CHEMISTRY

CHAPTER 1

2.1 Analysing matter

2.2 Changes in the state of matter
2.3 Synthesising atomic structure
2.4 Understanding isotopes and assessing their importance
2.5 Understanding the electronic structure of an atom

2.1 ANALYSING MATTER

WHAT IS MATTER?
Matter is anything that has mass and occupied space.

THE PARTICLE THEORY OF MATTER

Matter is made up of tiny and discrete particles (Atoms & Molecules)

TYEPS OF PARTICLES
a) Atom
b) Molecules
c) Ions

A) ATOM
The atom is the smallest, indivisible particle of an element.
Atoms of the same element are exactly alike and are different from the atoms of all other
elements.
Examples :
Mg
H Zn

B) MOLECULES
Molecules are the smallest particles of an element or compound that are made up of two or
more atoms.
Examples :
Water, H2O Carbon Dioxide, CO2
O O C O

H H

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C) IONS
An atom or a group of atoms that has acquired a net electric charge by gaining or losing one or
more electrons.
Ions that are positively charged is called cations (loss of electron)
Ions that are positively charged is called anions (gain/accept electron)
Examples: Oxygen ion Hydrogen Ion Hydroxide ion
2- + -
O H O H

ELEMENTS AND COMPOUND

Matter can either exist as an element or a compound.
Element is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical nor
physical methods.
An element consists of only one type of atom. Element can be either atoms or molecules.
Examples: Magnesium;Mg , Sodium;Na , Sulphur;S , Hydrogen;H
Compound is substance containing 2 or more elements chemically joined together
A compound is made up of either molecules or ions.
Examples, Magnesium is an element; oxygen is an element – they can only be burnt to form
magnesium oxide compound.
Magnesium,Mg Element Oxygen,O Element Magnesium oxide, MgO Compound
Mg O Mg O

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2.2 CHANGES IN THE STATE OF MATTER
Matter can exists in three different forms
a) Solid
b) Liquid
c) Gases

CHARACTERISTICS SOLID LIQUID GAS

Diagram

Arrangements of - Particles are packed - Particles are packed - Are far apart and in
particles close together in orderly closely but not orderly random arrangement
arrangement arranged
- Have little empty space - Have little empty space
between them between them but more
than in solids
Movements of - Can vibrate but cannot -Are not held fixed but -Are free to move
particles move freely about their free to move throughout anywhere in the
fixed position liquid container
Forces of - Very strong - Strong but weaker than - very weak
Attractions solid
between particles
Ability to be - Very difficult to be - Not easily compressed - Easily compressed
compressed compressed because the because the particles are because the particles
particles are packed packed quite closely. are very far apart.
closely.
Volume - Has definite volume - Has definite volume - No Definite volume
Shape - Fixed shape - Follow the container - Fills the whole container
Heat Energy - Fixed - Moderate energy - Highest energy content
Content content

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Melting ( SOLID  LIQUID)
Melting is the process where a solid changes to its liquid state at a certain temperature (called
the melting point) and pressure when it is heated.
When a solid is heated the particles vibrate more strongly as they gain kinetic energy and the
particle attractive forces are weakened.
Eventually, at the melting point, the attractive forces are too weak to hold the particles in the
structure together in an ordered way and so the solid melts.
Note that the intermolecular forces are still there to hold the bulk liquid together - but the
effect is not strong enough to form an ordered crystal lattice of a solid.
The particles become free to move around and lose their ordered arrangement.
Energy is needed to overcome the attractive forces and give the particles increased kinetic
energy of vibration.
So heat is taken in from the surroundings and melting is an endothermic process (ΔH +ve).

Freezing ( LIQUID  SOLID)

Freezing is the process where a liquid changes to its solid state at a certain temperature (called
freezing point) and pressure when it is cooled.
On cooling, liquid particles lose kinetic energy and so can become more strongly attracted to
each other.
When the temperature is low enough, the kinetic energy of the particles is insufficient to
prevent the particle attractive forces causing a solid to form.
Eventually at the freezing point the forces of attraction are sufficient to remove any remaining
freedom of movement (in terms of one place to another) and the particles come together to
form the ordered solid arrangement (though the particles still have vibrational kinetic energy.
Since heat must be removed to the surroundings, so strange as it may seem, freezing is an
exothermic process (ΔH -ve).

