw lullowíng lO ts rcaJ off Figure 31 ') <h.
l'X,Illlpk
~2.'2_ ' () 2.)
Ci1'en lT 1 •

l'lpL· 16 111 OD ;r O 7') in. W.T. Therdorc, maXÍ!lllllll ~tfL '~ rrl), 2\ll()() P"•
('qw WL'lght ' .t'i lhdt
2. for an obstructJun dc\',ltlull ul !() lt, JimL·nsiunk~s clcv;ltion 1s
Culcu/utl' the /o/Juwin.~ given by:
l. M.1Xlll1llm bcnding '>trcss fur a pipe ovcr a span uf 500ft and h;lvíng
a tcl1'->lllll ol 6.::., kip. 8
X !()()
2. M.IXlllHII1l ht·ndíng -,trc-;s for a pipe ovcr an ckvatcJ ohstruction ot L,.
I(J ft ;lnd having <1 tcnsllln of (iS k1p.

Thc correspond111g \·;duL· ( •l 11LIX1111Ul11 d1mcnsJonlcss stress tor

{3 = lO is rcad ulf f¡gurL· .~ :::., <1'>.
 ,.. (•-·

68 1 üllsiH)I<: l-'1peline Ues'Q'I. 1\llillySIS, ano Nlettlous

-~~ 1-·· :~:: 0.33 Oes,gn Evaluauons afl(i Pipe Parameters 1 69

(f("

Thndurc, maximum stress cr 111 = 3S,H70 psi 3.9 Scour and Erosion

In thc surf zone and arcas whcrc hottom currcnts are large in mag-
nitudc, hottom sediments may he crodcd, suspended, and deposited
clscwhere. This can cause pipe exposurc, loss of support, and pipe
Table 3.3 Pipe Properties Formulas
spanning, resulting in the potential of displaccment, vibration, and
damage to the pipeline. ·
The mcchanism of soil erosion is complex and is related to soil
propcrtics. Considerable research has been conducted in the past on
sediment transports due to water How above rivcr beds. Much of this
rcsearch is in general agreement on the initiation of motion of sedi-
mcnts consisting of sand, silt, or grave l. The initiation of motion of sand
·-- Sted pipe
requires lcss current velocity than that needed for the initiation of
motion of clay particles. This is duc to the cohesion between the clay
particles.
To illustrate this phenomenon, consider a flat-bottom seabed con-
NOI\1ENCLATURE taining sand with water flowing ahovc it. When the velocity is low, the
[) <lllhiLk J¡ametn of stecl pipe, 111. scabcd particles will not move. As the f1ow rate is gradually increased,
1)_ lll~iLk Jiametn ot <;ted pipe, in. scdimcnt grains bcgin to m ove (the sequcnce of this movement is
thicknL''" ol nnro«wn co.Hmg, ill. illustratcd in Figure 3.26).
t ,, -_ tl11cknc~~ of weight coatmg, in.
W_,. ~ted Weight ill air, lb,ft
Initially, the movemcnt consists of random wlling and sliding of
W... - corro,lon coating weight lll atr, lh/ft individual grains. As the flow rate incrcases, turbulencc increases near
W. \VL'ight coating weight in air, lb ft thc scabed, and more particles roll and slide near thc seabcd. This first
W.. pipe Wl'ight in .lir, lhft incipient motion is referrcd toas the threshold of particle movcmcnt on
1\ huoy,mt torce, lb ft J tlat scabcd. As the flow ratc is incrcascd, more particles move, with
W, 'uhmcrgl'll wc1ght of pipe, lhtt
1 hcnJmg ll1lli11L'Ilt uf mertu of stecl pipe. ill.'
<;umc liftcd off the scabed for a shmt trajcctory beforc falling back on thc
-;cabed. The transportation of matter in this way is somctimes rderred
w as siltation of scdiments.
EOUATIONS As thc flow becomes more turbulcnt, sorne of thc sediment paruclcs
\\' .. 2 (,_,ti)' [),') will be lifted increasingly highcr abuve the seabcd until they are in
"i'c \ ( 1) + ! 1, ) · [ )'), ¡1, su~pcnsion and can be transponed with thc fluw. Thc more turbulcnt
\\'" ')7(,
thc tlow is, thc more particles are in suspension. At very high flow ratcs,
\\ '
thc tlow will cause irregularities on thc scabcd known as ripplcs. Thc
suspended particlcs are free to travcllll thc mixcd tlow until thc vclocity
W, \V,, , W_,. ~ \V.,, dccrcascs toa leve! such that the particks cannot rcmain in suspcnsion
B !Jl'>(J)t 2t, 12t .. )l any longer. This vclocity is known as thc scttling vdocity. ,
W W .. B Thc mínimum tlow vclocitics for particlc crosion, suspension, and
scttlcment depcnd on thc soil prop~:rties, including grain size and
7T- ( [)' .. [) ,-• )
().l spccific gravity. Howcvcr, thc variation of spccific gravity is small sincc
most of the scdimcnt particlc~ Jrc quanz with an immcrsed spccific
gravity of l.6S. Thcrcfore, thc scduncnt transpon vclocity for sand can
be studicd based on thc gram-sizc distributHll1 ot scdimcnts.
70 OlfshorE Prpel,lil' [)w,•c¡fl Analysr•;, cllld Mcthods
-
Des1gn EvaluatJOns and P1pe Parameters 1 "1 \

Low flow velocity

Grain size, <b
10 6.7 3.3 o -3.3 -6.7
1,000
()
Q)
500
1/)

E Eros ion
()
100
lntermediate flow velocity ~ 50
"ü
o 25
Q)
>
e 10
ro
Q)
5
~
Transportation Deposition
1
---,-----------~--~--~~--~------------~~--
0.5
High flow velocity
0.1~----~L---~------~------~----~
0.001 0.01 0.1 10 100
Grain size. mm

1) Mean velocity at 1 m above seabed.

2) Material grains are assumed unrforrn.
~-----------------------------------------------------
Current ¡·e/ocHv íur \l'dun,·nt fr¡Jii'J''''t

M.my thcorcttcal aml t'XPL'Timcntal dforts ha ve bccn maJe in the p<1st

tu quantify the rclattun~hip hctwccn thc tlow rate drHl the velocitlcs
assoctateJ wtth <;edtment transpon. Plots have been gcncrated to i\lu~­
tratc tlw mintmum cnhttll1 velocity, transport vclocity, anJ the tkposi-
tion velocity oí thc sotl partidcs versus grain sizc of the sanJ sL·Junents,
as ~hown in Ftgurc .1.27.
Me.1surcs to protcct thc pipeline from scour incluJL· huna! uf thL·
pipe! meto suffiClcnt depth of covcr and anchoring thc pipe. Rurial of thc
pipe can be dfcctivc if thc line is buricd beyond the dcpth of cxpcctcd
eros ion during pipe liietime. Dctermination of the amount of crosio:1 in
a givcn arca is complcx. Howcver, in most cases, and particularly in
sand, an csttmatc can be made of the depth of erosion.
 lnstallatJOn Methods and Analys1s 1 73

Box-hull barges are generally requircd to scek sheltcred water in much

lcss scvere weather conditions than those required for ship-shaped and

4
scmisubmersible hulls. The increased stability of semisubmersible
hulls has also allowed development of large stingers, which, in tum,
allow laying large-diameter pipe in relatively deep water.
lnstallation Methods and Analysis Development of the ship-shapcd and semisubmersible-hulllay barges
has made it possible to operate in severe weather conditions such as the
North Sea and to extend the working season in these areas.
Examples of the box-hulllay barge is Brown &. Root's BAR-34 7, J. Ray
McDermott & Co.'s !ay barge No. LB-29, and Santa Fe International
Corp.'s Cherokee. Examples of ship-shapcd lay bargcs are the ETPM
1601, and Netherlands Offshore Co.'s Sea Lion J. McDermott's Viking
J>iper, Saipem S.P.A.'s Castora 6, and Brown &. Root's Semac 1 are
4.1 General examples of the semisubmersible !ay vessels.

Thcre are various metbods of submarine-pipdine in~cdiatJ<li1S, m-

cludin~ thc lay-bar~e. red, bottum-pull, tow, anJ other mcthoJs S<li11C 4.21 Description of Method
of these methods are more suited for J particular app!JcatJ<lll than
othcrs. Ccrtain mcthoJs are particularly -;uited fm small·tkmlcter p1pe An illustration of a conventionallay barge is shown in Figure 4.1. Lay
installations; othcrs are particularly suttcd for dcc:pw;ltcr ttl:->t.dbtions. barges use essentially the same method for laying pipclines. Pipe is
A dcscription is givcn in this chaptcr of the most uJtnm<m pipc-
installation methods. Alsu, varinus tcchmques of laying ;l!Llly~is are
presenteJ anJ discussed.

4.2 Lay-Barge Method

Thc mPst common method for submatinc-ptpcltlte llht.dLttton:-. is thc

la y- bar~ e mcthnJ. Sine e thc first hox- ~hapeJ la y bJr<;c wa;. tn t roduced,
various improvcmcnts anJ modifications have hCL'll maJe ro cxlc'nd thc
lay capahllitit:s. Thrcc diffcrcnt typcs of lav hargc~ exJ~t, including
conventtonal hox hull, ship-shapcd bargc, and sctlll:-.uhmersthk.
The semisubmcrsible costs more to construct than a cnnvcntional
barge or a ship-shaped vcssel. However, thc response motions of thc
semisuhmcrsihle !ay vcssel are much more fJvorahk than 1 hose for thc
bargc or the ship-shaped vcsscl. For cxamplc, scmisubmcrsthlcs can
usually opcrate in significant wavc hcights of up to 15-17 ft from any
dircctton, whilc box or !ay bargcs can opcratc in signif1cant wave
hcights of up toS ft from any direction. Ship-shapcd !ay vcsscls cai1
usually opcrate at higher significant wavc hcights nf up to 12ft in the
case of head seas.

72 4.1 Conventwnal lar harxc

 '11,,,,, ..
1 1
't ' '

Jt:IIvcn:J tu thc lay bargc m single or Joubk-lcngth joints (20- or 40-ft

lnstalla/,on Methods and Analys1s 1 75
kngth~J by .1 c:11gu hargc, shown in Figure 4.2.
~cveral of thc Lnge la y bargcs are capable of handling oO-ft pipe toints.
A Jcck crant· translcrs thc pipe to storagc racks on the lay barge. During
laymg, thc cr;mc transiL·r~ pipe from storagc racks toan automateJ rack
for "lccdmg'' p1pc tn the lincup table. Thc lineup tablc is the first
positio11 (w1nk sLl!Jull) uf thc production linc for wclJmg the pipe anJ
nondc:-.t rm !IV e 1ve· u 111111111g thc wclds. La y bargcs can ha ve~ tll 12 work
stations, dcpt'IHhng u11 thc ~izc of the bargc and thc Jiametn of thc pipe
bcing \Hlded.
Aitn wcld lllg t he plpl· llllllt~, t he lielJ tnints are coatcd w i t h corrosinn
coatmg~ ¡,1nd wt·I.~ht Ltl,tllng ~omct11ncs) as shown 1n 1-Igu¡c 4.3.
Pipe layu1g upei;Iti•ms ,·,munuc, wlth pipe supported hy thc baQ!,e
rollns :~ho\\ 11 111 hgurL -l-ll .mJ stingcr bdorc muving tu thc scahcJ. A
stcrn rulkr llll ;l l.ngL· •II,Ili1Ctl'r )ay barge IS shown in ¡:igurc ·f.~.
Ead1 ol thc hull dl "l).;Jls can lurthcr be catcgurizcJ by the loc.Hion ot -~
thc prmluct 1•m I1Ill', ~·1thu ccntcr lme or side mounted. Side-muuntcd
prmluct1un llllL's prtl\'Jtk lm thc most cfficicnt use oí Jeck spacc and
1

..

..J.J Cuated field joint

Jeck c4uipmcnt. Howevcr, thcy also ~uh¡cct thc ~tmgcr, stmgcr hitch,
ancl pipe to higher forces Juring roll and yaw than a ccntcr-lmc-mountcJ
production line.
Center·line operations gencrally rcqlllrc duplic;ltiun ot dcck cqlllp·
ment for pipe handling, in aJdition to lc..,o.;·l'ltiClcnt use of dcck space.
Most la y barges designcd for opcratiun in ~cvcrc-wc;~ thcr conditions use
the center-linc-mountcd production linc, Sincc lowcr-induccJ loaJs on
the stinger hitch and pipe are more critica) th;m thc loss in Jcck-space
dficiency.
The production line of a lay barge is linutcd tuimtallmg a single llnc.
4.2 Cocitetl¡npe JOJnfs
If multiple lines are required, the bargc must retrae e thc la y path for ea eh
line or it may modify its Jeck opcratiun.., to u~c portablc recls. ln
situations where onc or twu sm;~ll-Jiamctcr lmc..,¡l --3 111.) are rcquircd
 , Olh Mett __ _

lnstallatJOn Methods and Analysis 1 77

.J .J I'If''' ()\ l'f flllllJl

4.5 Stem ramp support

111con¡unctHm wtth a 'imgk large-diametcr line, it may he poss1hle to sct

up tcmpoury proJuction lines.
Convctlttonallay harges require additional vessels to support a laying
components are shown in Figures 4.ó aml4.7, includ111g the diving bell
oper.ltl!m. The spread generally includcs one or more anchor-handling
and the decompression chambcr
tugs, cargo harges, and tugs for supplying pipe and other materials.
A pipeline is initiated by positioning an anchor on thc sea tloor,
Divmg '>llpport 1s normally required for inspection of pipe on the seabed
bringing the anchor cable ovcr the bargc stinger, and attaching it to thc
and for p1pe '>Uhsea connections. In shallow-water operations, diving
end of the first pipe joint. Thc barge i~ moved fnrward by taking in cable,
can he surrm tcd dircctly from the la y barge. llowever, 111 dcepwater
as required, on the brcasting anchor'> and lettmg out cable on the stcrn
operatHms, a Jiving-~upport vessclcquippcd with a remotc-controlkd
anchors.
veh1cle (RCY) ora manned submersiblc may be nccded. Uiving-system
The barge stinger helps suppurt the pipe and fonn'> an S-curve :v.; the
p1pc is laycd. Stingers have developed hum stra1ght-lme designs, origl-
nally uscd in shallow w.1ter, to thc curvcJ, sccuon:il, arttculated stmg-
 1·

l!:l 1 Offshore Pipeline Uesign. Analysis, ano Methoos

lnstallalion Methods and Analysis 1 79

4. 7 Diving bell and decompres~ion chamber

4 f, [)1\'lllg bcll
crs rc4uircd for dccpwater operations. Tcnsioning machines positioncd
along thc production linc providc a hold-back force to limit the curva-
tun.: of thc pipe as it dcsccnds to thc scatloor.
A curved sectional stinger for large diameter pipe in rclatively deep
water is shown in Figures 4.8 and 4.9. Stinger sections vary in length,
although cach section is typically 60 ft long. The draw-bar section,
shown in Figure 4.10, connects the stinger to the barge hitch. Stínger
sections are connected through hinges as shown in Figure 4.11. Stoppers
are used to control the mínimum radius. Rollers (shown in Figure 4.121
are installed on the stinger sections to support the pipe during lowering.
The maximum depths to which conventionallay barges can operate
are govemed by:
l. Capacity of thc barge mooring system.
2. Stinger size.
3. Tensioner capacity.
4. Pipe diameter and wall th1ckncss.
5. Pipe weight coating (if rc4uucd).
In general, la y barges can be grouped by the water depths for whiFh
their mooring systcms are dcsigned: ( l) to 350ft, (21 to 600ft, and (3) to
1,000 ft. There is a limited numbcr of pipc-lay vessels currently capable
of mooring with dynamic-posiuoning assistance and laying pipe in
water dcpths cxcccding 1,000 ft. The Castora 6 is in this group of
vcsscls.
 (':'·'·''
ou ¡ Offsnore Pipeline uesign, Análysis, ano Methoos

lnstallat!On Methods and Analysis 1 81

4.8 Sectional .~tinger for large-sized pipe

4.9 Floated stinger prior tu stahlnn,~;

4.22 lay Analysis Method

positioning oí the ramp supports and by controlling curvature uf the
An J!lustration of thc pipe string bcing lowcrcd from the !ay barge to
stinger. In general, the overbend radius uf curvaturc (including stingcr)
the scaheJ ts shown in Figure 4.13. Two regiuns can be iJcntitied: the
ts selccted such that thc maximum hcndmg stress in the pipe docs not
overhcnJ rcgion anJ thc sagbcnd rcgion. Thc overbend gencrally ex-
cxcecd 85% oí the mínimum spccif1eJ yicld stress (MSYS). The bending
tends from the tcnsioncr on the bargc Jeck, over the bargc ramp, anJ
strain is givcn by:
Jown the stmgcr tu thc lift-off point when pipe is nu longer supported by
the ramp or stingcr. The sagbend region generally extenJs from t!"le D
inflection pmnt to thc touch·down point (TDP). f (4.1)
2R
Pipe curvature in thc ovcrbenJ regwn is usually controlled by proper
Whcrc: O = Outside stecl dtamctcr of pipe, ft.
R = Overbcnd radius ot curvaturc, ft.
 u~ 1
_.ls .. , _.s .. ·;· •. ~,t

lnstallatwn Methods and Analys1s 1 83

4.10 Stinger drawlmr .~ectHJ/1

Note that the units of O ami R must be the same. The corresponding
axial bending stress is:

ED (4.2)
(J' = --
2R
4. JI Stinger hinge
Wherc: E = Elastic mndulus "' JO x 10" psi

Tht:rdorc, thc minimum ovcrlwnd radius can usually be sckcted from:

ED ---- more over thc supports than in betwecn, and the overbcnd stress usually
R = --~- (4.3) increases at the supports and dccreases betwcen the supports.
2(r., DF
Computer programs and elabora te methods are available for accurate
Wherc: = M11limum spccified yield stress of pipe
1r., overbend analysis. In thesc case-., a lcss conservative design criteria is
DF= Des1gn factor, usually 0.85 used to determine the mínimum uvcrbend curvaturc. In certain cases,
pipe is allowed to cxceed the y1cld stress in thc ovcrbend, and strain
The above analys1s assumes that the pipe has a uniform bending criteria (since deflections can he controlled) are used in place of the
radius over the barge ami stingcr supports. In reality, the pipe bends limiting·stress critcria.
The sagbcnd stress analysis is mamly done to detennine the tcnsion
and stinger-length requiremcnt for s:1fc laying. In general, the highcr the
 ~ff .. ,)( .•. at

lnstallattOn Methods and Analysis 1 85

tension is, the shorter the stinger that can be used. Often a plot of
pipe-sagbend stresses and required stinger lengths are plotted versus
tension, as shown in Figure 4.14. These plots are then usedfor a trade-off
determination of tension and stinger length.
¡
'1

.!
'j

).
¡
1
t
(J)

-
(J)

~
( J)

'O
eQ)
.o
Ol
ro
(/)

4.12 Stinger rolla supports

Pipe lift-off
.-~-
:.¡
,,t·; r
-,;

: ~·
¡Overbend region lncreasing tension

Sagbend region -"'!!111!!'!/JVV

-
.e
Ol
e
Q)

'-
Q)
Ol

Anchor line
-
e
( J)

Ol
e
(J)
ro
Q)
....
(_)
e

4.13 Com·cnlional/ay-barge method

~
L - - - - ' - - - - - - - - - - - ---------- ---- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - '
 86 Offshore P1peilne Design. Analys1s, and Methods

Scveral mcthods exist for stress analysis of pipe in the saghcnd region, lnstallat,on Methods and Analysis 1 87
including the beam method, catcnary mcthoJ, stiffcncd catenary,
nonlinear-beam method, and the finite-difference method. Generally, Boundary conditions:
the beam method yields accurate results in shallow water, whereas the
catenary and stiffened-catenary theories yield accurate rcsults in y (ol =0 (4.51
deepwater applications. 8oth the nonlinear-beam method and finite-
element method yield accurate results for all water depths. A brief ~ (ol = 0 (slopc of seabedl (4.61
dx
comparison of these various analysis methods is given in Table 4.1.
ft¡oi=O
1
(4.7)
dx
Table 4.1 Comparlaon of Plpe-lay Analyals Methods y(LI=H (4.81
Boundary El n(L)=M (4.9)
Method Applications Conditions Validity dx 2
--·"·-------- -

Lincar-beam theory Shallow water Satisfied Small deflections (M = O at inflection pointl

Nonlincar theory All depths Satisfied General
Note: T = T" + q H (4.101
Natural catenary Deep water Not satisfit:d Away from ends,
small stiffness
Stiffened catenary Deep water Satisficd Small stiffness Theory is applicable for small deflections only, as in shallow-water
Finite-element method All depths Satisficd General applications.

T
·4.221 Beam Method (Small Deflections)

In this theory, the pipe suspended span in the ... aghend is modcled as a
beam segment as shown in Figure 4.15. Howcvn, dc.:tlcctions are as-
sumed small, i.c.:

·_¡
.iL << l
dx
Thc govcrning bending equation is:

(4.4)

Whcre: q = Unit submerged weight of pipe, lb/ft

El =Pipe bending stiffness, lb-ft~
T., = Effective lower pipe tension, lb
L ---------1

4.15 F.B.D. of pipe string

 ·¡
ilf )( g

4.222 Nonliner Beam Method

lnstallation Methods and Analysis 1 89
Thi~ thcory considcrs the nonlinear-bending equation of a beam to
dc!-.cnhc thc hcnding of pipe span. The theory is applicablc in both This has the solution:
shallow and deep water and is valid for small and largc ddlcctions as
wdl. {) = tan·• ~ + e (4.13)
Thc governing differential equation is: T..
Where: e = constant (e =O, if pipe slope =O at sea bed),which is the
d ) - T Sec211 ~
20
- q = El_! lsec o (4.11) familiar governing equation for a natural catenary.
ds \ ds 2 " ds
Where: s = D1stance along pipe span The span length (s) is given by:
H = Angle at a distance s

Slll 11 = _jt_ s = Jy 2 + 2y Tu = To sinh(~) (4.14)

(4.11a) " q q To
ds
The maximum sagbcnd strain can be approximated from the mínimum
SmCL' houndary cunditions normally include the displacement at curvature, where:
euher cnJ of thc p1pc span, the above differential equation may be
descnhnl in terms of y rather than O. Substitution of Oin terms of y and s Maximum bcnding strain, E = ..!21.. (4.15)
vanahlcs in cquatwn 4.11 results in a more complcx differential equa- 2T0
tion lllr y(~l than ior tl(sl
D = Pipe uutcr steel diameter
Fuur huund,Jn· cunditwns are nceded to solve the difkrcntial cqua·
tion, andan add1t1onal boundary equation is needed to sol ve tor the span All units must he consistcnt in Equation 4.1 S
lcngth sincc 1t ,.., not knuwn a priori. The catenary equations can then be used to estimatc pipe configura·
. Tl1L' ahuve ddtcrential equation and corresponding bounJary equa- tion away from the ends whcrc pipe stiffness is small, in deep water, or
twn.., Jre usually treated as a boundary-value problem anJ are solved where the tension is vcry large such that the tension term in Equation
numcrically. Thc finne-difference method of approximations has been 4.11 is predominant over the stiffness term.
uscd sucn'!-.slully to pruvide the solution.

4.224 Stiffened Catenary Method

4.223 Natural Catenary Method
Thl n.l!ural c.ncnary theory can be used to describe thc pipe span
contigurat1on away from the two pipe ends, i.e., away from the litt-off
pmnt .lt <,c.Jhcd anJ the upper pipe point near stinger. The method is
applll·,¡hk whl'Tc the pipe stiffness is very small; the bounJary condi-
t wm, on plpl span are not satisfied.
To 11lustrate the method, let El = O in the nonlinear beam bending
Equat1on 4.11. The following equation is obtained:
(4.12)
The stiffened catenary method is different from the catenary mcthod
in that the houndary cund!tions are satisfied. In this method, the
nonlinear-bcam difkrential L·quatinn is solved assymptotically; but
assuming that tlw nondimcnsHlnal term (n 1 ) is vcry small:
nt = _!_!_ << 1
q s:•.
S = Pipe sp;m lcngth (charactcristic length)
This theory providcs accurate results of the pipe configuration, in·
cluding ptpe rcgions ncar thc L'llds. Howcver, the theory is applicablc
whcre thc pipe sttftness 1s small or in dcep water.
 90 Offshore Ptpehne Des.gn, Analysts, and Methods

lnstallatJOn Methods and Analysis 1 91

4.225 Flnlte Element Method
As in the case of the nonlinear-bean analysis method, thc finite
element pipe-span analysis is applicable in all water depths for.small or
large deflections.
The pipe span is modeled as a system of connected finite bean
elements. Bending equations are developed for each pipe ekment and
boundary conditions matched between elements. The systcm equations
are then developed into a matrix form and solved using matrix tech-
niques.
By proper selection of the pipe-element length, deflections of each
pipe element can be kept small, usually with respect toa local coordi-
Shift in neutral axis can be calculated from thc equilibrium of forces
applied at the cross section (Figure 4.16). If an ideal bond. bet,~een th~
concrete jacket and steel p1pe 1s assumed, thcn coated-p1pe bondel,i
flexura! stiffness (K.,) can be calculated directly as shown in Figure 4.16.
However, experimental studics have shown that when concrete-
Concrete foiled
in tension ,

cE]'----!____..:~)
nate systcm. This makes it possible to use the linear form uf the hcnding
differential equation for each pipe elemcnt as describcd in Section 4.221.
J.,¡
¡ ·4.226 Method for Thick Concrete Coating
In certain pipeline installations, it may be necessary to increase the
Conc:rete cooted pipe in bending

Shift in neutral axis

Concrete in
compression

r!llP pipe submerged weight sufficiently to withstand hydroJynamic forces

at the seabed. This may require a largc thickncss of concrete coating on IF=fCT,dA. + f•rcdAc =o ( 1),a =r ecos a
~~~ the pipe. As a result, when pipe is bent, such as during installation by a u, =E, (y/R), u e =c.: Ec (y/R)
lay barge, bending stresscs are intensified at the ficld joints due to
~ Substitute in 111:
reduction in flexura! stiffness at thcse joints.

f (-Proccdures for calcu.lating intcnsified strcsscs in pipclincs with cx-

1treme concrete coatings during laying can be dcvcloped based on the
¡ effectivc-stiffness conccpt. The pipe effective stiffness can be used to
r; te sin a ~~ a al, r, - rr N r, t, a
An iterative pro(edure yields the shift in neutral axis.
c-e o

1
1;
f'tf
determine the pipe static configuration, then using stress intcnsifica-
tion factors at the field joint to find maximum bending strcsses in the
pipe string. This allows use of various pipe-laying analyscs methods.
When pipe is bent, one portian of the coating is subjcctcd to tcnsilc
forces and another portion is subjected to compressivc loads. Since
N= EjE,

r-- -
j,
··--¡-
tensile strength of concrete is ncgligible, the concrete portion in tension
.¡
1
fails and thc neutral axis of the compositc cross secti<m of pipe and ---~~ - --~
-

coating shifts. Steel Concrete

Bending stresses in the outer fibers of steel pipe increasc on the tensile stresses stress
side and dccreasc on the compressivc side. At thc field joints, pipe is bare londed stiflness, K,
except for a corrosion coating or freshly applied concrete which offers K e= E, (1, + A.a') +- Eclc
little additional stiffness to the pipe. Thcrefore, bending stiffncss is
le= fy" dA e
reduced at the fidd joint, and additional curvaturc occurs at the joint to
=a [<ro' -r,')/4-i a''(r .. ' r,'l]+sin2n(ru'-r,')
balance the bending moment in concretc-coated pipe. This increases
- (4/3) a ~in a (r 0
1
bending stresses at the field joint. ' r, )

4.16 Coated-pipe hontfrd \1 Jlf11n'

 .'
'

coatL·J pipe 1s bent, slipp;Jge occurs between the concrete coating ami
inttrLlclng material, thus reducing compressive stres~es 111 concrete. Jnstallation Methods and Analysis 1 9
Thb ~l1pp.1ge is causeJ by shear !orces between concrete ami the
intcrlacc material which inhibits the cuating from incre<lsing flexual that of bare pipe which increases over the affected length (1 1 ~ until full
stJIJnc~-. uf the pipe. Length of pipe over whieh slippage occurs depends potential of the concrete coating is realized. Length of pipe where
on l'lllll'fL'Ie thtckness and strength and maximum bond stress between bonded stiffness of coated pipe is reached is termed lr·
1t <llld mtcr!aetng material. An exprcssion dcvcloped by Wilhoit and Merwin ( 1967) can be used to
StudJL·s hy Mugbu ct .d. (1970) mc<lsured pipe length ovcr whieh estimate dfcctive pipe stiffness:
~lippagL· uccurs. A plut u! the proJuct u! bond stress ¡¡nJ afíccted slippage
kngth v-... L<llll'fL'IL' thickness wcre obtamed for a given concrete crush- K•. rr = (21J K¡ + Kclci!L (4.16)
ing -..tJL'llgth. Where: K1 = O 'i (K,. + K,)
1)LIL' tll tlll" sl1ppmg hchavior, a tkxural-stdfncss d1strdmtion along L ~-- Pipe joint lcngth
thc 1< illlt 1s .l~"llll1L'J, a-; :-.huwn in Ftgurc 4.17. Stiffncss at thc p1pe cnds is K,= EJ" qcd·plpL' stiffncss

li ~hppage occur:; uver thc cnure lt:ngth of the pipe joint, flexura!
stiffne:>s ut the ptpe ¡omt ¡o.,:

Pipe joint K,. 11 o (K. t K,)/2 (4.171

L¡ =(180 · 201,} (t,}
-·L-----·-
Where: K, - thc reJuccd valuc oí pipe stiffncss (K,.) when full potenttal
L¡,in.
oí K, i~ not rcachcd.
te. in. Evaluatiun of K, requirL" an experimental procedure. Howcver, a
coibervative appro.1ch ¡;, tu a-,sumc that full potential of add1tioual
concrl'tl' ,uftneo.,~ b rcachcd JI thc pipe joint midpoint anJ that sttftnt:~s
Assumed stiffness
dismbutwn is that o.,hown 111 ftgure 4.17. Effcctive stifiness of the ptpt: t">
distribution for
thvn:
1¡ < l/2
K,.¡¡ ¡K, , h, · 2 ¡4.1Ki

CPnu:rning :-.tr~·..,,. <tt fidd jumt", to satio.,fy equiltbrium of the p1pc

juint, thc henJing llllii11L'Ilt induccJ in the coatcd section of the pipe
must be baLmccd by .111 cc¡Ut\·,dcnt moment at the t-ielJ jomt.
Assumed stiffness. Smcc tkxural ~ttlfnL''iS ot th~· ticld joint is kss than the effectivL:
distribution for suttncs~ of coatcd ptpc, Slll''->'>L'" are mcreaseJ 111 the 1-ield ¡oint. Elkcts lll
1¡ ~ l/2 pipe wetght and axt<tl tcns1on muq be incluJcJ when calculating thcsc
stresscs.
It the etfccts of tensiun v;nutiun and additional bending duc to pipe
K, = initiol stiffness of the pipe weight alung a ~mglc p1pe ¡mm are neglccted, then, for a given mean
K , = initiol bonded stiffness of cooted pipe
K•11 = effective stiffness of cooted pipe
.
raJius stn:ss irHcns¡ficauon ,tt thc field ¡uint is:

f .~ maximum sncss on the ftckl ¡oint/maximum

4.17 ."ÍtJI/1)('" ,ft,trihutwn :otres.., 111 uutcJ ptpc
(4.1Y)
r ... , ·,>·
r-~:-:
ivu...:l'
'-''1:

lnstallat.on Melhods and AnalySIS 'J~J

Where: ub == jM)jr,/1,)
use == jM)jE,)jr, + a)IK,
M = Maximum bending moment in the pipe

Thercfore, stress-intensification factor for a given mean radius is: Notes:

0.16 L, =(E,l, /q)''' charaeleri•llc length
f = (Krl (r,) 1 (E,I,) (r, + a) 14.20) 1 /
ÉÍ .ce Stiffness;E,I,
To illustrate this analysis, suspended pipe-string configurations were 0.14
u-
r ~!-~~y¿
calculated for severa! pipelines whcre a uniform stiffness was assumed Maumum stres' in 'agt>cnd t hare p1pc J
( /¡ 1
along the pipe string. Variations of pipe displacements vs. bare-pipe
stiffness, bonded-coatcd stiffness, and effectivc stiffness are shown in
0.12t----+----r~--r~ -~~ ~- !! / 1 ~j
~ 1 1 !
¡ ..:: 1
1 1 !. i
Figure4.l7. q; !
Pipe Jisplaccments are dimensionlcss, so that the number of pipe
parameters which need to be considered are reduced. This is done when
div1ding displacements by a pipe characteristic.length (Lcl· Normalized
stiffness is obtaineJ by dividing pipe assumed stiffness by bare-pipe
-:~: ~--~+--- ---!:·· •. 1
......
>-
i .. -:
V1
1
J~~. : l
i . q; 1 1

stiffness. For exampk, bare-pipe normalized stiffness == l.

In each of the three different pipe stiffnesses studied, maximum 0.06 -- -·-, 1 ¡;//¡
intensitied stress in the sagbend has been determined and normalized by i
/ ,.{
div1ding by the maximum sagbend stress for the bare pipe. This nor-
malized stress is shown for each of the calculated pipe configurations in
0.04 i /
.r/i
. 1
fi . ,-:;
fi 1 7.-:;
1
· 1 1R
1 1
/(/
Figure 4.18. When normalized stress equals one, maximum saghcnd 0.02 1---+----+---- - .~,/ j - - - fi ? 4.-:; 1 ti(, l
stress equals that for bare pipe.
Figure 4.18 shows that the maximum sagbend stress in the pipeline is OL---~~~-~---L--~--~-~L----L-~
substantially increascd whcn increased pipe stiffncss due to concrete o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.4 1.6 1.8
coating is consJdered. Furthermore, use of effective stiffnes& yidds less
consavative and more rcalistic stresses than use of the bonded coated
stiffness.
Analysis of this data also shows that increasing pipe tension has
almost no effect on the sagbend bending strcsses for very heavy
pipelines For most applications, a long stinger is needed which would
vmually support thc pipeline to the scabed. This proceJure can be used
to estima te maximum stresses in the pipe string, particular! y at the field 4.227 Dynamic Effects
joints during laying. Effective pipe flexura! stiffncss is evaluatcd on the
bas1s of certain generalized experimental results. Thc previous d1scussions on p1pc-lay analy'dS havc JJdresscd static
If slits are madc along the pipe, effective stiffness of the pipe is analysis of thc pipe string. In rea!Jty, thc pipe stnng cxtcnding from
reduced, and stress intensification at the field joints dccrcases. Thesc tcns10ncr to the scafloor is subJect to Jynamic cxcitations dueto hargc
slits can be maJe by sawing the concrete coating or using jetting motions and to direct hydrodynamic action on thc pipdmc and stmg~r.
nozzlcs. In carly design efforts, it was assumed that a Jc..,Ign factor ol O.HS
(limtting ovcrbcnd stress to HS% of yieldl wuuld he adec¡uatl' to account
tor addit1011al dynam1c stresscs on thc pipe in thc ovcrhend rcg~<Jn. A
more conservative allowance wa~ m;ILk for pipe in thL· ~.~ghcnd regHm
 ¡ liJé IViéll __ _
sincc pipe was not supported thnc. lt is important to lllltl' that thcsc
allowanccs wcrc adcquatc where laying was dunc in calm to rnodcutc
wcathcr conditions.
A more important conscquence of the pipe-string dynarmcs is the
tension variations in the pipe. The barge motions, particularly heavc
motion, can cause significant changes in the pipe tension, L'Speually in
Jecpwatcr applications. This must he carcfully cxamined 111 ,Jcs 1g 11 ol
tensioners for Jeep water or for severe-environmcnt apphc.Itiuns.
The pipe ami barge dynamics may also cause pipe slamming on thc
supports anJ result in coating damage. An adverse effcct l)i hargc and
pipe dynamics often JS damage to thc stinger or the sringcr hnch
Dynamic analysis of thc pipe string is cmnplex, rcquuing computer-
.lided solutions. Computer analyses performed hy the author on sus-
pended prpe spans and floating production risers have shuwn that
dynamrc-tension variations can be as large as duce times the static
tension in decpw.Hcr ;rpplications. These tension variatrons are marnly
caused by motions of the surface-laying vessel.
4.3 Reei-Barge Method
The red-barge mcthod of laying submarine pipclines use, a cuntinu-
ous lcngth of pipe coilcd onto a recl. Assembly of this pipe string is done
onshore, and nondestructive testing is complctcd prior to coiling thc
prpe. Becausenf coiling, no concrete coating can he used and rdatively
heavy w all th1cknesses are required to avoid pipe flattening and, in so me
cases, to provide additional weight for pipe stability on the stabed. This
lllt'thod uf installation is illustrated in Figure 4.1LJ.
Pipe bundles can be installed by a recl barge. The pipes are banded
together as they are loaded on spools at the shore facrlity. The numbcr of
prpcs pcr bundle depends on the reel size and pipe diametcr. If thc bundle
is to be composed of pipe of various diametcrs, it m ay be ncccssary to use
portahle recls and complete banding during thc lay operatron. M u! tiple
reds are not required because of recl limitations hut becausc of
straightcncr limitations.
Two configurations for recl barges are in use: thc vertical red, such as
the Santa Fe Apache, and the horizontally mounted recl, ~uch as the
Santa Fe Chickasaw. Use of the vertical rccl is advantagcous in
deepwater applications, since it can be loaded for discharge irom the top
and not rcqune a stmger. Because of the relativdy large ~;i:=e of pire
wh1ch can be handlcd by the Santa Fe Apache, an adju::.table deck-
mounted ramp is used to control the pipe-entry angle.
•
Insta/la (Ion Methods and Analys1s 1 91
~line
Thruster
11@!17
<4./9 Reef.burge methud
Pipeline 1nstallation is accumph~hcd by uncorlrng and straightening
the pipe as the barge moves forward. l'rpe laymg can takc place at
rclatively high spccds; dynamic positioning can be uscd <lS opposnl tn
multipoint anchor systems.
lnitiation of the pipdme is similar to convcntiunallay-b;~rge tJ¡)cra-
t ions. Offshore support for re el- barge operat ion is gencrally Ir mi tcd to <l
towing vesscl and diving support. The Santa Fe Apache ha::. hecn
dcsigned to allow for seli-drving support.
The capacity of pipe on the recl harge dcpcnds on the red sízc and prpe
diameter. The Santa Fe AptJchc has a capacity of 2,000 ~hort ton uf prpc
(26S,OOO ft ot 4-in. pipe to JO,OOO ft ot 16-in. pipl'i Lay rates ínr reel
barges are about 1 to 2 mi/hr.
The reel method has bccn used cxtensJvcly w rnstall small-dr<lll1ctcr
pipe in relatively shallow water dcpths. A dccp-water installatron te~t
using the Santa Fe Ch1ckasaw barge to !ay ami recuver a IO·in.-dwmctcr
X-·U grade pipe with a O.S-in. WT in 1,000 it uf water was completcd in
197S. A 115-ft stmger lrmrtcd saghcnd streo.,~cs during the Llying opna-
tiun.
Thc purposc of thr~ test w,¡~ twufold: ( 1\ tn tl·st opcrational con-
straints for reel-type J11SLlllatuln in decp water, ami (2\ to determmc
mct<lllurgical dfccts on pipe of rcel installatillll in dcep water. Rcsults uf
thc test program indicatcd that rcelmstallatltl!l in dcep water rs technr-
cally feasible, and it iJentiHed <l potentlal materi.d prublcm in line pipe.
98 Offshor,, p,pcl1ne Des,gn. Analys1s. and Methods
ColJ workmg assoCiatcJ with coilmg and uncoiling anJ suhsequcnt
stram-aging dfcct whcn the pipeline is in scrvice can significantly
rcducL· thc impact rcsist.mce of the pipe. A material specification
requumg extra toughncss of the pipe shoulJ be stated when the reel-lay
mcthod 1s to he uscd. This can be obtained by availahlc pipe-
nunuLtctunng tcchnology such as a higher manganese-to-carhon ratio
lowcring thc sulphur anJ phosphorous content, and modifying thc steeÍ
wtth van;1d1um ;lnd niobJUm.
Thc ll1JII1 advantagL· for a rccl-harge mstallation includc:
• lmprovcd prnduct mn control at onshore facility.
• RcduccJ impact of aJvcrse weather conditions dueto pipe installa-
tton ~rccJ.
• Ahtl1ty w assemhlc anJ coil pipe of various sizes for sequential
installatwn.
• Ability to aso.;cmhk and coil pipe bundles.
Prunarv di-,advantagcs of the rcel-harge installation include:
• Maxunum pipe s1::c limitation of lOto 16-in. diamcter.
• 1kavy wall thlcknc-.~cs rcquireJ íor coiling.
• L1mttcd kngth of pipe which can be reeled on a single reel.
Th1-; may rcquire the use of multiple loadings of the reel, with the
rccovcry and conncct10n to prior-laid segments of pipe. If more than one
rccl I<>ad 1s required, luc1tion of the shore-support facility and the
loadmg and travcl tune hecome important factors in evaluating the reel
method.
4.4 Tow Method
Tow nwtltud" uf pi¡'elinc installation, like the rcel method, offer the
adv;mt<lgc nf p1pe assemhly on shore. Also, towing requircs relatively
small vcssels fur tran;;portation of pipe strings to the installatinn site.
Four tow methods are currcntly hcing developed or have bcen commcr-
cially dcmonstr,ltcd·
• Surt.1cc tow.
• BL·low-surfacc tow
• On- hottnm tow.
• Otf-hottPm tmv
lnstallatlon Methods and Analysis 1 99
The pipe-string assembly is common to all methods and can be done
atan onshore make-up yard or by a la y barge in shallow, protected water.
Tow tests, proving thc kasibility of long-distance tow, have lx:en
demonstrated. In 1975, a :~,2HO-ft string of 16-in. pipe was towed below
the surface for a distancc of 560 miles. Also in 1975, a 2,000-ft string
made up of 16-in. aml 30-in. pipe was bottom-towed about 240 miles.
The tow routc includcd water dcpths in excess of 1,000 ft.
In July 1976, threc scctions of 32-ín. pipeline jFrigg-St. Fergus) were
bottom-towed about S miles and tied into a concrete compressíon
platform standing in 300 ft uf water jthe platform was located about
midway betwcen Frigg Ficld ami St. Fergus). In 1977, two additional
commercial applicatiom of b<Jttom tow wcre completed: a 7,400-ft,
36-in. diamctcr pipdmc was nudl· up at Stavanger, Norway, and towed
236 miles tn conncct thc Cllndcep A platform in the North Sea with a
ncarby loading platform The u 'w ro u te crossed the Norwegian Trcnch
at a dcpth of 1,260 ft
In late 1977, a 3,400-tt :>L'llt<•ll llÍ 10-m. diametcr reserve loading linc
in thc Argyll Fidd complcx wa~ cut and towed along a 15-mile route and
positioncd to opcratc .1s a llowlinc bctwcen two wellhcads. This work
was done in 250-ft water dcpth.
Thc tow force dcpcnd-; lln thc pipe submcrgcd weight, length of towed
segment, and friction charactcn-.tics hetwecn pipe and seabed soils. For
examplc, a 12 in.-di,unctcr tlowline, 5,000 ft long with a submerged
wc1ght of 2::-. lblft, thL· hotlom towcd ovcr clay, would require a bollard
pull of about 25 ton-. A ww vc,-;cl uf ahout !50 hp would be required.
For tow applicu i< Hl., ll'-111.1~ huov ancy, thc required tow powcr dcpends
on severa! variJbk-., -.uclt ;h tow -.pecd, pipe sizc, drag cocfticients, ami
huoy.uu:y system 1lo\\ cVL'I, 11 cm be much lowcr than required for
OOltOlll toW.
4.41 Make-Up Area
Th( sekctton ol thL· llLikc:-up -,ite loc;ltion is gcncrally an impurtJnt
!actor íor p1pc tn.tkc-up. 1:-v,llu;ltl"ll (JI thc surf zonc, thc ncar-shon:
contours, and tllL' dl-,t.tncc t:(,m lw,tch to 20-JO-ft water dcptli are
pnm<HY con:-.ILkut lllil~ tm "'~< ~c-kction. To optimize launching of thc·
pipchnc Írtllll thc lll.tkL· up '>ttc, 20 ~0-tt water depth should be wlthm
J,OOO lt of the :-.hoiL-IItlL'. AftL'I ~L·kctt<lll "f thc si te location, the make-up
are.! s1::c ;mJ cunt i¡.;ur.ttllllll .PI he l.t1d out t( 1 fi t <lVailablc space and work
rcq uncd fur e k a nn.~ .111d ¡.;t.td 111.~
The s1tc layout ~hould lltLilldl' lll.ltLrtal-..,toragc arca, pipe makc-up
 ¡-·~·!f ,.,,,¡ -~•· .e

arca, ptpc-stnng storagc ;nca, and launchway. Typical stnng kngths for
tow applications :nc 1,000 to !),000 ft. Howcver, string lcngths dcpcnd
on av.ttiJok spau.~. Short makc-up strings will increa~e IJunch t11nc
hccau-,c ol the addittunal handling and tic-in wclds m.¡uircd. Pipe
storagc ami stnng make-up is on temporary sleepers. Thc launchway
can he maJe up ot rolkrs, trackcd Jolly units, ora tlotation canal. Figure
4.20 rL prcscnts a typtcal makc-up yard.
!nstalla/10r1 Metflods ancf Anatys1s 1 ¡,
As thc strings are asscmhled, they can he nondestructivcly ami
hydrostatically tested. Aitcr cumpktmg assembly and tcsting of thc
strings, a towing hcad is attached to thc tlrst string and the towing cable
is sccured to the towing vesscl. Running ami standing hold-back ~ys­
tcms are positioned on thc laum:hv,:ay to rcstr;.lin the pipe during tie-in
of successive strings. The tic-in welds are complcted and X-rayed on the
launchway. Buoyancy and chain can be added to the pipe if rcquired.
Ptpc make-up can al so be accumplished on a cotwcn tionallay barge in
prutccted water. The lay bargc would he moorcd and the pipe pullcd off

'~ ~ Road - ~-
--- -~~ Running
in strings or in one continuou~ kngth. Thts technique was used in thc

[!JI hold-back
North Sea to prepare thn.'c 2,SOO-tt ~L·ctions of :n-in. diametcr pipe
whtch wcrc buttom-towcd i11tu poslllllll fm riscr connections to the

r-wl
cü
a.> e ' 1
MCP platform of the Frigg pipeline systcm.

E~
9-2 1 4.42 Types of Tow lnstallations
e
::J
o-- 1 (Q
wm Q)
....
E Cll
4.421 Surface and Below-Surface Tow
~--
1
U)- a.
::J
O a.>
G.>Ql
ceo (Q
u
1
::J
eh
.X
i Surfacc tow, as illustratcd in Figure 4.21, uses puntoons tu support the
pipeline at the water surface. Bdow-~urfacl' tow, illustrated in Figure
Cll
CO'- o >- 4.22, uses tlotation deviccs to suppon thc pipl' strmg bclow significant
=o a: E Cll
Q)+-'
ÜU) oO ~ wave action. Spar buoys are gencrally used to limit the amuunt ot
U)
.L:"
Q) ü surface motion transfcrn:J tu the ptpelmc
~-- 1
Ol
(Q
e
-- .... :J

E j=>
Q) U)
uOl Q)
Hold-back vessel Tow vessel
cm
.... 1 a.
coa
~~~~""'L~r-E.'~"fi!:::~.,EE::==-4.1'I:EF·c=.=I=;:E__ 'ff:=:.S±o==:::: ~~
c(ij
1 ñ:
gOl
....,C
e- 1 Ptpe Cable

Cr~
oOl Standing Tow sled
o_~
.... hold-back
1
--- 421 Sur{ace tow
~ -

~ v--~ Hold-back vessel Tow vessel

~
Shoreline Sparbuoy ~
-~~~---+----- \)-----~- -1)---~ ...
~=~-\_:c.::~±-.::TI~~;:¿;able -~-
.¡ 20 11!w \ITlll\ mukc-u¡J yard Fiotation Ptpe Tow sled
~---------------------------------------------------~
102 Offshore fJ,peline Desrgn, Analysrs. and Mett1ods

lnstallatlon Methods and Analysis 103

In addítíon to the primary tow vesscl, a second vesscl ís usually
needed for control of the floating string in both of the suríace-tow
steel necding special wclding ur heat-treating procedures, as the string
tcchn1ques. This hold-back vessel can generally be smaller than the
conncctions otfshore would not s1gnificantly slow the relative laying
primary-tow vesscl, as it is only required to exert a relatively small
rate. Test applications of this method were successfully completed in
tension force on the string. However, it may be desirable to use two
or evcn thrcc vessels of the same size to provide redundancy during a 1975 and 1977.
The RAT method is an extension of a mcthoJ developedandpatented
long row.
by Gas de France. The method uses floats with variable buoyancy to
The buoyancy uníts are installed as thc pipeline is launchcd from thc
support thc pipe down to the seabcd. The tloats provide the support that
makc-up suc. At the installation site, pipe is lowered by a procedure
would normally be providcd by the stinger and tensioners in a conven-
devcloped for the specific installation. Lowering can be accomplishd
tionallay barge. A small amount of tens10n is required at the surface.
by us1ng a stmger-equippcd lay barge, regulating buoyancy of the pon-
Development tc'>ts, including installation and retrieval of 3,000-ft
toon~, unpkmenting a pull-down procedure with sheaves anchored tu
sections of lO-m. d1ameter line in water depths to 6,000 ft, wcre
the scatllHH, or combining thesc techniques.
succe-.sfully complcted. CommerCJal installatwns using this techniquc
The ;¡Jvantage of surface or near-surface towing is the relatively low
have been completed in 1,000-ft water dcpths in the Mediterranean Sea
horsepllwer req uirement for the tow vessel. The m a in disadvantages are
and for a 10-in.-diameterlme in Lake Gencva in waterdepths to 1,100 ft.
thc susccptibility to surface conditions (somewhat reduced by below-
surface tow), exposure to marine traffic, and the special considerations
r..:quired for lowering thc line, which can include increascd pull-down
4.422 Off-Bottom Tow
loads Jw: tu buoyancy tanks.
A group of French firms, headcd by EPM, developed a procedure for OH-bottom towing 1s an adaptation of the below-~urface technique. It
pipeline mstallat1on known as RAT, Remorquage (towing), Aboutage also rcquires both a primary tow vt:ssd and a '>mall hold-back vesscl.
(tie-inl, Tension. This 1s a combination method whereby a !ay barge is Buoyancy tanks are attached to thc pipe string at specifkd intervals, ami
used to lowcr thc pipe to the seabed, but a surface or near-surface tow is thc tow and hold-back sleds are pusitively buoyant. Lcngths of chain are
used to supply long lengths of pipe to the barge. This method minimizes suspended trom the bunyancy tanks. During thc tow, thc weight of thc
oltshorc work ami also reduces the size and complcxity of the barge. chain raised ntf the seatloor haLmcc'> thc buoyant thrust, and the pipe
Th i-. mcthoJ uses on:-.hmc make-up of pipe strings, surface tuw to the -;tring is suppmted at a prnlett·rml!lcd dcsign hcight off the scatloor.
install.ltum ~itc, ;lnd .1 modified !ay barge for connecting strings and fhis method 1s illustratL·d 111 f¡gurc 4 2.4.
lowcríng the p1pe to thc seatloor. If thc tow mute includcs arca~ whnc latcLli currenh 1mght affcct the
Figure 4.23 1llustratcs this method. Becausc the lay bargc requires qability of thc p1pc, thc kngth ot challl pullcd C\ll thc ~cabed can he
only one wclding '>tatum, it can be of a relativcly small size and capablc lksigned to pr()\•idc .1 -,tabill:::ln~~ f¡,rrc Should tlw tow routc cross
of dyn.1m1c posmonmg. The method is advantageous for p1pelines of

Tow vessel
Hold-back vessel
Tow out

., - Cab~:--------~-----= 2~~------

Pipe Tow cable

Pipe B~o:n~~
~~J~~~wsled
------· . ~~~--------
4.23 RA T mechocl
¡Q JIISII .'SIS,

lnstc~fla/.on Mct!Jods and Analv:;,:; 1 u.

existing p1pelines or other obstructions, the trading tug can huid ten- 1

sion un thc line causing a changc in the string contiguration. Thc

amount ot hold-back tcnsion controls thc addit10nal hcight tu which thc Tow vessel
!me is ra1sed above the sea tloor to reduce sagging. Thc linc will return to
its normal tow1ng contiguration as tcnswn is rckased.
The primary advantagcs of off-bottom towing include:

• Rclatlvcly low horsepower requirements.