Vaporization [Evaporation] (LIQUID  GAS)

Vaporization, also called evaporation is the process whereby atoms or molecules in a liquid state
gain sufficient energy to enter the gaseous state.
On heating particles gain kinetic energy and move faster and more able to overcome the
intermolecular forces between the molecules i.e. some particles will have enough kinetic energy
to overcome the attractive forces holding the particles together in the bulk liquid.
In evaporation* and boiling it is the highest kinetic energy molecules that can ‘escape’ from the
attractive forces of the other liquid particles.
The particles lose any order and become completely free to form a gas or vapour.
Energy is needed to overcome the attractive forces between particles in the liquid and is taken
in from the surroundings.
This means heat is taken in, so evaporation and boiling are endothermic processes (ΔH +ve).
If the temperature is high enough boiling takes place.
Boiling is rapid evaporation anywhere in the bulk liquid and at a fixed temperature called
the boiling point and requires continuous addition of heat.
The rate of boiling is limited by the rate of heat transfer into the liquid.

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 Evaporation takes place more slowly than boiling at any temperature between the melting point
and boiling point, and only from the surface, and results in the liquid becoming cooler due to
loss of higher kinetic energy particles.

Condensation ( GAS LIQUID)

Condensation is the change of gas to liquid. Heat energy is given out as gas particles slow down
and move closer to one another to form liquid.
On cooling, gas particles lose kinetic energy and eventually become attracted together to form a
liquid i.e. they haven't enough kinetic energy to remain free in the gaseous state.
There is an increase in order as the particles are much closer together and can form clumps of
molecules.

Heating Curve

A Naphthalene is in solid state at any temperature below its melting point.

The particles are very closely packed together.
The forces between the particles are very strong. The particles can only vibrate at a
fixed position.
A-B As the naphthalene is heated, heat energy is converted to kinetic energy.
Kinetic energy increases and the molecules vibrate faster about their fixed positions
and the temperature increases.
B Naphthalene is still in solid state.
Naphthalene molecules have received enough energy to overcome the forces of
attraction between them.
Some of the particles that gain enough energy begin to move freely.
Naphthalene starts to melt and changes into a liquid
B–C Naphthalene exists in both solid and liquid states.
The temperature remains constant because the heat that supplied to naphthalene is
used to overcome the forces of attraction that hold the particles together.
The constant temperature is called the melting point.
The heat energy that absorbed to overcome the intermolecular forces is named as
the latent heat of fusion.
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 C All the naphthalene has completely melted.
Solid naphthalene has turned into liquid.
C–D Naphthalene is in liquid state.
As the liquid naphthalene is heated, the molecules gain more heat energy and the
temperature continues to increase.
The particles move faster and faster because their kinetic energy is increasing.
D Naphthalene still exists in liquid state.
Naphthalene molecules have received enough energy to overcome the forces of
attraction between the particles in the liquid.
Some of the naphthalene molecules start to move freely and liquid naphthalene
begin to change into gas.
D–E Naphthalene exists in both liquid and gaseous states.
The temperature remains unchanged.
The is because the heat energy absorbed is used to overcome the intermolecular
forces between the particles of the liquid rather than increase the temperature of
the liquid.
This constant temperature is the boiling point.
E All the naphthalene has turn into gas.
E-F The gas particles continue to absorb more energy and move faster.
The temperature increases as heating continues.

Cooling Curve

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 P The substance exists in gaseous state.
The particles have very high energy and are moving randomly.
The intermolecular forces between the particles are very weak and can be ignored
P–Q The substance is in gaseous state.
The particles lose kinetic energy during cooling, the particles getting closer to each
other and the temperature drops.
Q The substance still exists as a gas.
As the molecules are close enough, stronger forces of attraction result in forming of
intermolecular bonds.
The gas begins to condense and become liquid.
Q–R The process of condensation going on.
Stronger bonds form as gas changes into liquid.
The substance exists in both gaseous and liquid states.
The temperature remains unchanged.
This is because the energy produced during the formation of bonds is equal to the
heat energy released to the surroundings during cooling.
This constant temperature is the boiling point.
The heat energy that releases during this condensation process is called the latent
heat of vaporization.
R The substance exists only in liquid state as all the gas particles have condensed into
liquid.
R–S The substance exists as a liquid.
As the temperature falls, the naphthalene molecules lose heat energy. Their
movement shows down and they move closer to each other.
S The substance still in liquid state.
The particles have very little energy and begin to move closer towards one another
as it starts to freeze into solid.
S–T The liquid is changing into solid form.
Molecules rearrange to form the molecular arrangement of a solid.
The substance exists as both liquid and solid.
The temperature remains constant until all the liquid changes to solid.
This is because the energy released is the same as the energy lost to the
surroundings during cooling.
This constant temperature is the freezing point.
The heat energy that releases during this freezing process is called the latent heat of
fusion.
T All the liquid freezes into solid. The particles are now closely packed in an orderly
manner.
T–U Once all the liquid has become solid, the temperature falls once again until it reaches
room temperature.
The substance is in the solid state here
U The substance reaches room temperature and remain at this temperature as long as
the room temperature remain the same.