• Exposure to other marine traffic is limited to relativdy shallow
water arcas such as the launch zone. . Tow cable
• Exposurc to adverse weather conditions is significantly reduccd.

The llJall1 d1sadvantage of off-hottom tow for deepwatcr installations

ís in the dcsign ami cconomics of thc huoyancy system, both for tow Pipe
operations ;md relcasc/retrieval at the installation sitc. Dccpwater =---
applications may require that buoyancy tanks be partially pressurizcd
4.2S Hottom tlll\'
.md/or dL·signeJ with pressurc-vcssel ratings to avoid collapse.

4.423 Bottom T ow
• Thc long-tcrm <;tability oi thc pipe string rcsting in its tow track.
Bottom tow rcquires certain design consideratwns which Jiffer from Bottom tow docs not rn¡ u i re a lwld- bac k vesse l.
the critcria for thc othcr tow tcchniqucs. This Jifference in dcsign
approach is primarily beca use all but the leading cm! of thc pipe string is Thc main d1sadvamagc~ ot tlus mctlwd ar<:
in constant contact wnh thc sea tloor. Thc two tcchniques for tloat-
suspcnded pipe strings are not critically affecteJ by thc selected tow • Highcr horscpown requnelllL'llh for thc tow vesscl.
route. • Exposure to JamagL· of 1 he J'IJ'L' coatmg.
In bottom-tow design. thc tow route is onc of the basic design factors. • The potential for the plpL' tt' he cau¡.;ht m o;c;lbcd ohstructHllh.
Ro u te cons1derations aftect coating dcsign for abrasion cri teria, stability
during tow, tow vesscl s1ze, and optimum length of towcd segments. As statcd carlier, a numher ot bottom tow instaiL.Jtinns havc bcen
Multiple mute survcys may he required to identify an acccptable towing maJe, demonstrating the lllct!w,l's v1abdJty and advanta¡.;c~ for ccrtJln
corridor. Route surveys anJ installation-site surveys should include a appllcations. Thesc app!Icltl!Jih arl' ecorwm¡c;¡JJy attractive for short
detailed inve~tigation of variations in soil conditions to be encountered, tlmv lincs and in remotL' arc.1o., \\ hL'IL' Ilhih¡J¡z;¡¡ion .md dcmobihzauon
bottom currents, hottom contours, and identification of obstructions costs can be substantial.
withm thc umidor. Route surveys should incluJc the near-shorc and
surf zoncs at proposed make-up si tes in thc samc Jetad as the decpwatcr
corndor. This mcthod 1s illustrated in Figure 4.2S.
The primary advantages of bottom tow ovcr other tow mcthods
in el uJL·:

• M 111 imal exposure to severe wcather conditions.

• Saiety with which the pipe can be abandoned if weather conditions
excced tow·vcssellimits.
 P1pe!Jne Trenching Methods 1 107

trench, dcpth of burial, lowcring dcpth, and Jcpth of covcr. As seen in

this figure, burial depth is differcnt from trenching Jepth.
Pipe trenching may be done using threc lhfferent modes: ( l) pre-

5
trcnching, where a trench is made prior to pipeline installation; (2)
simultaneous trenching, where trenching occurs during the installation
Pipeline Trenching Methods process; and (3) post-trenching, whcrc trenching is done subsequent to
thc pipeline installation. Location of thc pipe touchdown point during
laying may be difficult to control in d~:cp water, makmg it difficult to
position the pipe in a predug trench. Hcnce, pretrcnching is used in
shallow-water applícations, and may also be cmploycd if pipe is pulled
into thc trcnch using cither pull m tow techmqucs for installation.

5.1 General
A pipclmc-trt'nching opcration is dcfincd as thc proccss ol cutting a
trcnch intll which thc pipe scttlcs. Thc trcnch may be hacktilkJ
eventually hy natur,d prncesscs. A pipc-burial operatwn is spmctimcs
ddincd as thc pruce'is of trenching thc pipeline, thcn hacktillíng the
trcnch. B.Jcktill can he hy natural action or by cnginL·L·rnl mechanical
eyu1pmcnt.
In ccrta1n cases, bunal is defined to mean tht' sa!llc a~ trenching.
Unkss othen.visc specit-ically stated, a pipclinc-burial (•pcLltion is Je-
fincd in the same way as pipeline trenching in this hDPk Thc variou'>
trcnch1ng paramctns are ddincd in Figure ').J, including dcpth of
5.2 Factors Affecting Burial Requirements
Scvcrallactnrs are con~iJcrcd tu dc·term in e t hL· hurial rcquircmcnts nf
a ~uhmarine pipeline. Theo.;e fa e tur~ me lude· hydrudynam1c forccs on the
p1pcline during lifetimc; span'i, oh-; t rtlct 1on~, ruck outcroppings, and
houldL·rs which may be cncountc1ed .d<111g thc pipclmc routc; scour
cDnditions; potcntial of fishmg tLI\\ lmtc·rkrcnce \Vith tht: pipeline; aml
potcnt ial of anchor contac t w 1t h t he p1 re !me due w anchor dropping m
dragging.

5.21 Hydrodynamic Effects

Existmg level of seabed- ~- _/_On_g.rin_a_l_s_era-b""e"dr-level An uifshore pipeline 1s dc·<.,¡gnl'll :-,u t h~tl 1t rc·nu 111s stabk on thc scahed
dunng construction whe11 the p1pd1nL· is e111pty. 11 thL· p1pclinc is to
rcm<Hn stabk on the seabeJ during i t:-. 1ikt lllll.', 1t is e ither Jesigned with
Jn adcquatc we1ght to cn~urc ~uhtllty while cxposcd or huried bclow
thc scahcJ. Selection uf the 111tJq tcchnically and cconomically feasiblc
alternative is bascd on a dctadcd ev,du~1t1on of tcchnical, cconomic, and
ri-;k a~pccts associatcd wah cach uf thc altnnatc mcthods.lt is possible
that thc pipeline may he light anJ trenchcd ovcr portions of its length
ami may be dcsigned to bt' ht'avy ovt'r othcr portions of its length.
A = Depth of trench C = Depth of burial Hydrodynamic effccts are usually more extreme in the ncar-shore
B = Lowering depth :one than in the offshorc arca. In many ciSL.'s, thc rcyuired pipeline
D = Depth of cover
concrete coating for stability nc<lf thc shor~: zonc may bccome extreme,
causing complications 111 thc handlmg of thc pipe during construction.
Hcnce, most pipclincs are norrnally trenched hdow the mud line in the
nt:;.n-shore zone.
5.22 Spans and Obstructlons
Wl1<:n the p1pdme spans are cxposed to currcnt flows near thc seabed,
thc p1pc ~pan may vibra te dueto vortex-shedding dfects. Thesc cffccts
cm hL"conH: sevcrc ¡f thc Strouhal jsee Chapter 3) vortcx frcqucncy
bccomcs comparable to thc natural frequency of the pipe span. Hcnce,
p1pclmc ircc spans must be reduced bclow the critica! lcngths to
elimina te or rmnimize thc vortex-shedding effects on the pipe. Usual! y,
spans can be climinatcd or reduced by trenching the pipeline along
cither side of the span.
Ob~truct Ions such as ridgcs and othcr elevatcd roughncss spots on the
seabeJ nuy cxist along the pipeline route. Thcse obstructions may
mduce excessivc bemhng strcsses in thc pipe, thus increasing risks of
damage Ohstructions can be eliminated or minimized by preswecping
opcratHlllS, wherc a widc trcnch is made along the pipeline route prior to
pipeline m~tallation (111 the seabed. If these ridges cause cxcessive
stre'>scs In thc pipe! me during testing or in operation and are not scvcre
enough tu cau-.c high ~trcSSL'S in thc pipe when the pipe is empty, then
thL'sc ndges may he trcnched and minimized after the pipeline has bcen
mstalkd on the seahnl.
Con._,I,kr;lt ilms tur hury mg the pipeline and detem1ination of thc
depth due w thcse spans and obstructions are usually evaluated bascd
on the o.pl.'cdic p;nanwtcrs and route-survey data.
5.23 Soil Strength Deterioration Due to Wave Loading
WhL'thcr a pipelmc 1s resting on the seabeJ or embedded in it, soil
stahdity alung the pipeline routc is examined under st;Jtic conditiuns
and unJcr cyclic-prcssure conditions caused by passage of a sudace
W;lVL' 11 the pipeline ís partially or totally buried, it may f1oat upward or
~ettk downward under storm conditions, depending on th..: pipe weight
¡mcludmg n>IHL'nts), soii density, and undrained shear strcngth of the
~~ lil
Unlkr qclic loaJmgs of the bottom scdiments causcd by passage of a
stmm W;lvc, significant cyclic stresses may develop in clay, gcnerating
Lngc l1lliL" piL'SSllfl'S. A<. a rcsult, the soil strength becomes less than thc
sUtil. und~;IinL·d ..,!war ~trength. In sand, the pore pressure may huild up
tn a prL'~surc cqu;d to thc vertical stress, causing sand liquefaction.
In thl.' IIquL'tinl or remoldcd soil, the pipeline spccinc gravity is
selectL·d '>ll the pipL' dol.'s not tloat upward or sink downward. Thc
P.fJt.''"' TrenUl,fiQ Methods 1 109
hydrudynamic pressun.: which Clll'>L'S ~od-~trL"ngth detnioration near
thc sc,JhcJ Jeerea~cs rapíJiy a~ thc dqHh o! penctrat111n !'> incrcased
helow thc mud !me. In somc cases, the dku of soii IIqudaction on thc
pipeline can he eliminateJ if pipe is buned toa suificicnt depth bclow
the seahcd. Th1s Jepth of huri;ll can he detcrmincd trom thc environ-
mcntal conditions in thc arca and pipeline and sod data.
5.24 Fishing Activitles
In arcas whcre trawling operation.., are active, risks of damage to the
tishing trawl gear and to the pipe! me must he cvaluated; measures must
be takcn to elimmatc these risks or minimize them as muchas possiblc.
Thc modcs of posstble damage depcnd on the t y pe of fishing gcar used
in thc arca and on the posstble exposnl spans along the route. Fishing-
trawl impact on the pipeline may cnisc crack-, in the concrete coat·
ing, dept.:ndmg on the sizc amiimp.lct "PlTd ol the hshmg trawl. lf ex-
po..,cd pipe '>pans are prescnt in thc tishmg ;JT,·as, tlll'n risks exist whcre
thc· ti:-.hlllg tr;lwl may huok thc p1pclme 1):Jmage may he caused
to the lishmg gear orto thc pipeline f l.u:nd-, lliinter:lction hetwecn the
li'>hing gc.H and the pipcllllc can usuallv he alk\'latl'll il the pipeline i~
trc'Jil hed helow the scahed. This trcnching wouiJ not allow t.he pipeline
to h:.. an ohstack
5.25 Anchoring
A <.uhrn:nine pipeline may he ~uhiL'L't to anchor Illtt'Ikrcncc·s when
llbt.dkd in an anchoragc .Hca or ,1cross a la In' ay m thL' event ol
acc1dcnt al ship anc hming during an cmergency.
1~ 1'>ks (1( dam.Igc to the p1pcl int' due w anchor droppmg or Jragging can
he mmimt::c·d if ti1L' pipeline is trenchcd below thc pcnetration depth of
;lJichor-.. The Lkprh ol anchor penetration in a givcn arca depcnds on the
a nc·h, 1r ~ 1::<", ~od charactenstics, and thc hl.'ight from w hich i t is dropped.
ExpcrieiiLL' ll1dtcatl'S that thc pipeline can he protccted from relativcly
small .lllchurs "'lwn buried to <1 certain Jcpth. However, in arcas whcre
Lngl· ;mchoi<; are usc·d or whcre the soil is vny solt, thl' rec¡uired burial
ckpth fm protection can he greatn than I'> ohLiinable by trencl1ing
cqt11pment In sucb ca~es, otlll'r mcthods of pwtcction may have to he
con.,Idered, including ruoutm¡.; thc· lme i11 .I lc~s-hazarduus mute.
 •, .....
110 OttstlorP P1pel1ne Oes1gn, Analys1S, and Methods
Ptpelme Trenching Methods 1 111
5.3 Pipe Trenching Methods

Must cquipmcnt used in trenching submarinc pipclmcs has cmploycd

jetting, sand tluidization, mechanical cutting, or plowing.

5.31 Jetting Method

The 1111>st eommon mcthod for pipe trcnching has bccn tL'ttmg.
However. smcc thc carly use of jctting, littk has bcen done to tmpruvc
the opcration. Sume variations were madc in thc dcsign amltmpkmcn-
tation, whL·re thc nozzle configuration and surface-pumping l'Ljlltpmcnt
have heen moditkd. As ¡ctting opcrations werc advanced tu Jeep watcr
in thc North Sea, contractors increased the size of the support vessds,
strcngth oi thc moonng systems, horsepowcr for the trenchmg upera-
tion, and cxpandcd diving support facilities. Umbilical hoses
Mam ob¡ections to using conventional jetting equipmcnt m Jeep (air, water)
water are thc aJverse dfects of quasi-static and dynamic rcspunscs uf
the umbilical hoses. Dueto friction losses, these hoses willltkdy be Lifting cable
~
"
long anJ bulky, making thcm diflicult to handlc and increa-.mg thc nsks
of damagc to thc ptpc, slcd, or hoses. A typical jet barge is t!lu"tratd in Sled tow cable
Figure 5.2.
Trcnchmg dtioency also is influcnced by effectivcllL'ss ot soJ~­
dtspo->al upcrations. An-suction systems are ineffective in n·m,•ving the
soil 111 Jeep water. This is dueto the increased hydrost<ltic prcssurl',
which, 111 turn, causes thc air volumc to decrease apprcei,tbly .md thus
prondes ... mall soil-litting force on bottom. DetaileJ ;uuly . . ~~ h.tVL
bccn pL·rlormcd to describe the effect of water depth un ~nt!-ltit­
ing capabdities of thc air-suction system. The results are shown in
Figur~ S.J.
Most of thc ¡i:ttmg eqmpment currcntly in use is owned and opcrated
by Brown & Root lnc., J. Ray McDermott, and Santa Fe lnternattOILtl. Pipe
This cquipmcnt has the following range of capabilitics·
12 fct hurg..: ¡/JthCWCJull
• Avadablc power-3,000 to 42,000 hp.
• Pipe-size capability-2 in. to 84 in.
• Watcr-iettmg pressure-600 to 2,500 psi.
• Maximum design operating water depth-600 to 1,000 ft.
• Water flow rate-2,200 to 20,000 gpm. 5.32 Mechanical Cutting
Mech.mical cuttmg ¡-, relativcly new to the otfshore industry.
LanJ anJ Marmc (U.K.) operates an underwater jetting machine
Mec!Lmtc;tl-cutting rqlllpnH'nt prcscntly available is limited, but sev-
where submcrsiblc pumps and motors are mounted on thc machine.
cr.ll comp.mícs rema in active! y cngag~d in Jevdopment. A summary of
the ma)nr L'ljlltpmcnt anJ st:Jtus ts shown in Tahlc S.l
112 Olfst1ore Prpeltne Desrgr1, Analysts and Melhods

Ptpe/•lrr· TreliCflt/1(7 Mett1ods 1 113

5.33 Fluidizatlon Method

Fluidization methods are JesigncJ for noncolw-..i ve suil conditions
where conventional methods havc bccn indlcctivc Thc mcthuJ is most
u effective in sand and slightly cohcsivc scdimcnt'>, ~uch a~ silty clay.
Q)
> Fluidization involves forcing a largc volumc llÍ water into the soil
o surrounding the pipe, thus rcducing thc soil dcnsity anJ allow ing pipe tu
E
Q)
.... settlc in the soil. The main advantagc of tl11s mcthlld 1:-. th;Jt, dunng
fluidization, the pipe is immediately covcrcd wlth <,ami ami full p1pc
o
a. protection is achieved.This method 1s tllu:-.tratl'll in Ftgutc .'14.
Vl

o
Q)

E
:l
o Workmg barge
> witll
Sea surface

Water depth, ft

Table 5.1 Major Underwater Trenching Machines

Ownc1 1Jn11:ncr Hds<' Tl'f't: 1' ropu ls ion

Water flow
Brown '" Ruut f l"u~ton Cuttcrs Tracks
EI'M
Kvannn- M yrcn
h.llll<:

1\:urw.ty
Rot.ll y nlt ter

Rotary cuttcr
Two ~IJr.:ti.tL·k,

1'1pc tr.Jckmg -~--~:;-- ---- --~

t------ ~ ·~ Seabed
Land ;md ManJH: U K. lcttin~ noz::lcs l'ullcd trom ·,
wit 1 unJnwatcr surfacc
pumps
Orcnqcm & Koppel '.L·rmany Rota ry e u t ter Onc s\JL·tr,Jck .md
p1pe trackmg
S.S.O S ILily Twu rut.~ry Pushing agaiJbt Und1sturbed se3bed
Lllltl'T~ pipe
SaipL·m lt.ll y f'uur cuttns Suríacc-tuwcJ
Tcchn(lmarc lt.dy Two cuttcrhcaJs Two trad,, wllh
guidancc arm on pipe

11 A'
i '1• '·
Scwral tests wcrc comluctcd on thc tlUJJizatinn rnct!wJ 111 l Y6Y.
Sincc thcn, the mcthod has heen tricd with littk sucCl'!>~ 111 the Dutch
sect<n oi the North Sea. The main disadvantage of the method JS that it
is clkcnve only in sanJy soils, anJ considerable variatJons in soil type
are normally encountercJ a long a pipe ro u te. Al so, fluidizing cq uipment
is Llrge and hulky ami req uires large vol u mes of water. Hose- handlmg
compl1cations are mcvJtahlc during operation.
5.34 Plowing Method
Suhmarinc trenching plows have hccn uscd to cut a trcnch Jil shallow
w.lter~ ;md 111 rivcr cwssings. Three Jifterent modcs of plowing cxist:
• Prcplll\·VIng, whL·rc a trcnch is cut in which the pipclim· 1s Lltcr
in-.talkd This mcthod has becn uscd to cut a trench in !JO-m w.l!cr
dcpth Íor a .ló-111. pipeline which was thcn installeJ hv thc bottom-
tow method. Prcplowing is oftcn teasihle for pipelinL·s tn be 111-
'it.dkd by bottom pul! or by bottom-tow methods.
Tl11s method 1s not favored for laying and plowing pipe 111 Jeep
watn, since it is difficult to control thc position uf the pipe
touchdown point in Jeep water. Also, the trench will ha veto rema in
opcn until pipe is placcJ in it. In sorne cases, bottom currents may
cause material to fall hack into the trench bdore the pipe ts lowcred
1nw the rrench.
• Sunultancous plowing, where a trench is madc in a wmbined
opcration with pipe installation. This techniquc has becn u<>ed w1th
lay-barge installations in shallow-water depths whcrc a plow was
attached to thc end of a stinger which extended to the scabcd. Thts
method ts effective only in relativcly shallow-water applications
sincc the stinger extends to the scabed.
• Postplowmg, where the trench is cut in a separatc opcration aftcr
ptpc has becn installcd at thc seabcd. This tcchniquc can he used
with any of thc pipe-lay methods. Thc mcthod was uscJ lor plowmg
a p1pel in e using a draw barge to draw thc plow. The m a in advantagcs
of postpluwmgarc that 1t can he uscd in dcepwater appl1cations, has
vny high production rate, and can quickly protect the pipeline aftl:r
mstallanon. Can·ful Jesign and instrumentation arc necdcd to
mmtmtzc· thc poss1bility of damagc to the pipeline dunng plowing.
,..
Pl(lelme Trenchmg Methods 1 115
5.4 Technlcal Evaluatlons and Llmltations
As discussed earlier, severa) mcthoJs cxi~t for trcnching offshorc
pipe! mes, including jetting, mechamcal cuttmg, fluidization, and plow-
ing. Efficicncy of a trenching mcthud depends on many factors, includ-
ing suil typc, pipe size and weight, water dcpth, production ratc, sea
state, trench stability, soil Jisposal, ;md powcr comumpuon.
5.41 Soil Parameters
~o¡) paramctcrs are mo~t impurtant m mfluL·ncing thc pcrfmmance of
a trL·nching operation. Thesc p;trameter'> mcludc soil dcnstty, water
cnntcnt, shear strcngth, scnsitivlty, piJsticity index, friction anglc,
granular distribution, and pcrmcahJ!Jty SumL· uf thesc p;Hamcters are
mure cntic.d tlun others, and a \'<HLition ol <me s<1il par.tmctcr may
rcsult in ;l varianon of the othcr ~()ti par.unctcrs.
For cxamplc, the undrained shc·ar qrcngth dccrcascs as thc watcr
contL·nt is incrcascd, and trenching m.tchines gvnerally are more
dfictcnt in cutting soil with rclativcly l11gh watcr contents. Stahility of
tlw trcnch may be reduced when the <,()(] contains high moisturc. A
quantttative Jcscription ot trenchmg 1'> Jitticult tu makc scparatdy in
tcnn~ ot cach soll paramcter hccause the paramcters are interrelated.
Thm a cla~sificatwn of trenchmg dfiucncy ~~ usually madc bascd on
gcnn.di:cd suíl typcs. Thc trenching r.ttc rcdules suhstanually at very
lllgh soil shear strengths.
Anothcr 1mportant cons1dcration of pipL· trenching is the backfillmg
uf ptpc aftn tt has becn trencheJ and the rate at which backtilling
occurs. During the natural haekHII mcchanisrn, sod is stirreJ up then
~u<-.pcndnl by high-vdocity currcnts Llll!>l'd by waves and tidcs. This
vdouty i~ known as cro~ion vclucity, and cxpenincnts rct.ults are
;tV<liLthk hl determine thc lowcr IInttt of such velucttles for diftercnt
gram ~1zc~ a~ ~hm~·n in Figure 3.27.
5.42 Water Depth
The cffinency of a trenching opcr;ltton is greatly affcctcd by water
dcpth. Smcc diver assistance is nceded in most cases, watcr-dcpth
capahilttil'S are intluenccd by diver limttations. To date, most Jiving
oper,u íons ha ve hccn maJe in water dqHhs up tu 1HU m. Working di ves
 Offshure r'1pelme ues1gn, 1-1na1ysis. ano Methods

have bccn made to greater depths and may extend the water-depth
capabilitics to 500 m.
Conventional jetting operations are further limited by water depth
dueto friction losses in the umbilical hoses. If compressed air is used to
remove soil from the trench, then the effectiveness of this air-suction
operation is dramatically reduced in deep water. Friction los ses depend
on the hose size, flow rate, and the friction characteristics of the inner
surface of the hose. For a steady, fully developed, incompressible flow in
a hose without external-energy transfer, the head loss in thc umbilical
hose owing to friction m ay be represented by the Darcy· Wcisbach
equation:
h= f - -
u~
2gD
15.11
Whcre: h = Head loss per unit length, ft/ft
f = Flow·resistance coefficient (f-factor)
U =Average flow velocity, ft/sec
O = lnner diameter of hose, ft
g = Gravity acceleration "" 32.2 ftlsec~ .
Pipeline Trenching Methods 1 117
Effect of the pipe submerged weight on trenching is significant in
determining the efficiency of the trenching operation. Experience .has
shown that the number of passes required to trench pipe to a desued
depth increases if the pipeline is flooded. The limiting c?terion. m
increasing the pipe weight, however, is the induced stresses mthe p1pe
during ttenching. These stresses depend on the pipe parameters and the
trenching depth per pass. . . . _
A typical pipe configuration during trenchmg 1s shown m F1~re S.S.
Computer analyses were performed to predict pipe configurati9n and
stresses during trenching. Plots depicting variations of induced stresses
versus the pipe submerged we igh t, pi pe stiffness and trenching depth are
also shown in figure S.S.
-1 2o
-'IJ
i 15

i 107
!:1 1 o
The resistance coefficient is obtained from experimental meas- 05
urements and depends on the Reynolds number for a laminar tlow. 1t is a
function of both the Reynolds number and the hosc-roughness
codficient for a turbulent flow. Severa} other empírica) formulas are
PIPE CONFIGURATION DURING TRENCHING

16
°o~-~z..,.z""36=-.L--!-s-~e:-h~10
O•mcns10nless Trench OepthL tOO
':.··>:." 40 INDUCE O LOWl A SPANS OUfliNG TRENCHING
available in the literature for evaluating the friction-lnduced head Joss
in a pipe. . 1 JO
~- ..J
20

An examination of the above formula reveals that head losses during

pipe ietting for deepwater applications may beco me significant and may
require an increase in the size of the umbilicals to offset thesc losses. As
1~ ~
9!
a result, the umbilical hoses become bulky, difficult to handlc, expcn.

~ ~
~
s1~e, and more sensitive to surface and subsurface currents. Jetting sleds
10 e
~ OL-~L--L-~~:--~
~ o 2 4 6 78 ~ 10
w~th un?crwater pumps placed on the sled have becn developcd, o.men.....- Trench :epth 100
o~men'i.tOnless Trench Deplh Le 100
MAXIMUM PIPE STRESliES DURING TRlNCH1"1G
ehmmatmg thc need tor the umbilicals, except for power and signa) INOUCfO UPPc R SPANS OURING TRENCHING

transmission. In that case, the jetting operation is virtually unaffcctcd NOTES EXAMPLE

by water depths. e . Pipe Outer Sleel RadtUS P1pe 32 111 OD )1 O 75 10 WT

Ptpe Sut>mergcd We•ght 1JO kg/m 87 lbth

E . ElastJC Modutes
Trufl\.. h Opplh ?m 6 56 tt
1 .. Ben<Mg Momenl ol In•("'~ l )' ,
~
L 85 m :?.78 f1
5.43 Pipe Size and Welght L Ch•ractensiiC Length W
992.024 ~N/m 1 143 772 pSi
W Pope Un~ Weoghl
EC
In convcntional trenching operations, soil must be removed, allowing - Charactenshc Struss L. L. 91 m

L. 7() m
pipe to settle into the ditch. The amount of soil to be removed increascs
1 48.800 kN/m' 2 1 565 Pll
substantially for a largc·diameter pipe.
¡__------------·--·---------------'
S.S Pipe bending durill,\! tn·nclun.<:
 5.44 Productlon Rate
The production rate of a trenching operation may be identified by the
mass of soillx:ing removed during trenching or by the rate of advancc
and trcnch dcpth of the trenching machine. In general, the trench depth
depends on the speed of the trenching machinc. For example, for a fixed
horsepower, the depth of a trench made using a jctting sh:J decrcascs
when the advance specd of thc slcd is increascd. In contrast, a very high
towing speed of the sled will reduce the time during which a given
length of pipe will rcmain unsupponed in the trench; thus silting of
jetted trcnch willlx: substantially rcduced. Optimum specds of trench·
ing can be sclccted based on model studies and experience records for
the specific equipment.
5.45 S.. State
Diving support often is needed during the start of trenching or on
occasions during the trenching operation. Diving operations are sup-
poned and monitored from the surface and thus are generally influenced
by sea states. Conventional jetting is further influcnce.J by sea states
dueto suspended water and air hoses, which, in turn, are sensitive to
currents and surface-vessel motions. Underwater treqching machines
are much less vulnerable to weather conditions.
5.46 Trench StabUity
Trench stability is determined by the type of soils being trcnched.
When trenching clayey soils, a trench with almost vertical sides can be
produced. However, trcnching in sandy soils often produces trenches
with very shallow inclinations. Also the depth of the trench which can
be achieved befare cave· in is greatcr in clay than in sand.
5.47 Spoil Diapoaal
Aftcr a trench has been cut, soil must be removed, allowing the
pipeline to settle into the trench. This is generally accomplisheJ using
one or a combination of methods as shown in Figure 5.6. In the
ejector-suction method, water is driven from the surface into the ejector
tube. The difference in pressu!e causes soil to be lifted and ejected from
P1pelme Trenching Methods 1 119
Compressed
/
-
water
Air-lift principie Ejector principie Mechanical pump
: /, Spoil removal principies
~-rÁ: trench. In the air-lift system, compressed air is forced into an
•>-:i uctor tu be on the bottom. Variation of density in the tu be causes a net
.·;·ward force where soil is liftcd and disposed at the sides of thc trench.
~-S Conceptual Evaluatlon
An cvaluation of trenching methods may lx: intlucnced by the specific
../,uipment used. For examplc, both a conventional jet sled with the
, ~¡me movers on the surface and underwater jetting machines. with the
~nmc movers mounted on the machinc use the same JCtting principie in
:: !Jtting soils. However, basic differences can be identified ~tween the
• ·fio types of equipment, which include the power requirements, sea·
•. tate dependence, and handling. In selecting an optimum metho.J of
r f(:nchill& various equipment is examined and performance parameters
, ,f the basic required equipment for a trenching method are compared
:.nd evaluated. In all cases, the desired performance requirements of a
1 rcnching operation are identified prior to evaluating the difieren~
, rcnching methods and basic equipment.
Parameters that are characteristic of the mcthod of trenching havc
¡,ccn identified, and trenching methods have been e?'amined versus
rhcse parameters, as shown in Table 5.2 As sccn from this table, nQ,
.,mgle trenching method is founJ which rates well against all of the
1 rcnching-pcrformance parameters describcd. For example, the fluidiza·
 Table 52 Conceptual evaluatlon of Trenching Methods Pipeline Trenching Methods 1 121

New ly develope4 systems with pumps and prime movers moWlted on

the trenchíng sled ~e more technically advanced than couven~ional
water-drive systems. Experience with these new developinents ~s be~
poor, primarily due to debugging problems commonly enoountered;
------ ~···--,- --- -·-- -------
with new systems. After these difficulties are alleviated and proper
Sandy bottom + + Efft:c t 1 ve operating procedures are established, these systems should offer more
- Not dfc:c11vc: potential for trenching in deeper water than conventional jetting
Clayc:y bottom + + + + + Effcltivc: equipment.
- Not cffcctive
-- . --- --~ --------~-------·--------~---~ ---------~ __ __... ______ ---------
Surfacc + + + + Dcpendem
d\.'p\.·nJcnn· - Vcry dcpcnJcnt 5.6 Trenchlng Regulatlona and Experlencea
C\lrrent + + Slight effect
effccts Numerous submarine pipelines around the world ha ve been trenched
- Great cffect
below the seabed to protect them from various hazards. Questions of
Dcploymcnt
whether the pipe should be trenched and to what trenching depths are
proccJurc: + + Lcss d1fficult
lowcring and becoming increasingly important, due to the increased trenching costs
- Diilicult
lahmg in deep water and the limited capabilities of conventional trenching
- - - - - -- - -- -~------ ------- cquipment in such water depths. Where regulations do not specifically
Cost + + + ·Less costly rcquire pipe trenching, an operator usually trenches the pipeline when
- Cpstly
convinced that such trenching elimina tes or minimizes risks of damagc
Water depth + + + fkcp to the pipe. In sorne cases, operators have persuaded the regulatory
- Shallow authorities to relax their burial rcquircments, based on technical con-
Past c:xpcricncc + + + + Expcncncc clusions showing that burial would not provide a significant improve-
- No cxpcricncc mcnt in reducing the risk of damage to thc pipe_
Rcquunl Thc ultimate decision of whethcr to trench the pipeline, dctermining
devclopmen t &. + + + No dcvdopmcnt trcnching dcpth, and the most sui table mcthod to accomplish trenching
test in~ - Dcvclopmcnt can only be made bascd on evaluating specific hazards existing in thc
Power dcmand + + + Low dcmanJ arca and whethcr risks of damage dueto these hazards can be minimizcd
-~---~--------~-
- High Jcm;md or eliminated through pipe trench-in.
Production rate + + + + + t t High
The main objective of regulatory authoritíes in requiring offshore
- Low pipeline trcnching is to minimize risks of damage to the pipe by thc
--- ------- -------- -------
Forccs on
-----~------
various hazards and to maintain the integrity of the pipeline as well as
+ + Small
pipe - Largc othcr installations in the arca.
Government regulations for offshore pipelincs cover a wide range of
arcas, including survey, design, material specifications, construction,
operation, inspections, maintenance, repairs, start-up and shut-down,
tion method rates excellent for trenching pipelines in sand but rates lcaks and spills, and burial of the pipeline. The most dcvelopcd of thcse
poorly for trenching iP clay. Therefore, the best method for a buria! regulatio¡1s cover offshore pipclines and installations in the North Sea,
project must be sclected based on the specific requirement and parame- thc Gulf of Mcxico, offshore Japan, and offshore Australia.
ters of the project. Although pipelines have been buried to restrain pipe movement duc
¡ to thermal cxpansion, historically the reasons for pipeline burial have
bccn to eliminate, or at least minimize, risks of damage duc to local
 tl lf -·;,;r···

hazards. Hence, trenching requirements differ between the various Pipeline Trenching Methods 1 123
areas of the world, depending on the most common hazards encountered
in each area, as shown in Table 5.3. Most of the offshore pipelíne-burial O«shore Pipeline Burlal Requlrements Contlnued
operations have been performed in the Nonh Sea and in the Gulf of
Mexico, as most offshore pipelines have been installed in these arcas. County/Agency Applicahle code Ret¡uirements
The North Sea presents a more hostile environment' and severe wave -----------·~--- --------------- ·------------.
conditions than the Gulf of Mexico, and advanced developments for • buluauy Recom- Det norskc "The pipeline is to be supportcd,
offshore pipeline burial have typically been made for pipelines in the mended Practice Ve ritas anchored or huried in such a way that
IDnV), 1976 under the a~sumed conditiona it will
North Sea. ,,¡ not movc from u-installed p06ition,
apart from movc:ment corresponding
to permissiblc deformation, thcrmal
Table 5.3 Offshore Pipeline Burlal Requlrementa expansion, and limited amount of aet-
tlement aftcr anstallation."
4. NETHERLANDS
App/icab/e • Inspector General Submarine Rcquircmcnts for burial in shipping
Countryl Agency eo de Requirements
- .. ___ --
- -·~---~

---------------- --
of Mines Pipelincs lor lancs or fi~hmg arcas to insure
l. UNITED STA TES Transpon of safcty_
• Dcpartment of 49 CFR 192 Pipeline to be buried below natural Gas, 1976
Transportation 4\1 CFR 195 bottom
------- ---· -------
S. JAPAN
IDOT)-Office Pipe- Standard lor General ~Uidl'lincs provided for safety
• Ocean Develop-
line Safety Opera-
mem Safety Salety Conccrn- and r•rclinc stabilny. However, past
tions jOPSO)
Division ing oi 1 and na- cxpcricncc has shown that severt
• Dcpanment of In- tural gas dL·vc 1- burial requircmcms and possiblc back-
terior IDOI)-U.S. OCS Order 9 opment, Part 2, fill can be imposcJ for pipclines cross-
No spedfic rcquiremcnt.
Ceological Survey Volumc 3 mg arca~ of fishing activities.
(USGS)
6. AUSTRALIA
-Bureau of Land Dralt-Australi- No spccihc requircment for burial. Scc-
• Standards Assocí·
Management (BLM) -U CFR 2883 Pipeline must be buri,cd to 3 h. below ation of Australia an StanJ~rd twn S.7--Bmying statcs: "The location of
the natural seabed out to a water depth Rules lor Sub- of undcrwatcr obsuuct10ns intcrliCC:t-
of 200 h. 1 marine l'•pc- ing thc Jitch routc should be deter-
--~--------- - ----~------
linc·s, 1974 mincd in advancc of construetion ac-
l. UNITED KINGDOM
• Oepartment of Petrolcum General guidelines for pipe protection_ tiVIIIcs to prcvem damage to such struc-
Energy (DOE) Pipeline turL·~- A dtvn or tclcvisiOJl im;pection
"The Secrctary of Stat.c rnay by regula-
Safety Codc shall he madl' of the ditch ahcad of lay-
tion make such provi,iQns as he consid-
1974 ers appropriate for the purpose of se- ing opcratinns to insurr that the•spec-
IIH:auons arl' met_"
curing the proper conatruction and prcp-
Submarinc aration in safety oper~tion ol pipelines
Pipeline Ac: t, preventing damage to pipelines and se-
1975 curing the safety, health ami welfare of
per!IOnS engaged on pipeline works . __ , The reprcsentative codes, regulations, and practices discussed here
3-.-Noliw--;:v___ --- ---- ---------- --------------
illustrate the various trenching requircments and practices by'different
• Ministry of Peuokum Norwegian "To the extent reasonable, pipelincs
and Energy Petroleum authorities in the world, including the USA, the United CKingdom,_
shall be protected by bu.rial or by other
Directorate means to avoid mechanical damage Norway, the Netherlands, Japan, and Australia. ' · ·
t.#.
jNPDI, Royal causcd by othcr activities along thc
,¡

Decrees, 1976 route, including fiahin¡ and huming.

llhipping, and exploration ol submarine
natural resou.rces. Moreover, the pipe-
linea shall be installcd so as not to
damagc fillhin¡ sear."
5.61 Gulf of Mexlco (USA) ,-,
The Departmcnt of Transportation (DOT~and the Depart"'eqt of the
Interior (001) regulatc ofíshore pipclines installed on the Outer Conti-
nental Shelf (OCS) in the USA. Al so, industry-accepted standards exist
 ) A-· '
for offshorc pipeline installation and operatiuns. Thcse includc thc
American Pctroleum Institute (API) and thc American National Stand-
ards Institute (ANSI) standards_ The Bureau uf Land Managt·mcnt (BLM)
and thc United States eeulogical Survcy (USes¡ of the Dcpartmcnt of
Interior have outlined specific requircments for burial of underwatcr
pipelincs on the Outer Continental Shelf in the eulf of Mcxico.
1
1 As stated in thc Codc uf Federal Regulations (43-CFR 2883), thc BLM
i oversces otfshore pipelines with respect to routes anJ thcir cnvironmen-
1 tal impact. Thc USeS oversees flowlincs or gathcring lincs within the
confines of a single lease or group of contiguous !cases undcr'unitizcd
1
operation ora single opcrator. Thc USeS focuses on tcchnical aspccts of
1
1
the pipeline dcsign, installation, maintenance, and opcration in accord-
ance with appropriate safcty rcgulations and standards. According to thc
codc, an applicant for the construction of an offshorc pipeline must
agrce to thc following:
• P1peline burial toa mínimum of 3ft hclow thc occan t1tlor out toa
water depth of 200ft. Any deviation must be justified at the time of
application.
• Burial of all val ves and taps at any watcrdcpth toa minunum of
l ft coverage. (3 ft rcquircd by uses¡
Thc uses burial rcquircmcnts fur gathcring lincs in thc Culf of
Mcxico state that the apphcant must agrcc to thc follow mg:
• Thc opinion of the Culf of Mcxico·OCS Arca Officc of thc USeS
wit h regard to pipcl in e hurial is that 1in es K-'/" in. in d 1amcter and
smallcr, installed in :ncas believed to be prunL tu sclf·huri.d, do not
need to be buried at thc time of installatwn. The oil and gas
supervisor may rcquirc a trawl test m divcr survcy if he questions
the hottom soil's ability to allow thc pipeline to sclf·hury or sus-
pects that intcrfercnce with trawling is poss1blc.
• Burial tn a dcpth of 3 ft of covcr in watn dcpths out tu 200 ft is
rcquncd of all pipclines grcater than 8-'·;~ in. in diamcter unless thcy
are located in pipeline congested arcas or in closc proximity to
platforms.
• Taps and val ves are considcrcd a serious potential threat to trawlmg
operators and shall be provided with 3ft of cover in any water d~pth.
The uses OCS Order 9 provides the approval proccdures for
p1pclincs in the Outcr Continental Shelf in the Pacific Arca. This order
P1peline Trenching Methods 1 125
includes no specific rcquirements for burial of offsh?re pipelines. Any
special requirements would be studied and determmed on a case-by-
case basis at the time of apphcatton. . .
The main reason for burial requirements is to protec~ the ptpelme. as
well as shrimp trawls from possible damage by preventmg the ptpe~e
from becoming an obstacle to the trawlin~ ge~r. However, ano er
important reason for burial is to protect pipelmes m shallo~ ~ater from
large hydrodynamic forces occurring in severe-storm condttlons, prev-
alent in the eulf of Mexico. .
When Iarge hydrodynamic forces are expected to extst near the seabed
and thc pipeline is not buried, the pipeline w!ll have to be destgned wtth
Iarge submergcd weight to ensure pipcli~e stab!l~ty. Thts ma~ cause the
pipeline to be excessively heavy and dlfficult to mstall, thus mcreasmg
the costs of pipeline installatton. . . . _
Virtually all pipclines installed wnhm the 200-ft water depth con
tours in the eulf of Mexicn are buricd to .1ft depth as requued. The only
cxccptions are for small-diamctcr tlowlincs. Sorne p1pelmes lil the
vicinity of offshore platforms are buricd to protect them from small-
boat anchor damagc and from constructwn debns.
5.62 North Sea
Submarine pipelines mstalled in thc North Sea !uve becn subject to
vanous rcgulations, depending on thc specific ins.tallatwn locat1o~ and
parameters. A summary of trenching rcgulatlOns IS shown 111 Tablc s._3,
including those by the Unitcd Kingdum, Noway, and the Netherlands.
5.621 United Kingdom
Thc main regulations govcrning offshore pipeline installation and
burial ¡11 thc Unitl'd Kingdom are drawn by thc Department of Energy
IDOE) of the United Kingdom. Two codes govem offshore ptpehne
burial: the Petroleum Pipeline Safety Code (1974) and the ~ubmanne
Pipeline Act (1979). These rcgulations include spectfic b~n~l consl~­
erations for depth of cover in tcrms of seabed-Ievel vanatwn.s, sus-
pended spans, scour, and the restraining pipe mo~e~ents .. Ptpelme
backfill, inspection, and survey requtrements for addtttonal ptpe safety
are also considercd.
r ~... ?E , lC nt .a )(
- ' 1
5.622 Norway
The Ministry of Petroleum and Energy has issued the Norwegian
Petroleum Directorate (NPD) Royal Decree (1976) which covers the
requirements for offshore pipeline burial. The main emphasis in this
decree is on protection of the pipeline from fishing trawls and anchors in
the arca, and on protection of the fishing trawls from damage by thc
pipeline. In addition to this regulation, Det norske Veritas (Dn V) has
issued an industry standard which governs the dcsign, construction, and
inspection of submarine pipelines and risers, "Rules for thc Design,
Construction, and Inspection of Submarine Pipelines and Risers."
With reference to offshore-pipeline burial, these rules state that thc
pipeline must be supported or buricd in such a way that it will not be
displaced from the as-installed position. No spccific burial reyuircmcnt
is otherwise stated.
5.623 The Netherlands
The government authority which controls pipelines for the transpnr-
tation of oil and gas is the State Directorate of Mines. Requirements tor
offshore pipeline burial are stated in the code, "Submarine Pipdines for
Transport of Gas," issued by the Inspector General of Mines. This code
states the following:
"Pipelines in or along shipping lancs or passing fishing gmunds )uve
to be provided with enough soil cover. The thickncss of the cuvcr )ayer
has to be determined and maintained such that:
la) The pipeline may not be uncovered due to changes in ~cabotwm
level.
lb) The pipeline may not become an obstacle for and not damagcd by
fishing activities.
(e) Damage of the pipeline by shipping activities is preventcd as m ueh
as possible."
During the early North Sea pipeline installations in the late l960s,
burial rcquirements were severe (10-ft cover) for pipelincs crossing
anchorage arcas so that they would be protected from dragging anchors.
However, it soon became clear that such burial depths wcre not within
thc capabilities of burial equipment.
A dctailed study of the burial requirements and c4uipment perform-
ance was la ter made by the U.K. authorities and others. In the case of the
36-in. Flags gas pipeline (connects the Brent Ficld in the U. K. Sector to
P1petme Trenching Methods 1 127
St. Fergus, Scotlandl, a detailed stuJy for protection of the pipeline
against anchors and fishing gear reponed that the pipeline could be
protected from anchors by increasing the concretc-coating thickness
and greatly stiffening the pipeline.
Another example of a pipeline trcnching experience in the North Sea
is the 36-in. Ekofisk-Emden gas pipeline operated by Phillips Petroleum
Co. The pipe is about 270 miles long. Maximum water depth along the
route is 255 ft. The pipeline required burial to protect it from adverse
hydrodynamic forces near the seabed and to eliminate ridges or spans
along the pipeline route. Exposed spans could cause instability of the
pipeline if vortex-shedding effccts were induced by bottom currents.
A portion of the pipeline crossed the Danish sector of the North Sea,
and authorities required that spans which remained alter the pipe was
trenched should be eliminated. As a result, Phillips undertook an
extensive program of sandbagging sorne portions and mechanically
backfilling other ponions of the pipeline. Backfilling was done by a
surface vessel. Excavated material from shore was loaded on the vesscl
then transponed to the desired arca abo ve the pipeline. Backfill material
was then fed from hoppers into a Jrop-pipc, which descended toa short
distance above the pipeline.
Sophisticated navigation e4uipme11t wa'i used to cnsure that the
backfill was discharged ovcr thc trench The average cost of trenching
was $500,000/mile, whcrcas the coq of sandbagging was $2.5 mil-
lion/milc and the cost of backlilllJig w.1c. ~.1 mdlion/mile.
5.63 Japan
The Ocean Development Safcty l>Jv1swn has issued a report, "Stand-
ard for Safety Concerning Oil ami Natural Gas Development in the
Continental Shelf Production," December 1974, which in part is con-
cerned with offshore pipelincs to be installed offshore Japan. Safety
considerations are discusscd for pipeline design, installation, and in-
spections. Based on experience, severa! burial requirements may be
imposed on pipelines crossing fishing areas to prevent damage to pipe
and fishing trawls.
The major submarine pipelines wh1ch have been buried in Japan
include the Tokyo Bay gas pipeline and the AGA-OKI pipeline. Strin-
gent burial requircments wcrc imposeJ as a result of demands made by
the Japanese Fisherman's Union. The main argument for thcse burial
requiremcnts was to ensure that fishing gear would not be damagcd by
2[ -~ 111( ~·1, 1
-·· ,Q(
contact with thc pipeline on the seabed. Other rcasons for burial
includcd stahilization of thc pipeline against typhoon currcnts and
protcction from anchoring activities.
Thc Tokyo Bay pipeline was required to be buried toa 16-ft dcpth, but
only 10 ft of lowering was finally achieved. Similarly, the AGA-OKI
pipeline was huricJ to ahout an 8-ft depth. In addition, thc AGA-OKI
pipeline must be backfillcd and the sea bottom restored to its "natural
lcvcl" to dunin;ltc possihlc damagc to trawling gcar.
5.64 Australia
Thc Standards Assnc1atiun of Australia, incorporatcd by Royal Char-
tcr, ¡ssucd a draft repon uf Australian Standard Rules for Submarine
P1pclincs which may he installed offshorc Australia.
Thi~ rcport considcrs thc safety requirements, induding matcrials,
pipdinc Jcsign, wdding, construction, inspection and testing, opcra-
tion ami maintcnancc, ;md corrosion aspccts.
Secuon S7 of rhis standard addresses pipeline burial and states that
"the locatlon of undcrwatcr obstrucrions intersecting thc ditch routc
shall be dctcnnincd in advance of construction activities w prevent
damagc to such structurcs_ A Jiver or tdevision inspection shall he
madc of rhc dnch ahcad ol laying operations to insure that the specifica-
rions are mct. The onshore purtion of any submarine pipeline shall he
huried in accordaucc with rhc requiremcnts of the appropriate SAA Gas
or Liqucd l'crrnkum Pipdllle Code."
5.7 Comments on Regulations and Experiences
The main parameters and highlights of trenching experiences for
ma¡or submarine pipelincs in the world are given in Table 5.4. These
pipelincs include the Ekofisk-Teeside pipeline in the North Sea (N.S.).
the Ninian-Shetland Islands pipeline (N.S.), the Statfjordpipeline (N.S.),
thc Tokyo Bay pipeline (Japan), the AGA-OKI pipeline (Japan), the High
Island offshore pipeline system (Gulf of Mexico), and the Ekofisk-
Emden pipeline (N.S.).
In all of the offshore pipeline burial applications, the main emphasis
has becn on safcty and minimizing risks of damage to the pipe and other
objects in the arca. Experience has shown that the regulatory authorities
werc, in sorne instances, flexible in applying burial requirements if
sufficient technical justification was presented to demonstratc that
Pipe/me Trenching Methods 1 129
safety of the pipeline could be maintained without burial or with a
reduced burial depth.
The Flags gas line in the North Sea is an exccllent example of this. As
discussed earlier, Shell Expro conducted studies of various altematives
for pipeline protection from fishing-gear interaction and hydrodynamic
forces. Shell reported that increased pipe concrete-coating thickness
without burial would provide adequate protection over considerable
portions of the route. Based on the results of the study, the various
Scottish and British fishing and regulatory organizations approved the
plan to obviate unnecessary trcnching along the entire pipeline route.
Nearly all of the Gulf of Mexico pipelines have been buried toa 3-ft
Jcpth out to a 200-ft water-depth contour in compliance with the
requirements of the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) of the Depart-
ment of Interior. Sorne operators have also authorized the trenching
contractor to provide a single pass of the trenching equipment over
pipclines installed in water depths beyond the 200-ft depth contour.
This practice provides additional hydrodynamic stability to the pipeline·
for res1sting storm-induced hydrodynamic forces. If the trenching bargc
is alrcady on location, the cost of making an additional pass over the
pipeline portian in water deeper than 200ft would be minimal, on the
order of $50,000/mile.
Stnct Gulfof Mexico pipelinc-burial requiremcnts may sometimes be
modified, as shown in the case of a group of gas-transmission companics
planning installation of a 42-in. main transmission line in the High
Island arca, crossing an anchorage arca and safcty fairway. Regulatory
authorities at first required that thc pipeline be covcrcd to about 16ft
hclow the seabed to protect the pipeline from possible contact by
dragging ship anchors. This burial requircment was beyond the
capabilities of available trenching equipmcnt.
The pipeline operator investígated the frequency and size of ships
anchoring in the arca and determined the probabilities of damaging
contact between anchors and the pipeline for various depths of cover.
Based on this study, it was concluded that about 8 ft of cover would
adcquately protect the pipeline from anchor damage. However, this
depth uf cover (equivalent to a burial depth of 11.5 ft) is still a severe
requirement. While the probability of anchor contact with the pipeliqe
would be greatly reduced at this burial depth, the possibility of anchor
contact with the pipeline still existed. So the regulatory authorities
agrced to pcrmit the pipeline installation with 10ft of cover, with the
further requirement that the trench be mechanically backfilled if
adcquate natural backfill did not occur.
Another cxample of thc severe requircments for burial of offshore
 Table 5.4 Pipeline Trenching Experiences

\1.;\: .\1wy A <'g rure

S1::e o' \\ J!t.'! Sor! Trenclnn~ Equrr· eren<.: !\o. o! per pas,.
PJ{h'ilnc' ·.;¡_·n·;.._·.,; l.t)Cuunn Jt·pch rn :~p¿' merhoJ mene Cuntructor Je;1r!· m ras:, es kmday Con1menrs
··------- -- - - - ~-~--- --- ·- ------ - ---·
Tnkyo 24"' Oü J.opan 2.l Clav ~ len m~ Bury )';¡ppon 2 0.7 Bunal requ1rements ol
Bav Gas sdty wah bargc Ko kan S m planned to pro·
p¡pchnc clay Jrcdge Anzcn· K.K. tect the p1pelme &
suction Maru Il ¡NKKI hshmg trawls due to
pumps fishing acnvaies &
agamst high typhoons
------
AGA-OKI 14" 00 Japan bO Sandy Jemng Bury N1ppon 2.5 Two or 0.3 Bunal and backhU
p1pelme Gas silt & Wlth barge Steel more rcquired to protect
sdt water Corp. agamst fishmg trawl
eduction INSCI interaction with
pipehne
-----
Ekohsk· 34" 00 Nonh Sea 9S Med1um Jemng BAR 279 Brown & 2.0 One pass 1.0-l.S Bunal speCihcation
Tees1de Oil to stiff with Cherokce Root with two called lor 1 m cover
pipeline day & a¡r Santa Fe passes m offshore port1on;
(Phdlipsl sand suctíon tn sorne 3m cover in
sand anchorage area
Frigg· 32"00 North Sea ISO Clay & letting BAR 331 Brown & 1.3 One pass l. S Plpelme buried empty
St. Fergus Gas clay with Wlth JB4 Root in da y;
(Total) overlaying a ir J. R. two 10
sands suctiun Mcdcrmott sdty sand
----------- -·-----------·----
Nin1an 36"00 North Sea 160 Mostly jetUng Creek Santa Fe 2.0 Buri~ samlactory tu
Shetland Oil sand over- with 1 m covcr. Crcek de·
lsla,1ds laying clay; water SI!tJied with water
lB PI clay & (:~~ct1on educuon system for
rock near system 300 m water depth
Shetland
--------