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2.3 SYNTHESISING ATOMIC STRUCTURE

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ATOMIC MODELS

John Dalton’s JJ Thomson’s

atomic model atomic model
1805 1897

Atom is a tiny invisible ball Discover the electron

Atom is a positively charged sphere Neil Bohr’s
atomic model
1913

Discover the proton.

Nucleus contain proton.
Electron moves outside nucleus
Rutherford’s James Chadwick’s
atomic model atomic model
1911 1932

Discover the existence of neutron Electron

1908zmoves in the shell s
Nucleus contain proton and neutron around nucleus

THE SUBATOMIC PARTICLES OF AN ATOM

1. Atoms are made up of tiny particles called subatomic particles.
2. An atom contains three types of subatomic particles:
a. proton,
b. neutron and
c. electron,
3. The proton and neutron form the nucleus at the centre of an atom.
4. The electron moves around the nucleus at a very high speed.
5. The nucleus is positively charged because of the presence of protons, which are positively
charged. The neutrons are neutral.
6. The symbols, charge and relative masses of proton, neutron and electron are as below
Particles Symbol Relative Charge Mass
Proton P +1 1
Neutron n 0 1
Electron e -1 1/1840

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 PROTON NUMBER AND NUCLEON NUMBER
Proton number of an element is the number of proton in its atom
Nucleon number of an element is the total number of proton and neutrons in its atom

SYMBOL OF ELEMENTS

Hydrogen H Aluminium AlS

Oxygen O Sodium Na
Nitrogen N Silicone Si
Sulphur S Calcium Ca
Magnesium Mg Iodine I

THE REPRESENTATION OF AN ATOM OF ANY ELEMENT

2.4 UNDERSTANDING ISOTOPES AND ASSESSING THEIR IMPORTANCE

WHAT IS ISOTOPES?
Isotopes are elements which have same number of proton but different number on nucleon and
neutron
Examples, Isotopes of Hydrogen

USES OF ISOTOPES
Medical
Gamma rays of cobalt-60 are used to kill cancer cells without surgery in patients. This treatment
is known as radiotherapy.

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 Patients with skin cancer can be treated using beta rays from the isotopes phosphorus-32 and
strontium-90
Medical instruments such as surgical equipment, syringes and bandages can sterilize by using
gamma rays.
Radioisotopes are also used as tracers.
A small amount of sodium-24 is injected into the patient's body.
A radioactive detector is then used to detect accumulation of sodium-24 and therefore detect
tumours and blood clots before they become dangerous.
This tracing method is also used to investigate the thyroid glands by measuring the uptake of
iodine-131.
Plutonium-238 in a nuclear battery is used to produce small electric shocks in the heart
pacemaker.
People with irregular heartbeats need to have a heart pacemaker implanted inside their chest.
The nuclear battery of the pacemaker provides a tiny electrical shock to ensure a steady
heartbeat.

 Agricultural
Radio isotopes are used to cause mutation in insects so as to make them sterile or to cause
death. These serve as pest control in agriculture.
The metabolism of phosphorus by plants can be studied using phosphate fertilisers that contain
phosphorus-32.
A small amount of phosphorus-32 is used in fertilisers.
The radiation produced by phosphorus-32decaying is detected by a Geiger-Miller counter.
This method can trace the passage of phosphate ions in plants..
Carbon-14 is used to study the passage of carbon during photosynthesis in plants.

 Industrial
Isotope sodium-24 is used to detect leakage of underground pipes.
Beta rays are used to control the thickness of plastic, paper and metal sheets in factory.
Gamma rays are used to detect whether cans or bottles are filled up to the required amount.
Sodium-24 is used to measure the wear out rate of engine in a vehicle.

 Food Preservation
The gamma rays from cobalt-60 are used to kill bacteria in food to make fresh vegetables and
fruits last longer without any change in quality, flavour and texture of food.
Food Preservation
Gamma rays are used to inhibit budding in potatoes.

 Others
Radioisotope carbon-14 is used to study and estimate the age of ancient artifacts. This method
is named as the radiocarbon dating.
Plutonium is used in nuclear reactors to produce electrical energy.

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2.5 UNDERSTANDING THE ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM

Electron arrangements is also known as electronic configuration

The third shell : 8 electrons

The second shell : 8 electrons

The first shell : 2 electrons

Nucleus

Examples :
Chlorine , Cl
Proton Number : 17

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