----------
North Sea JS2 Stilf Pre·plowed 50-ton SMIT 1nt. 2.0 km!hr Bottom tow pipe in-
Stratftord A 36" 00 atallation into pre-
UI! clay trl'nch p1ow Marine
ServiCes plowed trench-
tSt.Jtml~ load1n)( 3 000
22,()()().hp 1,830-m trench length
hne pst
------- ---- ---- --- - - - - - - - - 1.5 Surial rcquiredis0.91 m
42". \()" Gulf nf 9'i Mnstly l<'tlln~ 1\rnwn & 1·3 wnh One pass
H1~h bland
6. \¡,·· C)!) clav JnJ har~c~ Rt)Ot .lm for 0.9 2.0 lor ptpe to 61 m water
\ )thhnrc .\1t'XICO,
snfi clay 42"' p¡pe eo ver m trench depth, and 3 m cover
"v"tcm garhcnng U.SA
McDermott across & tWO across lairway
¡HIU~' llnt·..,·~.J~
30" &. 36" t.urway pass es
m.11n
p1pe 3-m trench
rtrdme
t-.. U·TClS
-.vqcm
:x ~JnJ & ktung BAR lill Brnv..n & !m 15 Spans ex1sted alter
Ek<>t"k.· -'~> llll Norrh ~t'J
ottshdrt.: trenchmg, portian of
En1Jcn ca . . soh dJy wnh Jlr HA R 22~ Ruot
pipe was sand-bagged
rtpdJnc ~U(t\On RAR 2Ki1
or back covered.
:rhdhr,l
f'
l 01fStl~Jtc 1 .pell(i{.~ uL,)!qn. flllO.IYSIS, a1tu lvlC!hGu.::J

pipelmes 1s tllustrated in the case of the AGA-OKI pipeline offshore

Japan In that case, the fishery association requireJ that thc p1pcline be
buricd to about 8ft hcluw thc scabed, that the p1pelinc be mcchanically
backt-illcd, and that thc general construction .,rca on the scaheJ he
lcvckJ to elimmatc any anchor marks or gouges from constmction
activttJc:-. to decreasc thc possibility of Jamagc tu tishing rrawb workmg
thc scahcd along thc p1pelinc routc. As a rcsult, thc pipdmc was Jl'ttcd
clown to tha t dcpth, an L-shaped scrapcr was u sed to backti 11 tlw tren eh,
anJ a cham swccpcr anJ a tlat scrapcr werc la ter used to lcvclt he '>eJheJ.
The cost uf thc cntirc opcr<Hion, ncedlcss tu say, was vcry lugh.
In cunclusion, pipelincs installcd in thc Gulf of Mcxico must he
buried to J ft below the scahed out to thc 200-ft Jcpth con tour. Pipelincs
which eross an anchoragc arca or a fairway general! y rcquirc a 1(J.ft
6 Pipe Connection and Positioning Systems

hurial dcpth. In most other cases, the hurial rcquiremcnb are JeuJeJ hy
the authonties on a case-by-case basis, hased on a detailcd cvaluation of
the vanous hazarJs to which the pipeline may be suhicctcd and the
Jegree to wh1ch hurial wouiJ alleviatc thcse hazards.
6.1 General

Subsea pipeline connections are ncedcd during new pipeline con·

struetions, repairs, or lateral addition toa main carrier line. Connec-
tions can be made for pipeline tie-111 toa nser m hetween a pipe anda
subsea-tap assemhly or a suhsea manifold. Conneetions can also be
made hetween pipe scgments to make a continuous pipeline, sueh as in
thc case of a repair wherc pipe scgments are layed by different vcssels or
when pipeline scgments are towcd to locauon from a distant make-up
SI te.
Connections can be done on the ~urf.Jcc by II!ting p!JWS toa surL!cc
vesscl, making the conl!l'Ction, tlwn lowcring pipes to the seahcd.
Subsea eonnections can he maJe by hyperbar1c wcldmg, flanges, or
mechanical devices. ln-line connection methuds which connect two
pipe segments can generally he extended w conncct thc pipe and thc
riscr. Othcr methods to connect p1pc and riscr mclude j-tubc ami
bending shoe. These will he di-;cu~<>ed in ChJpter H on riser mcthotk
An important aspect of pipe cPnncctions is thc posit1oning of the cnds
w he connected, thus facilitating the connection procc~s. This is usually
done by spool pipe pieces to bridge the gap. However, posit!Onin.1~
methods which eliminJte tlw spool picce haw hcen devclopcd These
methods are mainly cmployed fm pipe connectinn toa riscr, wcllhcad,
suhsea manifold, or othcr subsea facility.

6.2 Pipeline Connection Systems

Yarious methods cxist fm joining ends of suhsea pipclines. These

methods include the following:

1:n
 •
tpt'll!
FLmged conncction
r··-
¡scs. ___ ;ceinc __
....,
• A tmospheric wcld 111g
• HvpL'rharic wc!JH:g
• Mcxhamc.d conncctllr~
As st.ncJ earlier, othcr connectiun methods cxist which are hmJteJ to
pipe ;mJ IISt:r ct•nncctions, thesc are JiscusseJ in Chaptcr H.
6.21 Flanged Method
flangcs are prcmstalled 1111 each pipe cnd during laying. The pipe L'nds
are pusJtllHWd ;lpproxllnatdy in line with the tlanges 50-200 tt apan.
An aJ¡ustablc tixturc (remplate) is lowered to the scabed and tempnrar-
dy attached to the tlanges. The fixture is locked in positjon, rdeaseJ,
and raised to rhe suriace. A rigid pipe spool is prepared to match the
cxact Jimensiuns of the fixture, lowered to the seabed, and bolt~d into
place.
A swivcl-rmg tlange t::. used on one spool end to facilita te alignment of
thc bol t hules m thL' tlanges. This method is general! y limited tu
appl!cauons mvolvíng rclativcly small d1ameters and shalluw W3ter,
altht>ugh tlangcs have heen uscd to at least 36-in. diamcter and in 500-ft
water Jepths in the Nurth Sea.
Flanges are h lW in cust, but thcy can take a long time to install anJ
may le;lk durmg prcssurc testing. A leaking tlange can be diificult to
Jiagnosc. In OI1L' installauun, it tnok 2 wecks to locate thc source of a
small lcak Jurmg .1 hydrotest, which was duc to a leaking tlangc.
However, tlanges are consiJcred trouble-free once they !uve bccn in-
stalkd and tested. Flanges are sometimes u sed at the foot of nsers to
facilitare rcplacemellt uf a riser.
The process ot tightening largc tlanges has bccn madc consider3bly
easier and ía~tcr by the use of a hydraulic bolt-tcnsioning too!. Thc
Hydra- Tight too!, sold in the U.S. by Flcxatalic Gasket Co., has been
used m the North Sea for severa! ycars. 1t consists of a series of
hydraulicall y operatcd ten~1oncrs which are attached to protruding ends
of thc tlange studs. Hydraulic power provided from the sutface causes
the tensioners to tension each stud uniformly. The nuts may then be
tJ¡;htcncd in as líttle as 3 hr using thc Hydra-Tight too!. Thc primary
advantage, howevcr, is umform tensioning of the studs. This reduces
the hkehhood ola le<Jk, cspecially for large flanges.
A vanatwn of the tlanged spool that is gaining wider acceptance is the
use of a b,dl tLmge to accommodate angular misalignment. Small-
,
P1pe Connec(lon and Pos¡f¡onmg Systems 1 135
diameter !in es (10-12 in. or lcss) in 200-300 ft of water m ay often be
lifted to the surface to make a connection using a ball connector. Thc
pipe is dewatered, if neccssary, ami one end is raiscd by onc or more ,
lifting points. A ball-connector half is weldcd to this first pipe end. A
joint or two of pipe are first weldcd on to bridge any gap between the two
pipe ends.
The first pipe end is lowered to the seabed so that it overlaps the
sccond pipe end. A measurcment is taken on bottom, and the second
pipe end is raiscd to the surfacc. The pipe is cut, the second ball half is
wclded on the pipe, and the pipe is lowercd to the scabed. The two pipe
ends are then lifted ~lightly ,mJ thc hall halves are mated. The con-
nccted pipe is lowered to the seabcd and thc bolts are tightcned to lock
and sea! the ball joint.
If the pipes must be dewatercd for lifting, temporary end caps are
attachcd to the hall halves before thc pipe ends are lowcred. After the
pipes are flooded, the temporary caps are removed.
The ball connectors may also be used in pairs at the ends of a ngid
spool for new construction or for a long spool repair wherc pipe ends can
be lifted to the surface. Measurement of the requircd spoollength must
be accurately maJe since the ball connectors will providc only limitcd
length adjustment. Moreover, an axial movcment of about onc pipe
diarneter is needed to mate the halves of a hall ioint.
6.22 Atmospheric Welding
Atmospheric welding oí pipe ends can he done under atmosphcric
prcssure on the surface using a surface vcssel m done subsea using an
atmo~pheric chamber. The advantage of atmospheric welding is thc
applica rion of onshore welding proced u res underw a ter, t hus res u! t ing in
better quality welds than thosc of hyperbaric welding.
Surfacc wdding is where two pipe ends are lifted to the surfacc,
welded togethcr, and lowered to the seabed. This method requires a pipe
!ay barge to lift the pipe ends on davits and hold the ends in position
whilc a pup or spool is wcldcd into the line. This method is limited to
small-diameter pipe and rclativdy shallow water. Thc largest connec-
tllln of this type was on a 32-in. oillinc in about 350ft of water. In this
ca~e, two bargcs werc used. Surface wclding is generally a prdcrreJ
connection method where it is practica!, unless tlangcs are to be uscd to
facditatc possiblc future repairs ata riser or tap valve.
Pipes ;He lifted to thc surface according to predetermined pick-up
schedules. These schcduks show <l step~by-stcp procedure for pipe
1
hftmg by cach davit such that p1pe stresscs are mamtained within a safc
lum t.
In cases whcre pipe 1itt ing to thc surface is not fe asible, su eh as in deep
water, subsea atmospheric wclding can be used. Threc ma111 modules
are used: a wclding base with a plug system, a support module, anda
transkr module. The wclding base and plug system are positioned over
the pipe ends to be connected. The support module is then hauled down
over the wclding base. One-atmosphcre operations begin in..,ide the
weldmg chambcr, including preparatiun nf pipes and thc spoul p1ece,
positiunmg thc spool piece, welding, and tcsting. Pipe repam. can also be
made with this method.
6.23 Hyperbaric Welding
,\'l,my ot thc long-distance North Sea pipelines havc hcen laid by
more than onc lay barge, and hyperbarie welding has heen med to join
pipe lengths The pipe ends are laid un tht: seabed and over!Jp. After
pipes are tlooded, the ends are cut. Each pipe end is raised about 3ft off of
tht· bottom and is supponed by sandbags. The spanlength m ay be 300 to
600 ít or mure, Jepending on pipe stiffness and weight.
A large ahgnment frame is placed over the pipe ends, and thc ends are
¡acked mto ahgnment. A wclding habitat is then placed tlVCT the pipe
cnds and scaled to thcm. Inflatablc stoppns are placed In thc ends of
each pipe, and the habitar is pumped dry.
Weldc·r-divc·rs enter the habltat, dry thc p1pe, and sJw cut rhe pipe
ends ro rhe exact rcquiTed lcngth. A prepared pup ¡uint 3 to 1 tt lm1g is
posiuoneJ ami wcldcJ inro place. lf a span uf more tlun about -+ ft
betwccn rhc pipe ends is to be bridged, a 40 to 50- ft-lung spuol is first
weldcd toonc pipe end; then a 3-ft pup is used tu ¡oin the secunJ pipe end
to the '>pool. Welds are code·qualtty and X-ray inspectcd
Hyperhanc wclding is favored by many North s~·a opcrawr~ whcn a
contmuuus-weldcd pipeline is Jesired and the pipe endo. c,mnot be
ra1scd for surface wcldmg. This mcthod is performed from a lay barge,
derrick barge, m a large spccial-purpose wsscl, as the requitcd align-
mcnt trame rnay be 60ft or more 111 length and weigh up w 17.') tuns.
Hypcrharic weldmg is presently lunited to 36-in. pipe (abuut ·U-m. OD
with umcrcte coating) and has been demonstratcd in watn Jepths
cxceedmg 1,000 ft.
Hypnbaric wclding 1s time consuming and expen'>IVC beca use of the
tune requned to align rhe pipe ends preciscly. Morcovcr, thrce llr more
wcld-; are normally requiTed to join a spool p1ece to the pipe cnds, and
P1pe Connecllon ;;nd Posltlonmg Systerns 1 137
the wclding habitar must be rcpositioned at each cnd of the spool for
wclding. The high day ratcs of vcsscls largc enough to handle the
alignment framc also contributc to thc high cost. Saturation diving is
typically used for jobs in ovcr 200-ft water Jcpths. ·
Considerable advancc planning is nccessary for pedorming hyper-
banc weldmg. Weldmg proccdures must be preparcd and approved.
Wclders must be currently ccrtificd. A changc in any onc of a host of
factors, such as wclding rud and pipe-material grade and wall thickness,
can cause new procedurcs to he rcquired. Operators also differ in their
specific rcquirements for hypcrbaric wclding procedurcs.
Contractors offcring hypnbaric-wcldmg scrvice include BOC/Sub
Ocean Scrvices, Comex, M el krnwtt, UCL\IIlt'l"ri ng, Seaw ay Di Vlllg,
Solus Ocean Systems, and Taylor Diving, a B(()wn & Rout affiliate.
6.24 Mechanical Connectors
Severa! mechanical-conncctor systcmo.; are availablc fur in-line
pipeline conncctions. These mcludc thc Bi¡~·lnch Marine Systcms
(Flex tForge ), thc Camnon connec tltll1 "ystcm, t he Cripper conncctor
'>Y'>tem, and the Hydro!tdl/1 !ydrm(Jupk '-Y'>tcm hy HydwTech Sy~tL·m~
lnc. Other connection ~y~tcms includc c;rayl!lc conm·ctors by Gray
~ool Co. anJ the Zap·Lok conneLtion -.,y~tL'l11 dcveloped by Zapat~l
1 1pclme lnc. Mechanical-~k'l"VL'·t\·¡w LOIJnect\lr~ u~nl fm pipe repan
Include Daspit Penna-Lok and PUDCO Ll.nnp connc·ctm
Mechanical·connector sy'>tl"ll1" ;He t,htcr ;md l};}ve ;J lowcr lfl'>tallcd·
cost alterna ti ve than hyperhanc wl'idlllg '1 hcy un he al-;o less custly to
mstall than surtace tic-in methods but ru¡unc .1hout the "ame amount
ol tune to complete. The lllst;d htlt lll ¡-, a 1'-t 1 ks-, wca thn ~en si t ive than
~urtace wcldmg, an importan! ;Idvantagl· In h.ld-wc;lthcr seasons.
Mechanical·connector systems lllll'>Ic.t tll a ml·an<. ¡01 attachmg th~·
conncctur to the pipe on tlw scahed, JHOVIsron" lor axial¡lcngth) ad¡ust-
mcnt, halltoints, anda rigid pipe '>J11llll A mc.1n~ oí manipulating the
conncctor a~semblics may he pmvided by rhc mst.dlation con tractor or
hy thc manufacturer.
The manipulating cquipmcnt can take a vanety of forms; thc choice is
normally maJe by the instaiLnwn umtractor. It the pipe-lay contractor
uses bis lay bargt· as a work platlmm, the hargc davits can be uscd m
good weather.ln Jeep water with lutle CllTrL"IH, inllaLJble air bagscan he
used to buoy the conncctnr as~.emhly olt hottom.
For srnall pipe sizcs up to about 12 in, a simple A-frame may be uscd
wlth "come-alongs" tu maneuvn thc ,¡s-.;cmbly IJlto position. For large
 l-'

"'
pipe o.,¡:co.,, J o.,uhnlc·ro.,¡J¡Jc hydraulic cranc may he uscd. Thc e r;mc ¡.., P1pe C-"lliO<. [,,,,' anci Pos.t1omng Systerns 1 13'1
hvJraLJiicdly u¡wr.ltl'<l hy ;¡di ver. Onc such cranc, manufacturnl by Sc.1
flor~<·, lus hccn uscd 111 thc North Sea.
Cnpp<'f .llld HyJwTech oHcr special bottom-manipulating CLJlllp-
ment lor use w¡¡h thcir conncctor systems. Very large .1lignmcnt
ir.unc'>, .1~ usc·J ior hypcrharic wciJmg, are not requireJ wlth thcse
nh:chanical cunnL·llor o.,ystcms becausc precise alignment of the p1pe
,·nJs ¡;, JH>t nccco.,..,ary.

6.241 Big-lnch Marine Systems

Big·lncl, 1s bcst known for its Flexiforge end connectnr, a means for
cold lorgmg a litting ontu thc cnJ of a pipe on the seabed. Howcver,
B1g-lnch h.1~ abo Jevt.:lopcd a complete cunnector systcm tor new
constnh.:tltm. This mcluJcs eithcr conventional ring joint flanges or
holtk'>;, tl.lllgcs to connect the system to the pipe ends, ball ¡uints, and
-.lip ¡oinb. All cornponcnts havc mctal-to-metal seals. Each componcnt
may hL· dis:JsscmhleJ on the seabeJ by unbolting if 1t becomes necessary
tu rcmmc thc sysr,·m. Thc Big-lnch system is illustrated in Figure 6.1
Both rhc Bultkss F-Lmgc and M1salignment Ball Joint both use the samc
scttmg Jnd luckmg mcchanism.

6.242 Cameron
l. .. ----··-·----····-------- ....
Thc Camuo11 m·lmc conncction system includes two collet conncc- 1•. / /)¡:.; lnch IIIdnnc cnd CCJil/lt'C/ur (crHHI<'' 1 /i¡g /:¡, /¡ ,\l,nJlle Sv.,ft:lll'> Inc.)
tur.., w1th Integral or scparatc actuJtors and püSltioners, fuur pipeline
swJvcf..., and two ngid p1pe spools. A mating Cameron hub anda tic-in
base 1s ph'JttachcJ to each pipe end to be joined. Temporary cnJ caps are
req u i1 cd for c;lc h pipe cnd to reta in a ir in the pipclines during laying and
posJt1oning. Thesc may be attacheJ by means of Cameron clamps. conncction, and the actuators ami support cquipmcnt are retricvcJ tor
Tlll' ;,ystem m ay be opcrated from a work vcsscl equipped with a nanc Tl'll'>C.
or otlwr n¡ Uipmcnt tll 1ift thc spool assembly. Cuide cables are attached Four swivcls are normally uscd to prov1Jc thc re4uircd axial movc-
to cae h tlc-111 h.1sc. Thc spool is made to the correct lcngth with sw i veis nlellt of thc cunncctors and to accummodatc nusalignment. Thc spool is
ami udkt c~>nnectors wcldeJ in place. The spool assembly is attachcd to llllrill;llly ahuut 1SO ft long. ·
a ;,prcaJcr bar ,111d lowercd on the guide wires to the seabed. A C;lmerun conncctor systcm is illustratcd m Figure 6.2.
Once thc a-;s,·mhly is on bottom and the connectors are landed on thc
two tic-m ba.,cs, a d1vcr opera tes controls to position cach conncctor and
actuatc thc collct fingcrs to grip the mating hub and effect thc sea!. Thc 6.243 Gripper
se JI maJe by cach conncctor is then pretested to confirm intcgrity of the
Cnppcr offcrs thc Crip anJ Seal Mcch.mical Coupling IGSMCI and
Crippcr Ball Conncctor-Flangc Lok !CBCFLI dL·viccs for new construc-
 JI! SI . 1pel11 _ - ~SI(Jil, ... _. )'SI S,

P1pc Connect10n und Pos¡f¡onmg Systerns 1 141

• intcmlcd for new constructHll1. Metal scals are sct against a machincd
Section, Collet Connector, 6" through 20"
tion and repairs. The GSMC umt inc()rpmates metal tcnsion and com-
pression gripping collar~ anJ ~<,Ít packing tn 3 cylinder which slips ovcr
a pipe enJ. lt is set aJHI ~e~tlcd by tightt·nmg 3 <,crics of stud nuts, ami
it may be removed frorn thc ptpc by loo'icning thc nuts Thc GBCFL unit
is a ball-joint flange with mct.d-to-mctal scals.
The Gripper Metal Seatcd Couplmg (GMSCl unit is a mctal-to-mctal
scatcd version of the GSMC unit. lt slips ovcr and seals against the cut
cnd of a pipe. The GMSC unit has no provision for length adjustment. lt
is intended for riser repairs wherc thc riser pipe can be machine cut to
provide a smooth scaling surfacc. lt could also be used to attach a flangc
or fitting to a pipe on thc scabed, providcd that thc pipe end wcrc
machinc cut.
Thc Grippcr Mcchanical Pipe Cap Licvtce is a vanatton of thc GMSC
unit, with an cnd cap anJ soft packing gland.
Thc Grippcr Pipe Lcngth Compcnsator (GPLCl dcvicc is a slip jomt
cylindrical surface. Tlll' GPLC unit ts uscd 111 a spool, witb a GBCFL unit
at cach cnd.
An illustratinn of thc Crip¡wr mcchanical conncctor is shown in
Ftgurc 6.3.

-
...-~
1

6.244 HydroTech
HydroTech manufacture" severa! pmduch f"r ptpelinL· conncctions.
The main products mcludc the 1lydmHJII/HydroCtlupk system, thc
misaligning tlange (MAF), and tl1L' Hydnlllall ~wtvd and bias-cut flangc.
. . .~Ji
Diffcrent combinations ol the<,e product;, can be u~cd to suit thc spccdic
<lpplication.
The carly HydroBall!HvdruCouplc (HBIHCI systL·m was a dcvtcc
incorporating two connL·cwr;. on c1thcr sidl' ola ;.cp.n,thlc hall joint. The
HydroCouple conncctms Wl'TL' ~,lippcd ovcr thc ends of thc pipes to be
¡omed. Elastomcr scals in thc HydroCouplc connccturs were set against
tbc OD of thc pipe, and thc HydwBall unlt wa;, ~ct and scalcd in place.
Thcn thc locking tcnsion anJ comprcsston ..,¡ i p;. wcre sct. Th is scquencc
was rcquircd bccausc the carly HydroCouplc units could not be re-
moved from thc pipe alter the si ips wcrc sct, sin ce cpoxy was uscd as thc
Section, Collet Connector, 22" and Larger sctting fluid. Thc carly Mark 1and Mark 11 HB/HC: units wcrc uscd in thc
Phillips' Ekofisk complcx, wl11ch includcs platforms in thc Ekofisk,
ó.2 ConJerun col!t:t conncctor (courtcsy Camemn /ron Works) Wcst Ekofbk, Albusk¡cl, Cod, Edda, and Eldfisk Ftelds. Thc complcx
lics in 230- to 240-ft water dcpths.
Ekofisk was originally dcvclopcd usmg HydroTcch's mechanical
 (' •?"•'!i'•i

14.:: 1 uffshore t-'1p811rl8 Úes¡gn, AnÜiySIS, ano Methoas'

Prpe Connection and Positioning Systems 1 143

connectors for riser tie-in and subsea connections. A number of these

connectors experienced leaks and were removed. These leaks related
principally to the "hot oil" problem. The oil pipdines operated at
230-240°F. and were not originally designed to accommodate the high
degree of thermal expansion experienced. In addition, cycling of various
z
¡ lines caused the seals in the original Mark II HC units to fail.
s Subsequent product modifications have resulted in the Mark IV and

.~¡
~u
~
'
1
~
Mark V HydroCouple units. The Mark IV HC units include improved
gripping and sealing mechanisms, along with temperature compensa-
tion, ·and have not experienced leakage. The Mark IV unit is hydraulic
.,
~~ ~
i.i--
~
~
set, with separate tension and compression slips. The seals are
separately actuated metal-contamcd elastomers. The Mark IV tool is
:
-
1
~
illustrated in Figure 6.4.
~ !: The Mark V unit is a more-compact tool with interacting tension and
~

~ ~
comprcssion slips and metal-contained seals. The slips and seals are set
~
.
z
simultaneously by tightening a ring of bolts .
o-
z<>

6.25 Comparison of Connectlon Methods

~

-""
G A specific comparison of the competing in-line connection methods
r::
.... can only be made when the particulars of a given installation are known .
fS: These include the following factors:
....
,~

CJ • Location, including water depth.

>-,
V)
• Pipe size and material grade.
~ ""
;::
~ :::1 • Contents of the pipeline.
~ o
~ • Operating pressure and tempcrature ranges.
__ __,~ ....
o • Pipeline installation mcthod.
ti • Contractor and equipmcnt availability.
""r::r:: • Potential for damage after installation ami case of repair in case of
o
u damage.
Ci<U • Requirements for pigging thc line.
V)

~
• Location of connection with respect to structures and pipelme
r:: restraints.
"'
1:),
,¡:: • Requirements for trenching the line.
(>()
.... • Expected operating lifctime of pipeline .
<U
• Prior (good or poorl experience with a connection method.
&
·¡::
CJ Su eh factors often restrict the choice of a connection method to one or
""> a fcw alternattves. Other factors which are then considered in a selec-
'<)
tion of conncction method include economy, rcliability, simplicity,
scrvice, and availability.
 ~
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-----,

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AW'ULU~ TEST COLLAPS!l'LE ALIGAJ·
PACI<IIJG PL Alw(;E \ TEI.JSIOJ.J SL/P:O. ¡:ry~r 1 "'EVT SPACERS
SEC0t.J'DARY SEAL
SE AL
Pts.-o,_,~
AC ruA rii.;G l, SL:P ACT A"r/J.JG e>¡SroJJ

COMF'RESSIOIV SLIPS
MET"'L SEAL
I-IOUStJ;G
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r-RETAO./ER >LG. ~
SE ALS ct
-BALL
\\ 1 AI.JA.JULUS }..
\ ', P()R.í "O
ro
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SPROJG MECHAJJISM

DETAll ·A-
TEMPERA TURE CI»>PEJJSA T!OI.J OP TIOJ.J

6.4a Mark IV HydroCouplt:iM4F connector (hydraulic set) (courtesy HydroTech-Hu~hes, lnc.)

nffp-···.- f7ilt TTO P UHf t ·en 91

sr t'l TT SS? re 1
r ·nemnnemz ....

- C'OUAPSIBLt ALiríiJMéNT
~tvNU /l' TL5 T \ :SP,QCERS
1-'0k! T
--ANN!JLU5 TEST
¡ SECt>NOAI?r' S~AL
\ POI?T
HETtU .5éAL - 1
1
PACKING ---~
FLMJGt 1-!IJUS!NG

±--1
o•MAY

- ---y
· 20'Mh'

6.4b Mark V HvdroCouple ,·\1AF conncctor rholt tlghtening¡ lcourre.,y HrdroTcch-Hu¡:,hes, fnc)
1·1G UIISIIUIC C',pel111e UCSI~)Il, Ar1alyS1S, arlO MethocJs
Economic rankings of candidate conncction methods vary, dcpcnding
on the rartlculars of an mstallation. In dccp water, surface wclding is
impossihle, ;md mechanical conncctors may have the lowest installed
cost. However, t he total lifetime cost of mechanical connectors is not
yct known w1th any certainty.
Thne is illlt yet conclusive cxpcricncc that mcchanical connectors
are as rcluhle as a wcld over thc 20-30-year lifetime of a pipeline. This
can change m the future as thc lcvcl of connector operating experience
increascs and as installation mcthods are refined.
6.3 End Positioning Methods
6.31 General
In all pipe-connection systems, pipe ends must be positioned within
ccrtain tolerances to make the connection. The amount of tolerances
depends on pipe s1zc, water depth, and the specific connection mcthod.
End posit wn mg 1s crit ic ,¡) w he re Jiverless conncctions are to be m a de in
deepwatcr IIht.dlatiun~.
Mcthods ex1st uf pipc-enJ positioning with various stagcs of use or
developmcnt Thesc mL·thoJs include:
l. PosJtioning during pipe initiation and termmation.
2. Stra1ght-in tow.
3. Pipe-dcllcction methods.
Because of difficultics in maintaining the surface-support vessel on
location in dcep water, cnd tolcrances generally in vol ve more complex
procedurcs than in shallow water. In deep water, the accuracy of
instrumentat ion u sed tn loca te pipe ends on bottom is an important part
of the connect1on proccdure. Instrumentation exists with thc use of
bottom transponders for accurate positioning.
6.32 lnitiation and Termlnation Method
Thc mitiation mcthud, also known as thc lay-away mcthod, uses a
prcdetermmed point on the seafloor as an anchor position. A cable is
run from the anchor to the pipc-lay vessel and connected toa pull hcad
on the tirst p1pe joint, as shown in Figure 6.5. This cable is used to
provide thc back tension rcquired to control the pipe sagbend stresses
until sufficient pipe 1s on thc seatloor.
P:pe CJutH'CI,un and Posit1onmg Systems 1 1·1;
Dead-man Cable
sz End target
líi$--V
(>.S l'ipchllc Initiatwn
Tl·rminauon of a pipl'luw from a laylllg \T'>o.;cl is accomphshcd by
wchhng a pul! head to the last p1pe JOIIH ¡figure()_(,) A cable from thc
n·ssc·l's ahandonent/retneval \Vlllch 1s conneueJ tu the pul! head, and
the vessd muves fonvard using thc· wmch to m.untain rcl)uireJ tcnsion
Tolcrancc'i of cnd posJtions can he in the rangc· uf 100 to ISO ft. Thcsc
wler.lliCl''> are ;lÍkcted b~ \V,ltcr Jq,th, pipe si::c, ;lccuracy uf thc
tLI11~pundn o;yo,tcm, surlacL· motion ol the laymg vc-,scl, anJ stretch In
thL' L1ying c1hlc
DL·pci1lhng on thL· tic~¡¡¡ methtld and matuiab to be used, tightcr
tokrancco., may he rcquircd Tokr;mcc-, can he improved in sevc1al
ways. Thc most common w;ry is tu att.Ich scvn,¡J cables, evenly spaccd
o\'er a kngth of 200 to 400ft fwm thc pipe cnd, ,mJ J¡ft the pipe ulf uf thL
se,¡ ll()(n By moving thc lay ve~scl on its anchurs, the cnd of the p1pc
may be rcpositioncd.
St·veral vessd movcments, cach rL·quiring repositioning on the II!t
cable~ tlll the pipe and/or vcssd anchors, may be rcqu1reJ tu ohtain final
t<>kLlllccs ol ).') to 20ft. Smalkr incremental movemc·nts can he madc
hv u-,mg a single cable attachcd w the pipe la)··down heaJ. Thc lav
n·so,d's ahandonmL·ntíretrieval winch is useJ to pick up thc pipe, anJ
the Vl'">'-cl rcp(l-,itiono., to nwve thc p1pc cm!
l'rcp:n<ltlOil dfurts fm tokrancc improvcmL'Ilb cm be cons¡Jer.1hlc
.md shouiJ be cvaluared on :1 casc-by~c;¡se hasis. The installauon cost tur
obtaming rel.ltivdy tight tolcrances can uutWl'lgh hcndits that 11llght
he ubtaull'd from a spccdic tic-in systcm rn¡umng thc tight tokranLL'.
i''
1'
6_0 1'1pc termmation pul/ head
Initiation of a linc by J-tubc pul! results in a zcro tolcrancc but
rcquircs spccial considcrations in thc pipeline dcsign as wdl as in the
platfonn dcsign_ Thc platform mw.t includc pruvisions for mounting
thc pull w in eh anc! support ing thc pullluaJs_ Tl1l' w in eh is thc "anchor"
point for this tcchniquc.
A cable is run from thc winch, through thc )-tu be, and to thc lay vcsscl
and is conncctcd toa pull hcad on thc nrst joint uf pipe. Thc !ay vcssd
rcmains stationary as pipe joints are adJcd to thc linc. Thc platform
winch providcs thc pull force to hring tlw Jm,· to thc platfum1 and up
through thcj-tuhc. Aftcr thc pipe ha-, bccn pulkd to thc dcsircJ position
on thc plattorm, the pull is cndcJ anJ thc L!y vesscl bcgms normal
operations.
6.33 Straight-ln Tow Method
Thc straight-in tow mcthod (Figureó. 71 is primarily uscd in conjunc-
tion with bottom or off-hottom tow installations. It rcquircs a dctailed
Pipe Cunnection and Positioning Systems 1 149
Tow vessel
6. 7 Straixht-in tow
survcy of bottom aml ncar-bottom currcnts, hottom topography, and
bottom soil condltions, as wcll as a sophisticatcd survcy/positioning
systcm. The tow routc 1s laycd out so ti1L' kadmg cnJ uf the pipe string
passcs over thc target point fur thc tr;ldmg cnd.
End positioning by this mcthod ¡<; aflcc:tcd by thc ~IZC of thc pipe,
bottom currl·nts, bottom so il cond 111< Hh, ;ltld t he pqw '~ex tcrior coa t ing.
Gross axialcnd position tulcranccs of 1()() - 1:'-.0 it for both cnds ot thc
string can he cxpcctcd by this mcthml.
6.34 Deflection with Buoyancy
This mcthnd of cnd positioning wa~ dcvclupcd primarily for complc-
tion of subsca tie-ms using bayonnet-typc conncctors; howcvcr, it is
adaptable to most othcr tic-in systcms. Thc methud Jocs not rcyuirc
suppurt from a lay ur dcrrick hargc_
lt has also bccn dcvclopcd for u~c withuut d1ving support. Howcvcr, it
docs rcquirc a suhmarinc ur a TL'Il1lltl'·contrul vchick anJ positioning-
sy~tcm support. A s11nulat¡on modcl cm also be uscful for systcm
 'c. 1,

design and operauonal planning_ An illustration of this method is P1pe Connect1on and Pos1tionmg Systerns 1 1~) 1
shnwn 111 Figure 6X
Th!L'C winches are used to providc a lateral deflcction force, a huld- mounted on the pulling sled and matmg tic-in point pro vide dncctional
back t"rcc, and axial movement- Sheaves anchored to the scabcd and control. If pipe is installed by other than an oft-bottom towing method, a
lcngth of thc flowline is buoycd off thc sea floor, using off-bottom
towing technology to control the vertical position_ The lcngth rcquiring
buoyancy dcpends on the specific application_
lnitial position This method has been successtully dcmonstrated on thc installation
of a tlowline bundle in Panarctic Oil's Drake Field_ The bundle was
Cable to surface
installed by bottom pull and connected to a subsca wellhead in about
Buoyancytank 180 ft of watcL Model simulatiun was used to determine operatmg
procedures and to identify and solve potcntial problem arcas_
Deflection lkcause the pipc-~tring cnd is 111 a state of neutral huoyancy, relatively
sheave & anchor small forces are requm:d lor ddlcctluns and are well within thc
capabil!t ics of availablc winc hes_ Lateral curruus do not sign ificantl y
Lay path ' \ \ affcct stress levds or deflcction loads_ Howevcr, lateral currents may
cause signincant ddlectll)ll uf the skd ami the pipe leading end_ Tic-ms
Cable to surface \ using this mcthod requirc that the lateral currcnt be vcry smalL
A modincation of thi~ techn1quc, using vertical ddlection of the pipe:,
has bcen invcstigatcd. lndicat1ons are that thi~ approach can also be a
Tie-in target tcehnically fcasible process for '>ubc.ca tie-ins- This tcchniquc 1s illus-
trated in F1gure 6_':}_
ETl'M and Cumex Seal devcluped a variation of th1s techniquc fm
\ cumpleting installauons of surface or near-surface towed pipelines or
bundlcs_ This draw-down tcchniquc (Figure 6_10) requires shcavcs on
Final position J-tubcs to be mounted on the suhsea-conncction poinL Two scts of
cables are run from cach cnd of thc linc: one set is run through thc
Cable to surface sheaves to the surfacc and onc is set dncct to thc pull winch_ Cables
through the sheaves pro vide the downward tension and thc direct cables
prov1de thc horizontal tension rcqum:d for stahility_ As thc linc is drawn
Buoyancy tow ard the seafloor, i t rcaches a water dcpth w he re the shcavc cables can
tan k Detlection
sheave & anchor proviJl· sufflcient horizontal force w maintain the catcnary_ When this
depth is reached, the dircct cables are slackened, disconnectcd from thc
Wlllches, ;md fastcncd w buoyancy tloats_ The accurate adjustments of
Pull sled tht· l111cS ends are prov1dcd by thc sea-bottom structurcs' guiding de
Cable to surface vices ami accuratc dlstributilm of lloats_ Aiter thc cnds of thc lme arl' in

~~
. Hold-back i) [J puSltlon, the tluats are rdcased_

p&anchor "" Tie-in target

(>.8 Ocllc<ti"n with huovancy

 AnalySIS and Mc\r,ods
152 \ OllsMre p¡peline Oes,gn, ,

Tow to site and

,___ ____. run draw-down -
Tug-supply vessel cables
.7f

r---~~q----=~~~~~~~==9=~~;;~Preparefor
draw-down,
release end floats

Pull cable
Oraw-down
phase 1, pulling
all cables
BuoyancY

Oraw-down
phase 11, pulling
Stage 1 only on sheave
cables

Draw-down
completion, line
connected to sea-
bed structure. then
floats released
allowing pipe to
y lie on seabed
f ó. JO LJruw-dmt·n techni<¡ue

L-----------------------
ó
9
verucal deflection

7 Subsea Pipeline Repair Systems
7.1 General
The cconomic impact of a pipc failun: can amount toa substantial
lo-;s ot rcvenuc, p;nticularly for Lngc-diameter p1pelines. A fa:--t response
tu a repan cmcrgcncy is oftcn requircd. \'ariuus systems L'Xht for suhsca
p1pc rcp;llr, anJ no une re-p<IIT mcthod is appropriate in al! cases.
Preplanning IS limltcd to spcciticauonut typcs of rc~pon~c~ lor gcncral
kinds of failurc:>. Componcnts ncnlcd i!ll sorne types of repairs are
<;wckcd by nLmy opt'T:.Jturs ami hy groups pf uperator~.
Suhst'<l-pipcllne· rt·pairs may hv ret¡Llllt'd dunngconstructJon, as in thc
rcpa1r of hucklcs, .Jltcr a hydmtt"it lailurc. <lr ¡f thc plpciint' is damaged
.1ftcr installatl<lll ;Ind bdurc cummi•,SJ<lllÍng. H•IWcvcr, pipduH~
opcratm.., are nw-,t umcerncd w1th tl}()"c re'pa!Ts requirnl to be madc on
<111 upcr.Iting PI!'• liill' ;¡s a rl'sult tlf cormsi.m, storms, seahed movc-
mcnts, tlT damage IC~tdtmg trom mannc uperations, e.g., fishing, con-
structitm, -;upply <lL tlV!tles, cte.
Rcpairs during construction are usually maJe by thc laymg vessd.
Pipe· is rctrieved to thc surfacc where the tbmaged secrion is cut, a new
pipe· is wl'lded, ami bymg resumes. In contrast, subsca pipclme rcpans
wh1ch cuuld cmploy .1 full-eneirclemcnt skcvc or rcmoval oi a darnagcd
pipe scctwn and rcplacemcnt wuh a spuol picce tu bndgc the rcsulting
g.1p mvolve more complcx repair proccdures.
Selcction of a rep,ur rncthud dept'J1lls un various urcum-..t<mccs which
mcludc t he tollow mg:
• 1'1pc :-.1ze and pres~ure rating
• W.ncr dcpth.
• Dutv, e.g., trunk or gathning linc~.
l:i·l
Subsca Pipe/me Repair Systerns 1 1 :>'
• Contents of the pipeline, e.g., gas or oil.
• Cause of failure (manufacture dcfect, construction accident, hyd-
rotest, muvement,etc.).
• Type and extent of damage (concrete damage, flattening, lea k, etc.).
• Location of thc failure puint with respect to restraining points of the
pipeline, such as platforms and subsca lateral tie-ins.
• Protection, buried or exposed.
• Time of year; throughput dcmand.
• Availability of suitablc construction cquipment and rcpair tools.
Thc importance of these factors varíes from case tocase; however,
equipment availability is tlftcn an overridmg concern.
When damagc toan operating pipeline uccurs, the line is immcdiatdy
shut clown and the total cxtmt of thc problem is dctennined. This
includes ficld and officc cvaluatwn of thc pipeline dcsign, function,
scrvice, sizc, water Jepth, protect1on, ami cause of failurc. A diver team
and surface-support cquipmcnt are ~ent to the si teto evaluare the typc
of damage, extcnt, amllocation. Cun tracturs in the arca are con tactcd to
determine the availahility uf suJtablc equipment. Gencrally, thc
operatur will evaluare the complete sltuatiun in thc ufficc ami in thc
ficld within .1 to 7 day., Jitcr tht Jamagc has been reported.
7.2 Repair Methods and Practices
Severa] mcthods h.IVt' b,·,·¡¡ u-..nl tor t·mcrgency rep.1n ot ofhhorc
pipclines. Thcsc metlltlds can he ,!Iv 1dcJ 111to o.uriace and subsurfacc
rcpau mcthods. Sub:-.urlacc rcraiT nwthod-.. includc hypcrbaric weldmg,
split-sleevc clamps, a!IJ mcch.IIIIL.d conncctllln of a spool piecc. Thcsc
mcthods have hccn used ior rcpamng Jllldpoint damagc in the pipcllllc
and damagc ncar thc n:-,cr. Tlll' :-,urtace-wc!Jing repair tcchmquc 1s
commonly u:-.cd 111 arca., ..,ud1 <l'> thc Culf ut Mexico, whcre pipeline
dwmcters •He rclaovcly sm.dl, water dcpths are moderare, and weathcr
conditions are often iavor;Jhk.
Hypt.'rbanc 1vcldmg 1s mmc e• •mm(lnly use·d 1n thc North Sea, wherc
the large pipeline dJamcr,·r.., .t:.It',Jt ILitt·r dcpths, and scvcre wcathn
cnvnonment limit tlw ..,,lltt\ 11! IIItln.~ tht· p1pe cnJ~ to thc surfacc to
makc a repair.
Mechamc.1l connecttlT'> ;11 ;Id.lhk lllr ncw construction are also used
fllr pipeline rcpans. Thc r.dltlWJJlg art· hrid dcscnpttons oí theo.,e
methods as u-..ed ior a Sjl(ltd J1It'Le· Tl'J1.!Il

156 1 Offshore P1pel1ne Des1gn, Analysis, and Methods
7.21 Surface Welding
The surface-welding method uses surface-welding cquipment on a
work barge, commonly a pipe-lay vessel. This method involves lifting
the pipe cnds to the surface by use of davits, then hand fitting and
welding a spool piece to bridge thegap between the pipe ends, inspecting
the welds, and lowering the pipe to the bottom. This method used for a
midpoint rcpair, involves the following steps: ' 7.22 Hyperbaric Welding
• Survcy and inspect damage to the pipeline.
• Plan thc rcpair procedure. This item can be critica! for large-
diamctcr pipclincs and for water depths greater than 300ft, where
thc hfting proccdure must be carefully planned to limit the stresses
in thc pipe to a safe leve) during lifting.
• Mohili:e hargcjs) to thc site and moor in thc proximity of the
damaged arca of the pipeline.
• lnspcct thc pipeline damagc and, if the pipe is buried, unbury a
section ut about .SOO ft on eithcr side of the damage using hand jcts.
• Cut out thc damaged arca of the pipe, dewater the pipt:line if
necessary, and retricvc the damaged pipe.
• Att;lch hlting cables to cach scction of thc pipe on the bottnm.
• L1tt huth pipe cnds to the surface by pulling on the davit cables
accordmg to ;¡ preplanned lifting schedule.
• Cut and clcan pipe ends.
• Fabncate a ~tr;light ora curvcJ spool piece to nt bct\VL'L'I1 thc two
pipe cnd~. \Ve Id thc spool piece to the pipe ends, X-ray, ,md coat the
tkld ¡oint<;.
• LO\\'L'r tlwpipl' to thc hottom whilc muvmg thc b;ugc Lltcrally un 1ts
muonng luw.., t(l thc port ur the starhoarJ dircction untd thc pipe is
on the b,lttom
• Hydwst;ltlcally test the p1pelllle anJ rebury if necL·ssary.
If lLIInagc 1-. done tu a pipeline riser and the pipe near the nser, thcn a
n1lldl!ied o.;urtaee-rcpair methoJ is uscJ. The mcthod in vol ves litungonc
L'nd ot the p1pe to lhe surfaec using some oral! of the barge davits, thcn
wcldlllg thc luwer section of the riser to the pipe and lowering thc pipe
and nscr <IS ncw sections of riser are added. If a signifieant length of the
pipeline IS ai-.o damagcd, it is first removed. Thc remainmg cnJ of the
pipcllllc ts litted to the sudace and new pipe IS laid up to the platform
Thc nsn-scttmg operation thcn procecds as Jcscribed earher.
The surtace·wL·ldmg mcthod of repair is most dfcctivc in watn
tkpths up to abuut JOO ft ami can be useJ tor greater water depths if the
.SutJ:,eiJ f'¡pl'f.ne Repa1r Systems i ( •
1. ) '
¡Hpelinc diamcter is small or 1Í buoyancy de vices are attached to thc pipe
tu control pipe strcsses in thc sJghcnd during the lifting operation. Fm
\'ery largc-Jiameter pipelines, 1t may be ncce~'>;lry to employ tow barges
to lift the two pipe cnds tu the surfacc simultancuusly.
In the hyperbaric-welding method, thc Jamaged pipe section is cut
uut hy divcrs and rctrievcd. A sponl picce of thc required lcngth is
fabricatcd on thc surfacc vesscl Thc SfHHd picce is lowcrcd to the scahcd
;111d two pup joints are U'led to cunnect thc spool ptccc to each end of thc
p1pel111c. Welding is done 111..,idc a wclding habitat under amhiL'Ilt
bottum pressurc in a dry env1wnmcrH. This mcthoJ is uscd 111 Jeepcr
WJter where surface weldmg 1.., unpractH:al m whcn thc p1pe cmb are·
re~tr:uncd hy a riscr, tap valw, ur pipclmc crossing
Typieally, an alignmcnt framc, .1 wcldmg habitat, anda transfcr bcll
are uscd to accomplish the pipeline repa1r by hypnharic weldmg Thc
surf;ICl'·support vc..,sel may he ;l work b.ngc· or a vesscl L'Spn:ially
cqlllppcd for this wurk. This rc·p;i!r prucc<>s 111\'\Jlves the tollowing step'>
• Survcy ami inspect damage tu the pqwiinc.
• Plan thc rcpai r proceJure.
• ,\luhilize a work ve-.sel tn thc ~IlL' :md moor 111 proximit} of thL
damaged arca ot the pipeline.
• lt thc pipeline JS huned, unhurv ,l <.,cctitll1 t~l pipe 1111 cither sidt· td thc
JJmaged scctlllll.
• Jn-;pect thc damagl'd p1pe :md wrch cut .md rc·tnc·ve the cbmagcd
-.L'L'tlon <'l the p1pc.
• \1L'Jsurc· thc fl'ljlllrcd lcngth o! th,· -;puol pll'L'l'
• Luwl'r the spool piL·cc· tll thc "L'<Ihc·d by clthcr :1 crane or davJt'> and
ptJSitton it betwecn tlw tw(l Pll'L L'l1tb
• Lowcr thc alignment frame and poc;itwn 11 over the first pipe end to
be wcldcJ; align the tWtl ¡npc cnd.., tu be imned and hold them m
pusit1un.
• Luwer thc wcldmg habltJt and pbce It on top of the alignment frame
ami tlvcr thc p1pc L'llds to b'-· coilnc·ctcd
• Pump thc hahitat Jry. Wcldcr·divus thenc'IHer the habitar, cut and
prepare the pipe cnds, and posi t 1011 a .1· ft -lung pup ioint for wc!Jmg;
make welds in a dry cnvinmment, X-ray, anJ apply protcrtivc
coat mg.
,,
\''

158 1 Offshore P1pel1ne Des1gn, Analys1s, and Methods \uosea P1peline Repair Systems 1 15~J

• Repcat the procedurc to conncct the spool piece to the other pipe
end.
• Hydrostatically test the pipeline and rebury if necessary.
A modificd procedure is used if the damage is near the riser on a
platfurm. In that case, a ncw riser is first installed on the platform (if the
riscr is damaged), then a spool pie ce is lowered and connected to the pipe
and then to the riser by hyperbaric welding, as in a typical midpoint
rcpair. This method of repair has been applied most widely in the North
Sea and is suitable for large-diamcter pipe. Water-dcpth capability is
limited by diver-depth limitations, and the mcthod has been demon-
strated at water depths greater than 1,000 ft.
7.23 Mechanical Connectors
Mechanical connectors are also u~ed to join the pipe ends during a
repair operation. Severa! competing mechanical cunnectors are pm-
moted for subsea-pipeline rcpairs. Among thcm are the Flexiforgc
connector manutacturcd by Big-Inch Marine Systems, Gripper and
HydroTech omnl'ctors, and the Pcrma-Kupl manufactured by Daspit
Bru'>. Marine Dive¡s Inc. A rigid spool piecl' is uscJ along with twn
mechanical cunnl'cturs to bridge the gap betwecn the two pipe ends.
Thc rnechanical conncctors are systems that mclude a mcans of
att.Khment to the pipeline ends, provisiuns tor axial kngth adjustment,
and (except Daspit) swivels to accommudatc angular rnisalignmcnt.
The primary equipment neu.led to make <1 repair ming mechanical
connectors includes a 200 to 250-ft-long surfacc vessd wtth muoring
capabilitics, diving support, surbce pipe·welding facilities, a lifting
cranc, anJ bottom-manipulatmg cqUipment.
Thc repair proccss typically procecds as follows
• Survey and inspcct damage to the pipeline
• PLm the repair procedurc.
• Mohdize the equipmcnt spre;ld and moor in the proximity of thc
Jamagcd arca of the pipeline.
• If pipe is buried, unbury a section of pipe on either side of the
damaged section.
• Cut out and retncve the damaged section of pipe.
• Attach lifting clamps of a manipulating frame or A-frame to each
scction of the pipe.
• Lift the pipe ends slightly uff the bottom and prepare them for
connection by rcmoving any coatmgs on the pipe.
...
~
.
• Place connectnr halves on each pipe ~·nd.
• Measure the required kngth of thc spool piece and fabricate the
spool on thc surface vcsscl.
• Lower the spool piece, line lll' the cunnectors with mating ha! ves on
the pipe, engagc the connector halvcs and set them, set the connec-
.. tors on the pipe cnds, and test the connectors.
~ • Lower thc pipe to thc seabed.
' • Hydrostatically test the pipeline and rebury if necessary.
Thc procedure is similar il the p1pelmc is Jamaged near a riser at a
platínrm lf thc riscr has becn dam,Jged, then a connector half may be
preinstalled at thc foot uf thL· replacement riser section prior to riser
setting.
A typ1cal repair arrangemcnt ll'>ll1g thc Rig·lnch Flexiforge connector
is shown in Figure 7.1 Thl' C.ripper arr;mgcment is shown in Figure 7).,
Slip joint
Ball joint
End connector
Procedure
1) Pipe ends are cut and cleaned
2) End flange connectors are lowered and forged to pipe ends
3) Spool piece consistmg of 1 slip joint and 2 ball joints is made
and lowered
4) Flanges on end connectors and spool are lined up. bolts are,
inserted and tightened. Boltless flange can be used where the
two flanges are compressed and connected by hydraulic power.
 ·,SIS,.. Jétn6 __

Suhst;iJ Pipt;I"Je Repa1r Systerns ! 161

Axial
adjustment ~ Angular adjustment

HydroCouple Ball
Ball connector
flange lock Misaligning flange housing

Grip and seal

coupllng
Procedure:

Procedure 1) Pipe ends are cut and cleaned

1) Prpe ends are cut ilnd cleaned. 2) HydroCouple connectors die lmvered rn él mar1ipulatmg frarne
2) Connector coupllngs wrth connector balls are lowered and 3) HydroCouple connectors are stabbed over prpe ends.
stabbed over cach end
4) Spool piece is fabricated wrth <..t b::~tl on ea.ch ond
3) Spool rs made wrth the ball connector cups.
4) Spool 15 lower.•d <1nd connector balts are stabbed in 5) Spool piece is lowered and connected lo MAF (connoctions
spool cups ant1 ball connection rs made up and tested.
can be made by inserting ;:md trghtc'nrn~; bolh)
5) Couplrngs arP next <1ctuated and tested.
6) Connections are sealed <1nd tec.ted
L __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
-------------~--

7.2 \u/>,,·,¡ rc¡>tJJr In C'rr¡ ¡•,' nJt·dwniu1l ccmnectur.,

and thc HydroCouplc arrangcmcnt is shown in Figure 7.3. Variations in
thc installat1on pmccdurcs are notcd on thesc figures. . tlange lock in Crippcr':. Jcsign, and hv ll'-L' ut .1 lockmg-ball¡umt in thc
In HydroTcch's Jcsign, axial adjustmcnts can be obtained by slipping
thc HydroCouple unit ovcr the pipe prior to scaling. A similar arrange-
mcnt cxists in Crippcr's Crip ami Scal coupling dcsign. In contrast,
Big-lnch provrdcs a slip ¡oint for axial adjustmcnts. In thc Big-lnch slip
joint Je,¡gn, a lcngth of only onc pipe diametcr necds to be cleancd and
pn:parl·J tu stah ami forgc thc conncctor.
A kngth of thrcc pipe diamctcrs must be cleaned and prepared for
conncctm stabbing and ad¡ustmcnts in the case of HydroTech or Crip-
pcr dcsigns. Angular adiustmcnts are obtained by the use of thc mis-
ahgmng tlangc in Hy,lroTcch ·., dl·~¡gn, hv U'>l" L>1 .1 (.TI ppL'I h;tll e( >lll1cTtur
B1g-lnch Jcsign.
Pcrma-Kupl's connccturs con-.,tltlltl' a suh-,t.ultiallv dittcrcnt concl·pt
than tlw othcr mcchanical UII1lllTtur-.. Attu thl· ptpL ¡.., prcparnl, a
Pcrma-Kupl connector IS asscmhlcd on thc prrc. Thl' prc-.,urc ~kcvc
incorporares soft packmg. AÍtcr thc LllltlT ca'>mg, whtch rc'>cmhk.., :1
Pi ideo damp, is assemblcd over thc ¡omt, thc annular '>pace 1'> pumpcd
full of gmut. Onc Perma-Kupl conncctm Clll hl· uscd tur a short rcp:11r, (>f
twu may be uscd at thc cnJs oi a spoPl piccc.
Small-d!amctcr !mes ( 10- 12 111. or lcss) in 200- ~()(J lt of water m ay
oltcn be liftcd to thc surfacc for a rcpan using <1 hall ¡oint. Thc prpc is
dewatcred, if nccessary, and rai~nl by onc ur more lilting purnts. A
 1·'· ''_J•l.
h.Ji]-uliiill'l tor hall 1~ wddcd to thc first pipe cnd. A ¡oint or two of pipe
nuy li1~t lx· wt·ldL'll on to bridge thc on-hottum g<lp betwcTil thc p1pc
end\.
Thc pipe wllh thc h,¡]J half attached is lowcrcd to thc scalwd ~u thJt 1t
ove·¡ J.q'~ the "ccond pipe en d. A mcasurcmcnt is ukcn on buttom, a!lll
thc <>c'lond plpt· end Is Lllsed tu thc surface. Tlw second h,dl h:llf IS
wddnl on :mcl t!Jt'l'ÍI't' 1s lowered. The two pipe end~ are LII~vcl slightly
.md tite· h.dl h:dvc~ .nc matc:d. Thc pipe IS lowcrcd to thc st·aht·d, ,Ind thc:
holh :Ire tlghtennl to lock and sea] thc hall joint.
7.24 Full Encirclement Sleeves (Ciamps)
Full·ciiCJrc-kmcilt "!<lit ~lccvcs, or clamp~. are made hy l'qwhl1t'
l kwlupnlc·nt Cu. ¡i'IJJcll), Daspit, Crippcr, and HydroTcch Tht· i'IItko
~rlu -,kt'\'e b sold ím unshorc and offshorc pipeline repans. Tht ::.e
slct·v,·s are Lllcly eonsidoed an alterna ti veto the rcpair metlwd covncd
prcVl!'ll~ly The appc,J!~ of thc split slcevc are ~unplicity and ltl\,. l'l'~L
To pcrturm a rcp:lir \\'Ith onc of thcse slccvcs, thc pipcllllc' muo.t t!ht
be ccHnpktclv cxpu-,ed by ¡ctting. These slcevcs are o.plit in h.Jlt :IXI.dly
and ht·ld tug,·tfwr hy a numbcr of studs anJ nuts. Units 1<1r ~uh,,·;¡
in-.r.!ILiritllls are hingcd to i.1cditate assembly onto the pqw. Thc· o.lc·c·ve
is lowcrL·cl on guidc wires to the seabcd in an opened positl!lll, cllhc'd
armllld thc clcaned pipt·, and pos1tioned ovcr thc lt:ak. StuJ~ .llld Illtt'-
:He thc·n 111'->L'Itnl and tightcncd to force the soÍt packing .I.~.IIII'->t ¡J¡,.
pq,c· t )! 1
Tl1t' s¡ 1 1It :>kL'\'e IS alow cust w;ly to rcpair a small kak 111' :1 wc.d-: "1''11
In plJ't'. Alth!lugh l'IItko anJ Daspit stock standard lcn~.;th~. Illdit\
opcl:ltdr-., mJmt.lin a '>tock of split slceves to mcet then antiupalt'd
rcq LII tl'l11c' Ilt s.
7.25 Flexible Pipe Repair
Fkxihlc plpt·, as manufactured by Cotlexip, can also he Lhcd tor
sub-.L·,¡ pipelin,· rcpans. Coflcxip pipe is availablc with tL1ngul citd
connc·ctllm~ or with plain ends which could be welded toa mechank·al
cunncctur. Lengths of p1pe must be prcpared on land tu the tL'L]UlrL·d
lcngth'->. In a rcpair situation, the required length of a spoul cannnt he
kntl\\'ll untd the damagcd pipe has been inspectcd and cut. As a rc-.ult, it
1s cit hcr lll'cessary tu supply more than cnough tlcxihlt: pipe, m t11 ¡¡JJ ,1
rig1d ~poul un -;Jte tu g1ve gross lcngth adjustments.
Su/lsc;¡ P1('e/¡ne Repalf Systcms 1 1l!:!
Cotlexip pipe provides largc axJ,d JnJ angular ad¡ustments, which can
prcclude the need to reposition thc p1pclme ends prior to making a
conncction. Moreovcr, thc Cotkxip p1pe rL·mams permancntly flexible.
This can be an advantage in ca~c·s \,·hnc a p1pe fadure occurs duc to
pressurc or thermal ettccts or duc· tu ~cabed movements.
7.3 Stocking Programs for Mechanical Repair Tools
Mechanical conncctor su~ h:l\'c ¡•r.,dlll'tÍilll kad tllncs of up to 4 or ()
months for the larger pipe SIZe'-.. Ct•I1lltT!tns lor emcrgency pipeline
rcpairs must be pruducctl and '-.t!ltl'll Ill anticlpation of nced. A
diffcrent-sized conncctor I'-> Tl'LjLIIrt·,J !1 1r c·;ILh pipe sJze. Many of thc Lngc
pipclme operators havc such <.tot ktnc, progr;lllh.
Thirtcen gas- transm i SSilll1 u >n '1'·' n :L·, opera t1 ng m the Cu lt of Me:>. 1u 1
havc joincd in a program to st1•ck LL>IllltTt(lr--. !or u~t· in making repairs.
Thc RUPE program, ''Resp!ln~e !() lln¡kJ\.,·,ltn l'ipt·lmc Emcrgencic~,"
covcrs pipchnc-rcpair requirc·mcnt-., tt111ll 6-IIJ. thwugh 3()-in. diame-
tcrs. Thrce mechalllcal cullllL'tl!>r" .u~cl .lcn·""'lrit."> m each pipe size
(e xccpt 22- in. and 2S -m. 1a tL' '>t 1" k l.,¡ \ . np¡w r u •llllL'C tor'i are stoc kcd up
through 20-in. HydmTt·ch l!H>l, .1ft' ''''L kul 111 thc larger sizes.
RUPE has rccl·ntly addt'll ~pl1t --.In 1 L''· t1>1t" ~tock1ng program. PI!Jco
units are stockcd throu¡•,h 12-111 --.¡:,, ( :np¡,t·r 1n 14-m. through 20-m,
anJ HyJroTcch 11\'l'r 20 111
This program J'i only 1'\t'\\(·,1 ,,.., ,¡·, r!J, r rt·J':llr opiion. Othn rep:11r
mcthods are also con'>idunl \\ i:,·¡¡ .J :'1'·'" t'Illl'r¡.~t·ncy :HI<.c<., :md tlll'
onL' hest suited Js uscd.
7.4 Comparison of Repair Methods
Rclative mcrits and dis;ld\'.IIIU~L·.., 11! ~urtacc wclding, hypcrharic
wclding, anJ mechanic.d-connL·ct¡•r rc·p.Iir ml'!hods are considercd and
cvaluatcd in this section.ln 111,111\' c.¡--.,·~. thc rel.ltiw tune rcquiremcnts,
installation costs, and availa bil Jt \' ttlL·,¡ui plllL'Ilt i ntl ucnce the se lcction
of thr method for rcpair of <l p.nt Iud.tr pipe! me.
Surtacc welding and hypnb;mc-\\'ci,lmg mcthods providc a continu-
ous wcldcd pipeline, whiCh is Cllll'>itkrnl ro he a ddinitc ;ldvantage by
most opcrators. In gener:II, 11lL'ch:miL·.d-connl'ctor rcpairs are the lc;lSt
costly and nwst rap1dly coinplt-t,·d, t''>lll'l'iJily In dcc·p water. Surtace
wciJing is more expen..,¡n· :111d ol ..,,,mewhat lun¡.~l·r duration than
rep,nrs madc by mech:IIlll:,IIL•·IiiiL'lll>h ·rh~- '>liiÍ.ll'L' wc·IJing mcthod
 r·-·
'J8illlt - .. Qll, J .IS, é.l Jlflü(

<liso ha-; gn:ater wcather sensitivity and is limitnl to water dq>th;, of
ahout JOO ft, dcpcnding on pipe size.
Hypcrbaric wclding is thc most expcnsive and most time·consuming
repair method. It requires skillcd welder-divcrs anda lay harge m spccial
vesscl to handlc tbc reyuircd manipulating frame and welding hahitat.
Approvcd welding proccdurcs are rcquired fur thc specific pipe to he
repaired regarding wall thickness, material grade, wcldmg rod, gas
mixtlnL·, etc.
Subsea P1peline Repair Systems 1 16',
connectors in the size of pipe to be rcpaired, smce the time requircd to
produce connectors can be many months. SU<.:h a dclay would eliminate
the mechanical connectors from consideration for repair of an opcrating
pipeline. A summary of the tcchnical compansons of emergency rcpair
methods is given in Table 7.1.

Tabla 7.1 Comparlson of Pipe Emergency Repair Methods

7.41 Technical Features
\1t'l ¡,, ,,¡¡ Sur/rice } / \'fl<!r/>¡JJ /C Mi'chdllic"ul
lt '' /?: \\'cJ.lJIJ>; \ \',·/¡! 111,, Connel'lr'n
\\'eldmg mcthoJ.., rcqunc expcnsive surface·support CLJll1plllL'I1t. The
surLlL e rcp;ll r of a large-diameter pipeline in Jeep water 111<1}' rcq une t wo \ttrl.t1 ,_. Lay hargc(sl Lt\' lurgL· lll Wurk har~,

pipe·l.!v barges tu lift ami support the pipe safdy during the wcldmg L'<llll!li< ,,·nt I.n,~c ~PL'u;tl- (lf h< l.t t
purp''"c VL'"d
oper<lll•lll Repairs using mechanical conncctors can be pcrtormed trom
a small work barge or a large work hoat. '>pe·¡·¡,¡) 1\.llgl' dJ V 1h A ll)~ll llll'll t t LlrlH'' lk('L'Ild'i llll
The hypcrbaric-weldmg method reljuircs vcry spcualizcd equ1prnent, t't\lll!llll<'lll wc 1,lmg h.r hll.l! ,ll·t U IL'I
111.111 U\

a l.ngc alignment frame, anda wcldmg hahitat. The requaL·ments fur l !111) t.lt lllll..., Slull<~w \\' .ltl'r 'H ;(,.¡ 11 di.Jllll'l<.'l. •1.1 -lll dLIIJl•·t..r
mcchalllcal connectors depend upon the manufacturn ami canmclude srn;dl dl,llltctu-; l,!H)(J Ir w !) d1\·L·r C.lp:tlnl:tll'',
spccial nggmg and A-frames to support thc connccrors dunng m-;~,J!(;¡. \\",·,ltilL'I lll¡;h .1\\,,kr.ltl' L''"'
tmn on the b,Jttom. "L'II'I (1 \'1( )'
The surtacc-wcldmg rnethod is most limitcd in tcrms of pipe ckm1e· .\d'. ,lllLl_i!.L"" f 11ghL~t ·qu,d 1ty \\L"I,kJ ll'j';lt 1 1,];,( 11>\\'·(1 J~(
tcrs ami water dcpths. Although this method has bcen used tor repairs to wdd
pipes larger than 30· in. in diametcr and in water depths cxceedmg 300ft,
1J¡,,,,l\·,lnt.l)~c·~ Unhury l"n~ '\1u't L·XpL'Il,IVL'; ),mg i\1u't 'l"L k ,·,m
It is nwst commonly employed for pipes up to about 16-in. in diameter
k11gth' \lÍ f'lj'L' ()JI [L'¡',III llllll'; fl'cjllllL'' lll.'d••h llt Llll'·
and water depths of less than :100 ft. The exact limitatwns for this l'lthc·r 'llk uf ,k¡)kd \\'L'ldcr lll\'L'f~. IL'L( ,1:<·
method depcnd heavily upon the size and capabi!ities of the s~rface hrc;lk; L'XP<'lhl\'L ,tpprll\',.,) \n·ldlllg
vcssel¡sl, weathcr conditions, and submcrged wcight of thc pipe to be j'lllLL'dlitl·'
IIÍtcd tll thc surfacc. Thc pipe is commonly dcwatcred bdore lifting.
Hyperbanc wclding has been demonstrated in thc Nurth Sea Jt water
depth~ L'Xccedmg 1,000 ft. The installation of mcchanical cunnecturs IS
basically limitcd by divcr depth capabilities.
Thc pnmary disadvantage of the surface-welding method is that if the 7.42 Experience
p1pelmc is buricd, it is necessary to uncover long lengths (SOO it or morcl
of pipe un either side of the break to lift the pipe ends tn the surface. E:.\pcnence includcs the gencral contractm's expenenct'·rcluhdity
Then, 1! the pipeline is to be reburied, a long length of pipe must be anJ prior npL·rator expcrience with a spccihc rcpair mcthod. Most
trcnchcd. Imdltm· n:pair-; in the Culf nf Mexíco have hccn done using surtace
The primary disadvantages ot hyperbaric welding are its high cost and weid1ng .md mechanie;d-conncction nwthods In thc case of pipe ;!lld
the time required for repair by this method. The primary disadvantage of 11'-l'r rcpa1r, must cxpcnencL· h;J~ heen by the ..,urfacc-wdd111g meth<'d for
the ll1L'L'hanical connector method is the nced to havc a stock uf 'mai(·,IIamL'tL'r ptpc or •;hallow- w <ltt'r dcpth. In re L1t1 vd y <.kep w .ltc 1
! ~.:;() lt ur grcatcrl ami for largc·dumcter pipe, riscr repans havt· bct'll
m,tdc us111g the nwchalllcal-conncction mcthml.
 7.43 Weather Sensitivity Su/Jst.:a P1pef1ne Repa1r Sysk.ms ¡ 1 t,

Thc ~urt.Ju:-wddmg mcthod is most sensitive tu weathcr during thc used, the skill of the construction crcw tincluding divcrs), water dcpth,
repan opcr;ltwn. Thrs 1.~ hccause buth ends of thc pipe must be lifted weather conditions, ;md othc1 factors whtch are situation dcpcmknt.
to thc ~ur!acc, !t:.rvrng the suspended portions cxposcd to various The importance of a short mstallation time ts magnified in bad-
hydrodyn.11nrc lurcco.. In general, thc sudacc-wclding mcthoJ can be weather seasons, where wcathcr w indows of 7 days or less m ay exist
uscd in vcry c.dm \H';Ithn oniy, particubrly whcre two bargcs are uscd hetween storms. If a repJIT can be made hy one methud in thc span ot a
tu IIft t he prpc. short weathcr wmdow, buth thc time and cost advantages will be
Subsca-rcpan mcthuds, including mcchanical connection and hypcr- magnified.
baric wcldmg, ;He kss sensitrve to weather conditions than surface
wdding. On thc othcr hand, most vcsscls performing subsca
mcchanical-conncction rcpairs are smaller than the full-sizcd harges
rcqurrcd ior 'iurlacc rcp.11r and thus can be sensitive to weather in water
dcpths grcatn th;rn 200 lL

7.44 Availability

:\1a¡or pipc-L1y Clllltractur-, havc the equipment to perform surface

wcldin¡..: rcparh. Surtacc wcldrng rcquires detailcd stress analysis to
conhrm that thc prpc cnds can be safely liftcd to the surface. Liftin~
schedule;, C.lll he· prcparcd <l'i thc barge is being mobilizeJ.
HypcrhJnc wddl!lg rn¡unes mobil1zation of thc alignmcnt framc,
hahuat, and ;,.ltllLltltm-drving cquipmcnL If new welding procedures
.m: rc·qurrcd tH rl \\"cl,kr-divcrs must be n:qualificd, the start of the work
may be dcLrynl ,\kchanrul·connector hardware must be available in
stock becathL' prmluctrun lc;~d times can be 3 or 4 months. This much
Jelay would clllnll1at\' CtHJnectors from considcration for many
cmergc·nc·y prpc·lirw rt·pairo.;.

7.45 Time and Costs

In ¡?.cncr.d, :-,urt.rcc \\ cldmg <md mech,mical connectors are the fas test
nH:thod~ lor prpc rq),IIJ JI¡ pcrbaric-wddmg repairs consume much
more tllllL' tu pcrlt1rll1, 1c. u 1ung in highcr costs. Mechanical connectors
are uo.u;rll y the lco;ht -cu~t 1y method uf repair. Surface wdding would be
most ex¡wn-,rve rf two h.ugcs are rcquired to lift thc pipe cnds tu the
surface '"' can be rcquncd lur largc-Jiamcter pipe and in deep water.
Buth t11nc e'>tlln,ltL'S and cust estimates will dcpcnd heavdy on the
ctrcumstances (IÍ an actual rcpair situation, including the equipment

8
Pipeline Risers
1 8.21 Flanged Connections
8.1 General
An Illlpllrtant cons¡Jcration in thc dcsign uf oftshorc pipclines 1s
C<lnncetwn to surfacc facilities. Oitcn, the pipeline un thc scabcd 1s
conncl'IL'O toa riscr which cxtcnds toa surfacc producmg faulity.
Manv typcs of pipeline risers have been used in thc past, including
n-;crs that can be sct on site and prcinstalled ri~crs that can he con·
ncctcd to thc pipe on the seabed by a subsca tic-in anangcmcut.
SckctHm of a particular installation method is intluenced by severa!
factors, mcluding water dcpth, project schedule, economics, and plat-
iorm dco.ign. Specialized analysis of the pipeline and ri~er are nccdcd to
cnsure tlcxibility of thc connection and safety of the systcm.
Thc various systems of pipeline-riser installations and conm·crions
are dcscrihcd in this chapter. A comparison of thcse systL'llls and
di~cll'>'iltll1 oi systcm tlexihility are also prcsented.
8.2 Riser Systems
Severa! rnethods exist for connccting a subsea pipeline to a prcin·
stalled (L'xisting) riser on a platform. These methods are sllndar to
midpmnt pipeline connections described in Chapter 6 and includc thc
following:
• Flangcd connections.
• Hyperharic welding.
• Mcchanical connectors.
• Subsea atmospheric welding.
168
P1pelme R1sers 1 16:)
Methods used for installing riscrs on -.ite mclude tbe followmg:
• SurfacL' wclding nu:thod.
• J-tube.
• Revcrse }-tubc.
• Bcnding shoe.
• Barefoot riser.
Flangcd conncctions are widely med for pipclinc-riscr tie-ins. Long
pipe spools, fahricatcJ in a ¡ig abnMd a work vesscl, are usually uscJ
with tlangcs. Alternatively, sw1vels llave bcen uscd to accommoJatc
angular misalignn1L'ntS hetwecn thc pipe .md riser. Thc spools normally
have right-anglc or Z-bcnds to provtdc tlcxihility in accommodaung
thcrmal and pressurc exp¡111~Ion. In some cases, particularly in large-
diamcter pipelines, rotating fLmgcs are uscJ tocase the installation.
Some opcrators favor tlangcs, v..·hilc others favor hyperbaric wclding
ThL' advantage of tlangcs is that thcy pcrmit ea~icr rcpairs in the evcnt nf
ptpclme/riscr dam.tge or corrosion. Thcre h;Jve hecn somc repons of
kaks, anJ thL'y can take ;tlong time tu locate. But this is not gl'llL'rally
rcgarded as a major factor fm climinating tlanges.
8.22 Hyperbaric Welding
Hyperhanc wclding has bccn uscd mostly fnr pipcline-riser tic-in-. 111
thc Jeep waters of the North Sea. Hypcrbanc-wclding contr;tctor~
mcludc Taylor Dtving, Comcx, BOC;SSOS, ,mJ Stolt Niclson.
Thc method m vol ves welding pups bctwet·n thc riser amJ a spool :md
hctwccn the spool and thc pipe !In e. Thc avnagc Jurauon tor compkung
, 1 hypcrbanc wcldeJ riscr 1s 20 day-., wtth 12 work days needcd for thL'
tuur wclds rcquired for <l typtcal nser. The hyperbanc work ch<unhcr ,md
alignment framc are normally handlcd by a pipc-lay bargc, a dL·mck
bargc, or a Lnge work vesscl.
8.23 Mechanical Connectors
As stated m Chaptt:r 6, thvse connLTtms mclude thosc of Big-lnch
Mannc Systems wh11.:h lllakL·c. thc FkxJiorgc riscr-connection systcm,
17(

Camcrun collet connectm system, Gripper riser ~y!:>tem, anJ llydro-

Tech n-.n tic-m system. Severa! riscr-connection conccpts liSL" thcse
L" Oll I1<."C tU fS.

1
8.24 Subsea Atmospheric Welding

LockhccJ l'etrokum Services (LPS) has a pipeline riscr conncctm

l--
¡PRC) sy:,tcm (Ftgurc H.l) which provides a wclded cunnectHH1 hctwecn
p1pc anJ ri~cr .lt thc scahcd under atmosphcric prcssurc. As a rc~ult, a
highcr LJUaltty wclJ can he ohtaincd than in hypcrbaric w.·IJmg. Thc
syst,·m conststs oí .1 hahitat chambcr which is a permancnt part uf thc
platlorm anJ mto which pipe is pullcd. After pipe is pullcd into the
chamh<.·r, thc chambcr i~ scakJ and pumpcd dry. A pup joint is wclJcJ to R1ser
thc pipe anJ ri~cr unJcr atmospheric pressure.
Thc mcthod is advantagcous whcn a bundle of sevcrallincs are to be ~ Platform leg
¡umcd mstde onc chamber. It has been used to makc three mam
connect 1om in thc Thistle Field in 197 6 and for severa! tlow 1in e cunncc- Service capsule
tl~ms in Bra::d. r\lthough installations performcd so far have uscd divcr
Chamber
support structure
asststanCL', thc systcm has thc poten tia! for use as a "diverless'' conncc- mounted on horizontal
tHll1 systcm. platform member
\

8.25 Surface Welding

Thc .,u rlacc-wcld ing method is u sed tm si m u! taneous inst al Llti\ 111 \ 1! a
ptpcline and riser. Iris most widely cmploycd for ptpelincs up tll .1hout
JO in 111 diametcr ami in water dcpths to ahout 3:10 lt. 1

In thto., nwrhod, ptpc ¡-, tirst laid on bottom near the pLufurnL l !1<.' J.¡ y 1
bargc liits thc p1pc to thc surfacc using davits, buoyancy dcviccs, or
both. A carcfully planncd pick-up proccdurc is uscd so that pipe 1s s;Jk]y
liftcd withnut ovcrstrcssmg. An illustration of pick-up stcps ¡o; shown 111
1Honzontal platform J
\ member Ball and socket
Figure S.2. Thc nser elbow 1Figure H.3l is wcldcd to the pipt: en d. ami plpL·
swivel port

L ___ ----~- --
1s gradually lowned ro thc scahcd with additional vertical pipe !->cctiuns
!->talkcd <ll1 and wcldcd to the p1pc. Thts proccdurc IS dluo.,tratcd 111
F!gurcs x.t anJ S.S. Thc IISCT is thcn st:t into posnion 11\.:xt w the
pladurlll lq.;, .md cL1mpo., are installcd to fastcn thc riscr to thL· platfmm
lcg, ;¡o., -.lwwn 111 f¡gurc K.6. A typ1cal clamp is shown in hgurc K 7.

8.26 J- Tu be Method
1\lcthudo., oi pipcline-riscr installations particularly o;uJtcd to
Jcepwatcr installations include the Hube and rcversc 1-tuhL· pul!
mcthods ThL' l·tubc pullm•:tll•ld lll\"(l]\'<.'s C<llllll'Lting a cable thre.Hicd
through <l prcmstallcJ 1 tuhc tn~m thL· l'Llt!tlflll to ;l pull hcad on tlw
lcadmg cnd of thc p1pc Thc cahk 1s connectnl toa surlacc cune ora
pulling winch mountcd on tl1L' pl.ltl<>rm or thc L1y vc~scl. As thc cable 1!-.
winched in, thc pipe cntn~ thL· l·tuht.- ;md ¡o., plast!cdly dcformcd ao., 1t 1s
 01 ®1 ®
1
01
®
1
®
1
01 Davits
t
Water :;ac~---/

Step 2

Step 1

Step O -------
,..,._-"":;..-

Mud line

8.2 Pipe oick-up steps for riser setting

·--~-~---·~--- ----------

---·--------------------

,.,_i/"\

,. . _;··•.!' f
•." 1 -·

·: ··- /
 ,r··'r'.''".' ('

'7- J ¡·,n pdrr :~ _. ;rc¡n. .. ·~·/SrS. ,., .: • .v1efhGuJ.

1
pulleJ through thc tubc tu tlll' surfacc Thc mcthoJ is 1llu~tratcd 11
Figure 8.8.
Thc J-tube mouth 1~ u~tully pL!L·L·J a kw kct ,Jhovc thc scaheJ, ;l!ll
the pipe spans from thc muuth tu thc ~c.1bcd. This allow'i lnr fututc
,<; :J /(1\t'l \¡'tflJJg L'UIJ(J111JL'S platform settlemcnts anJ reduces pipe bcndmg at thc mouth of th,
J-tubc. Corrosion protcct1on ol thc plpL' Jllsllk thc J-tubc 1s VJcwn:
as a prohlcm by sume upcrawrs, p;HticuLnly thc gas-tran~ml'>~lur
companit.:s.
,,u >fiUf( 1111e 1 ;, 3fl nüos

P1pel1ne Rtsers 1 7?

• ~ ¡·¡
1

11\

-~~1<-

t
:·,..

\ ..
8. 7 Riser clamp

Deepwater platforms frequently include a number of "spare" J-tubcs

to provide for possible futurc requirements for pipeline installati~ns.
1-tubes are cspecially suited to installation of flowline bundles, since a
bundle of severallines may be pulled at one time. An important aspect
for application of the Hube method to large-diameter pipeline risers is
the accurate determination of the pulling loads and the forces exerted
on the platform structure by the J-tube. An industry-sponsored program
conducted by Applied Offshore Tcchnology lnc. of Houston has resulted
in the development, physical verifications, and field-measurement ver-
ifications of a dctailed computer program for analysis of the j-tube pull
problem.
8.27 Reverse J-Tu be
In the reverse J-tube method, the pipe ts initiated at the platform deck
and lowered through the J-tube. The pipe is held in position and fed into
the tube by a gnppcr machme on the plat!()rm deck. lf a JownwarJ
pullmg force is neeJeJ, a cable may extenJ trum the pul! head un thc
p1pe, go Jown through the J-tube, cx1t at the bottum, anJ connect toa
pulling wmch at thc surface. The pul! torce may be providcd by a surtace
\L' ... sel or by anuther pulling arrangement.
Thc rcverse j-tube methoJ has beco used fnr Exxon's Hondo Fidd
p1pcline riscrs. The pipe is made up in a vcrtic1l position on thc pLltform
deck and pullcJ progrcsstvely Jpwn and through the J-tube as aJditional
J!lints ot pipe are adJed to the trading end of the ptpchne Sin ce onlv onc
\\clding st.ltion ts useJ, the ill'>talLHllJn is very ..,low Pipe m.1kc-up
,h~rupts other activlties on the platform deck, such as dnllmg
Since the ptpe cannot be WL'ight cnatL·d, the rever.,e 1-tubc mcthod ts
lllllltl'd lO .1hout 12-in. Jurneter pipe. This ~izc anJ smaller pipe c.m be
1 78 1 UIIStlGru npt~l,nc ues1qn, ArldiYSIS, anu IVIetllods
made sufnCiently heavy to he stable on the seahcd when filleJ with air
without use of weigbt coating.
8.28 Bending Shoe
The bcndmg·shoe method uf installation involves laying thcn ter-
minating the pipeline on the seahed with a length extended past the
platform. The lrL'L' cnd of pipe is thcn pulled by a crane winch and/or
against thc bending shoe, a prcinstalled support of fixed radius ncar the
base ot the platform, untd thc pipeline is bent into a vertical position.
The riscr 1s then securcd by tightcning prcinstalled clamps on thc
platform kg.
The benJing-slltlc method was dcveloped by Shcll Oil Co. Shell uscd
this system successfully in the Brent Ficld of the Nonh Sea and in thc
Maui FidJ off Ncw Zealand. The bending-shoe riser is availablc for
diverlcss installation of largc-diameter, dccpwater concretc-coated ris-
ers. Corrosion prutection can be accomplished using anodes and isolat-
ing thc chmps from the platform. Thermal expansion and soil movc-
mcnts are <lccommodated by allowing thc pipe to expand away from thc
bending "hile durmg opcration.
8.29 Barefoot Riser
Tlw.. mcthod was also dcveloped by Shell Oil Co. The pipe¡$ laid to
the platlorm and sct into preinstallcd clamps as additional pipe is
stalked ont" the riser. Extreme care is taken using this method so pipe
does not buckk as it is set in place. To date, this method has not bren
u sed.
8.21 O Comparison of Methods
8.2101 Technical Comparison
In the U S. Culf of Mexic~J, most riscrs have becn surface set or
flanged 1 tu hes have also bcen widcly used in decper water. Hyperbaric
wclding J'> avJílablc but has not oftcn bcen used because of its high cost.
Pipeline R1sers 1 1n,
Mechanical conncctors have bccn used for a fcw riscr tie-ins, primarily
to gain expericnce with thcm. Water llepths ha ve exceeded 400ft in only
a few cases, so sophisticatcd riser tic-in mcthods have not been required.
The most commonly cmploycd methods for cunnecting pipeline
risers in the North Sea ~He with tlangcs, hyperbaric welding, or a
combination of the two. Reccnt installations include prqvisions for
thermal expansion ami platform movement as appropriate, c.g., right-
angle bends, Z-bends, ami swivtls. Spools are oftcn 100ft or more long.
Flanged connections are n1st cHecuvc and offer relatively casy re-
placemcnt of corrodcd ur damagcd ~cctíons of pipe. Swivels in the spool
w ill specd alignmen t.
Hypcrbaric wcldmg ts ':(,..,dy Jt grl:,lt dcpths. The mcthod has bcen
dcmonstrated at mure tlun l ,ll()() ft water dcpth for 36-in. pipe. Pipeline
integrity is good, but LHn fL·p~ur-.. <!Te expensivc.
Mcchanical conncctms at L' Í.1vored by operators for specializcd ríscr
tie-ins. Thc Phdlips expenct1cc w1th carly-model HydroCouplcs was
pour, but latt:r modcb luH· .~I\'L'I1 good -..erv1cc.
Thc bcnding-shoc_' ll'>cr ha~ hc'-·n u;,cd once by Shell cm Brent A ticld
and on Mau1 A ticld 111 NL'\\' .I.L·.tb!ld. Rc:-.ults have becn favorable ami
thts mcthod may be goud !111 Ln,t;c ,11Jrnetcr, Jeep-water installati~ms.
Thc J-tubc has hedl l~'>L'd ,l!Jiv l11r ptpc díamctcrs up to i2 in. Thts
mcthod is fa'>t and co<.,t dll'ctl\L' httt h,t;, not YL't becn actually done iur
largc diamctcrs. l'WVhllll1.., ll1r thermal gruwth and cathodic protcction
may be ditf1cult to a¡•¡•h, but thc'>L' prohlt-ms ha ve becn sol ved for
spccific l'J'>CS
Surfacc wclded ;tnd '.l,tlk,·,! r1'>L't ttht.dl.ttwns havc no dccpwatcr
applicatiun~. Thi-; Jlh·th,,,¡ 1-.. 11111 a '>llltahlc dllltce for largc·diamcter
deepwatcr ,lpplicatH•n~.
The Nllrth Se·;¡ L'XI'L'I"IL'I•• e·\\ ttll¡'tpcltlll' rJ~L'llll~tallations illustr.llL'S
a broad unge uf '>l>illlll•ll~ ·ll'l'lk,\hk t" untqll•' '>ltll<ll1ons. Ncarly L·vnv
plattorm illu'itratL'~ a Llll~'.L •llpll>hknh, \\'h1ch prL'\'L'nts applicat1un nt a
"~tnck" :..ulutíon tPthc pH•hkm (>t tt~cr ck»ign Thc important vatiahles
arL''
• l'latlorm dL'Stgn
• P1pdmc d1,llTIL'tL·r .111d t1l.1ll'n,d
• Contcnts --Clllll)'~"tt ¡, 111 .11hi tun¡••-·r.ltutc
•11L·..,ign opL'ratlllg !Jktlllll <>1 Jtbt.dbtllHl.
• lncorporauon ut l'lll\'t'-1<'11" l11t t•·patr'
• Avaihbdttv ul .1 l''"''l'll, <lht c·ltn.tiVL' ~ulution.
• l'wicct tim1ng
 ,·11' '•''•'
180 1 Offshore Pipel1ne Design, Analysis. and Methods
8.2102 Economlcs
Surface set anJ flanged risers have usually the lowc~t cost for riscrs in
up tu about 300-ft water depths, although J-tubcs may be less cxpensive
for 12-in. and smaller sizes.
The following are approximate order of increasing costs for the most
cummon dcep-water pipeline-riser installation methods
• Hube.
• Flanged.
• Mechanical connector.
• Hyperbaric wclding.
Riser installation and conncction costs vary widdy. lmponant vari-
ables include pi¡1e size, water depth, gcographic arca, contractor work
load, and weather season. It is necessary to evaluare the costs of
riser-installation alternatives for a specific projcct tu determine the
lowest-cost altcmative. Even then, the lowest-cost methud may be
passed ovcr in favor of another method which offcrs apparcntly lowcr
lifetimc cost, lower risk, or ready availability.
8.3 Riser-Pipeline Flexibility
A pipeline and riscr systcm should be designcd tu rcmain flexible
during operation. Various systems are availabk to accommudatc
pipeline movcments dueto pressure and thermal dfccts. These system~
include expansion loops, flexible risers, and thermal growth riscr sys-
tcms using Cameron flexible swivels.
Various fmces may be imposed on a subsca pipdll1e, causing 1t to
movc axially, c.g., to grow and contraer. Othcr torces will tcnd to
restrain the pipe muvemcnt, due to thc lollmving cllects.
8.31 Interna! Pressure
Suh~ea plpl'llllc~ are bid tilkd with an ;tt at lllu~phL·ric pressurc
l'res<>uri::-mg tlw IInc causes thc pipe tn gtuw longitudmally. Thc reo.;ult-
mg forccs gcneutcd at the ends of the pipclme depend u pon the size and
wall thickness of thc pipe and can be great for large-diamcter, heavy-
wall pipes
P1pcl,ne R1ser'ó ¡ 11·
8.32 Water Temperature
At the time uf laying, the ptpc wall assumes thc temperaturc uf the
surrounding water, usually arounJ so~ to 70''F. As the seasons change,
the water tcmperature wdl n'>e ami fall, causing thc pipe to grow or
contract. This cffect acts ovn the cntirc pipe length.
8.33 Contents Temperature
When !luid tlows nlto a p¡¡wlinc ata temperaturc diffcrcnt frorn tllL'
~urrounding water tempcrat Uic, heat IS transicrred into or out uf the
pipe. Thi~ C:llbl'~ thc 111etJl temperature tu rise abovc or fall bduw thc
ambierH water tempcrature. The change in metal temperature cause'>
gwwth or C(lrttraction uf the pipe.
The ctkct of a tc·mpnaturc d!ftcrcntial dm1inishes with distance frum
thc urigin Thc dicct i~ gn·;~tn for ud than for gas pipdines Cas will
u~u.dly reach tlw -,urroundl!lg water tempcrature withm 1 or 2 miles
from the migm The thnmal dfects uf hot oil may cxtcnd for manv
mdc-;. A dctatlcd ;~n.llyC>is oi thc heat translcr is rcylllred to dctermmc
the logarithrnic telllpcuture prolilc along thc pipeline for cach spculic
ca~c and the rc..,ulung gruwth tlr cuntr;.JCtion uf the p1pe.
8.34 Residual Tension
Alter pipe 1" laid un the se.1hed, rc..,Idual tension rcmams 111 the l!nc
Jue to ten<,wn laymg rcqunc·menb. Such tension affccts the cxpan~iun
and contraction ch;~ractcnstic:-, uf thc linc during opcration.
8.35 Soil Friction
I:.xpanswnlorcc.., ;He rcsl~tnl by pipe-to-scabed fricnon, which limits
thc amount oi muvcmcnt actually observed at the pipe cnds. M;~ny
pipeline~ Jo nut nwvc· appreuahly at thc ends becausc the soil frictHm
cm be s1gnitiunt rcl..Itive tu the net effects of thc other factors.
8.36 Design Options
Thc pipdine/n-;cr ,k.,Igiter ha-. m;my pmsiblc optwns for dealmg
wlth thc problem., of pipe and ri~n movcrnents. The first step is a
 .,
Q e 1 -' .l
dctadcd analysis of inst:dlation and opcrating conditions tu dctL·rmmc
thc r;mgc of possihk pipe and riscr movcmcnb. Thcn, vanous pos~ihle
riscr dcsigns ;nc an;dyzcd to determine If pipl' ami riscr strcs~cs can he
mamLIIncd withm allowabk limits.
Option<; opcn to tlw dcsigncr, if strcsscs are iound to he L'XCL'Ssivc,
include:
• Ellllun.Jting lower n~cr clamp~ or othcrwisc increasmg thL· tlcxihil-
ity ol thc riser.
• Strl·ngthcning oí thc riser and clamps tu rcsist movcmcnt.
• Anchurmg thc pipe w thc scahcd near the riser.
•lnstallmg a tlexihlc link, c.g., a doglcg or Z-bcnd, bct wccn tlw
pipe! me and thc riscr. The tlexihlc link may be hard pipe or tlcxihlc
pipe, or it may incorporate movahlc swivels.
• lnstallmg a safcty jmnt to minimizc damage to thc rist:r or clamps in
C<lsc of a catastrophic seabed movemcnt.
The method chosen Jepends upon the amount of pipe movemcnt
npectcJ ami thc methods oí pipeline and riser installation.
Otht:r Important considerations include:
• Simplicity and case of installation.
• Comp,!tihility of the mcthod with the pipe ami riscr in-,r;dhtion
met hod and capahil i t ics of availahlc l'4uipment.
• Total 1n~talkd cost of the riser and connection systcm.
8.4 Typical North Sea lnstallations
Extcihi\'C cxperience in large-diametcr submarinc-riser 1nsrailations
can he gathen:d fmm Nmth Sea installations. This information can he
usdul in planning and designing large-diametcr, decpwater risns in
otbcr arca'> ol thc world.
8.41 Amoco Montrose
Thc Montrosc platform is a stecl structure standing in 300 tt ní w;ltcr.
Two 1O-in. oil-loading lines havc been connected to thc platform u.;;ing
J-mbes The tirst linc was installed in late 1975 by Rrown & Root Inc.'s
BAR JB. No expansion provisions were madc for thc installatHll1. The
lme was coatcd with thm-tilm epoxy.
Thc St~cund l-tubc pull was done in spring l97ó by the NcthnLmds
Ofishurc ORCA. Although weather conditions were unfavorabk, the
P1pe1tne Risers 1 1Kl
ship-shaped hull was much lcss sensitivc to sea states and enabled this
vessel to complete the pull in a relativcly short time.
8.42 BNOC Dunlin Tie-ln
The BNOC 16-in. pipeline from Thi~tlc to Dunlin was tied into
Shell's Dunlin pbtform using a combination of f1angcd and swivel
connectors. Santa Fe was the contractor.
The pipeline end was made up with a HydroTech Hydrobali/Flangc
unit anda pull head installed o ver thc hall. A right-angle spool piccc had
a Hydroball conncctor half on thc ptpclme end anda Cameron sw1vel
and ló-in. flange at tbe nscr l·nd Alter pipe was laid on the bottom, thc
pull head was cut off, exposmg thc hall, and thc spool piece wa~
connectcd at cach cnd.
Thc prímary advantagc ol thi~ arrangcmcnt 1s tocase alignment of thc
pipeline end and riscr. The combmatwn oí swtvcl jomts also provides a
degrcc of tlexibility in the line to accommodate thermal growth.
8.43 BNOC Thistle
The Thistlc platform is ,, ..,tecl structure in 530 ft of water Tbc
platfurm has 14 Lockhced chambcr:, w accommodatc connection'> oí
pipclincs to thc pbtfmm rí..,•:r.., Thru· 1(,-In pipelmes wcrc connccted
during carly to rmd-JlJ77 usmg the Lockhecd systcm.
The primary advantagc oi thc Locklwcd system is thc cxcellcnt-
qualny (API 1 !04 specllicition) wcl,lmg ach1cvcd undcr atmosphcric
conditions on thc scabed Thc Lile kbcL·d -,ystcm I~ adaptable to pire l ine'i
up w 3ó-in. diametcr
8.44 Elf/Norge Frigg Field
Th~ Frigg FíclJ íncluJc.., t\\·o ,.,tL'l'l ;md threL· u me rete platforms. All oi
the production is gas, ami ;dl rl'-L'T'- ;¡re Ctlmpktclv welded. The n~crs to
thc stccl pladorms \\'l'll' IIht.dkd hy hypL·rb.,nc wcldmg.
8.45 BP Forties
Thc Furtles F1cld cumplcx L!ll1:>1'->h ()¡tour :>tL·cl plJtforms in about 400
tt oí water. Riscrs wcrc lll'-.t,lllcd m 1<J7.) anJ ]')74. A.U-in. oil trunk lmc
(' /
í .. 4 ~· ... e ,)' '• 1 ·~.JI ,,,vj
extends from Forties to Cruden Bay. All pipeline risers are conventional
preimtalled and flanged.
8.46 Mobil Beryl and Statfjord
Both uf rhese platforrns are concrete gravity structures. A 32-in.
oil-loadmg line extends lrom the Brent A platform toan SPM base about
6,000 ft from the plarform. The riser tic-in extemls from the ce llar deck
with a spoul to the seaheJ connecting to the loading line. Taylor Diving
pertormeJ the hyperbarc wclding in 1975.
The St.ttfíord F!c!J has a 36-in. loading line extending from the A
pladorm toan SPM base 7,000 ft distant. The riser was preinstalled un
the platform anJ connectcd at the scabed using hyperbaric wdding with
a 90° ell spool piece. The pipeline was bottom towcd to the platfo!-ID in
490 ft water depth and connccted in the summer of 1977.
8.47 OXY Piper Field
The Pipcr platform is a stecl structure in about 470 ft of water.
Mechanical connectors and flanges have been used with all of the
largc-diameter risers. These included a 30-in. riser for the oil line to
Orkncy Islands, a 16-in. gas linc to Claymore, andan 18-in. gas linc to
the Fngg FielJ.
Thc JO-in. linc was connccted in 1976 using a Hydrobali/Hydro-
couplc umt. A Hydropak unlt was adJeJ latcr to improve se,ding thc
Hydrocouplc unit. Thc mi cxits the platform at about 200°F. Thc 16-in.
gas !me to Clayrnore was connccted using a Mark IV Hydrocouple
nser-m~tallauon unit Thc 18-in. gas line was installcd in 197H using
Camnon cullct cunncctors and two swivds in a ,pool piccc.
8.48 Phillips Ekofisk Complex
Thl· Ekoli~k Complex includcs a numbcr uf platforms in thc Ekothk,
Wcst Ekotisk, Albusk)el, Cod, Edda, Eldfisk, and Tor Fields Thc com-
plex gcncrally líes in 230 to 240-ft water depth.
Ekonsk is notcworthy in that it was originally developed using
HydroTech's mcchanical connectors for riser tie-in and subsca connec-
tions. l'hasc 1, an carly production system installcd in 1971, was sal-
vaged after thc permancnt production facilities were installed. Thc
Phasc 11 and Phase III pcrmancnt facilrties mcluJcd 2S Hydroball/
Hydrocouple (HB/HC) and HydmcouplciH.isn lnstallation units
(HC/RIU). .
Sorne of these connectors cxpcricnccd lc,lkagc. Howcvcr, tllls \y as
related primarily to pipe expansion duc tll lwt oil contents. The oillmcs
opera te at 230-240°F. and were not originally dcsigncd to accommodatc
the high degree of thcrmal cxpansilm cxpcrienced. In addition, cyclmg
of various lines caused thc scab in thc ori¡.:mal Mark 11 unib tu fail Tlw
newer Mark IV HC units includc unprovcd gnpping and scalmg
mechanisms, along with temperaturc compl'no.,atron and havc not ex-
pericnced lcakagc.
8.49 Shell Expro Brent System
Thc Brent Systcm includcs one pi;Jtiorm each 111 Cormorant and
Dunlin Ficlds and four platforms in Brcnt licld. Thcre are 14 pipeline-. lil
thc system. Riscrs werc installed over tlw pcriod 1iJ7S through 1iJ7K. All
riscrs on thc stecl platforms wcre premstallcd. Thc carly concrete
platforms had preinstalled risers on thc llUt;.ide, thc latcst concrete
platforms have riscrs inside the platfonn kgs.
A 2R-in. bcnding-shoc riscr was installcd at Brent A 111 II.J77. All ol tlw
other large-diameter risers are hard tlanged at thc hase of thc platll 1 Tlll<..
Thc low-pressurc risers have tlanges at hoth ends of a spoul prcce. Thc
high-prcssurc risers have thc spool pll:cc JOillcO to thc pipclme l·nd by
hypcrharic welding with a fl.mgc conncctrng thc spool to thL' Tl~lT A
numbcr of the concrete platiorms havc 1-tuhl·-. fur <-.mall-dramctn lnll''
(IH in. anJ less)
 :·;;<', '•''"
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1Y6lJ.
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'
 lndex

A dr.tg ltlTL'l'S, J7
dr.l\\ -dmvn mcthod, 1'>J
a1r IIIt,
lllJ
de IlkJ -,,unrkr, 11
Any wave thcory, .F1 .. lh P
di\ hucklc, 2-l
B E
h;I!I COI111LTtof, l.t)
n J¡,, ""unckr, 11
harl'luot rht:r, 17.'-í
L'IIL'dl\'t' \'L')<lllly, ~()
b,nhymL·try, lJ, U
L'llllliT, JI')
hearn mct hod. Sr'>, ¡.; 7 l'l'!l-,lllll {><), ~ 1
hcndmg ~lwe, 17¡.;
h<llllllL'T, 17 F
bu..:kk, 2~ 1.1 ,j LIIL'. J :; .j
huckl,: .nll·st<ll". J.s. 2.•1 \1¡ tH..·ld ltl·v~,..:lnpnll.'llt, =l
huckk I11Itl;ltllll1, 2.7 lillltc· c·lt-mvnt, l)()
hu e kl e nwdc-,, 2..'-í t1\cd r'Littnnn. ~
hucklc pr11pag;ItllJll, 2h ti.lll.~l' "J'll<d, !.'\~. l(,l)

e Jk\1hk plj'L' !(,2

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L.lt<'ILIT)', t)tll\' I.ltl', !)(,
¡;odiiucnt ol lrJL'll<lil, ·h ti"''. r,·-,¡-,t;lllcc c:o,·itiucnt, 11 ,,
udlet U>lll1l'Cl<IT. 1.lK, 1-W t)ll\dlllc'"· (,
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D.ncy ,·,¡u.Itlllll l l (, .~i.dl -,,i\II)dt:r, 12
detlclllllll 111L'l IH "'"· 1 . ~ '-). l '2 70
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192 lnde~

H p

hazJrJ~. H pipe connecuon, LB

pipe Jesign ekment,, 2.1 settlement, SJ RAT, 102
h..:aJ 1, '" 1 1h
hydr.Ju¡..:ht, 1 l4 pipe initiauon, 14ó, 147 side-scan sonar, 13 ~uriacc, 101
hyJrt >LI\ ll.lflliC fllf(L''i, .U pipe ¡oints, 74, 7') slceves, 162 trcnchmg regulations, 121
pipcl in e mute, 1Y, 21 J soil force, 57-60, (,(, trench stability, IIH
pipe rnakc-up, 99, IUIJ sml movemcnt, Só trunk lmes, 7
pipe pick-up, 135 soil resistancc, S4 tyrc~ of pipcl in es, 6
lllUtl,i Ll>L"IIIUL'llt, JK pipe posltionmg, l4ó smls, 10
llll'rtl.l Íl>IL'L''· .\."
pipe proper u es lormuL1s, óH sonar fish, 9, 14 V
pipe protect ion mcthods, 21 spoils, 11 H vi bwcore~, JI
J p1pe ~tahdny, 'iJ, 'i4 stinger, 77 -HO, H4 vortex lrequcncy, 4H
ll't { 111 ~ 1 11) 1 1 1 pipL' stilfm·ss, ')2, K(, Strouhal numhcr, 4H- SO
1-tuh ¡,..¡ I"IJ, 1r1 pipe stress subbottom pwfdc, 1(, w
dunng laymg, KO--S'i ~ubsea system, 'i, (, wave ch.nactcn~tics, .17
K Jynarnic, ')') surfacc conncctlon, 1.:1.'1, l.'ih wavc paramcter~. JS
low deprcssion, 61-64 ~urvey, H, 9 wa\'e pre~.,ure, .')')
K,·ui,·.~Jil- ~.-.1 rpe11 t L' r num hL· r, 41
ohstruction, 62, 6:1, 6(), ')') T w;tve theoncs, 36
kll1l'111.ltll. \'J<.,(ol>ll\', 4()
trcnchmg, 117 weiJ¡¡Jg
Kulknhcr~ 11
pipe terminawm, 146, 14H templare, IJ4 .lt mmphenc, 1S6, 2JS
pipe trcnchmg toleran<.:es, 14 7 lnpc·rl.mic, !Jó, IS7, 16')
L
b;Jckhll, 106 tow, hottom, 1()4 \\'l't huckk, 24
Li \' l'.if~L' -, l ~ \ hun;il dcpth, 106 tow mstallauon, l)S
l1tt ,.tl,·;:¡,·¡L·¡¡¡ -Hl, -~.\ Jl·pth of CllVCr, 1()(, tow, z
htt ¡, ,, ll' 11) p.nametcrs, 106 oil bm turn, 1ll l
lo.hiJ:L: :111c·~ sp;ins, 61, IOH
plstun.~ravitycorn, 11,12
M pluw mg, 1 14
llLlC:lh llL .lll••lll.lh IS producuon lauiltic.,, .,
lll.l¡~llc!• •llic'tc·r. 1:-. pr11pagauon pres.surt·, 27
rnech.::ilt.tl l'•'lllh'Ctlll'. I.P, I.'>H,
¡¡,L)
R
llh'Lh.l:Jit.d pump. li'J rcduccJ veluuty, ') 1
me.:h.llilc.tl lrt·nrhm.~. 111, 112 rccl hargc, 06-9H
111lllllcllt " ' lllt'rtl.l, (,S rc,idual tcnsion, 1K 1
.\1olfl"'iiL'<jll.ltlllll, .\7, .\K rcversc 1-tuhe, !7(,_ 177
Rcynolds number, 40, 44
N nscr íkxihllity, !HU, IS2
nscr sctting, 172-Jl(,
rl'iCfS, 16H
o roughness cocfiicicnt, 40
RUPE, 163
ud /:'.. ~-'"
exrl.,r.lt 11 •n. 4 S
j'flldllc't 1111) 2, ..,
~cour, 69
nght, 2, 4
~eatloor mappmg, 14, l.'J