OVERVIEW OF RECENT SOIL IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

E.C. Shin
Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil and Environmental System Engineering,
University of Incheon, Republic of Korea

ABSTRACT:In recent years, soil improvement works have been extensively implemented for the various marginal
lands development projects. A great amount soils are hydraulically filled by the dredging ship and various soil im-
provement techniques are being used for stabilization of soft ground. Some ground modifications are required for rein-
forcing the soil to have enough bearing capacity and confinement to support the load carried by the existing or super-
structures. The paper presents the current construction methods of sand piling including sand compaction piles, sand
drains, strong sand pile , mammoth compaction pile, compaction grouting, stone column, vibro-compaction, shallow
and deep dynamic compactions, vertical and horizontal vacuum consolidations, prefabricated vertical drains, and pro-
gressive trenching method. Design procedures, construction sequences, and quality control for various soil improve-
ment methods are presented. Finally, construction case histories of soil improvement are also discussed with construc-
tion process, field performance for both sandy and clayey soils. The selection of soil improvement method is depended
on geological formation of soil, soil characteristics, cost, availability of backfill material, and experience in the past.

1 INTRODUCTION additional confining pressure along required part of com-

In the past 40 years, various soil improvement methods
such as deep chemical mixing method, construction of
compacted granular columns, grouting, prefabricated
vertical drains (PVD), shallow and deep dynamic com-
pactions, vertical and horizontal vacuum consolidations,
progressive trenching method (PTM), and preloading
have been used for onshore or offshore land development
projects. Sand compaction piles have been extensively
used in Asian countries like Korea, Japan, Singapore for
offshore development projects. While vibro-compaction
and deep dynamic compaction methods are more
frequently used in Middle Eastern countries as well as
European countries. Grouting techniques are more
popular in Japan and USA, and South American
countries. The vertical & horizontal vacuum consolida-
tions and PTM are mostly applied to an ultra soft clayey
soil for the land reclamation project. Installation of
compacted granular piles and PVD can accelerate the
consolidation process of clayey soil and hence increase
its shear strength. Construction of these vertical drains
also increases the load bearing capacity and prevents the
possible damages by earthquake. Vertical drain methods
are fast and relatively inexpensive methods compared to
the other deep stabilization methods. Most of soil
improvement works are for the construction of airport,
various storage tanks, embankment for roads, industrial
complex, port and harbor facilities, and so on.
2 SAND COMPACTION PILE
Sand compaction pile technique was developed by
Murayama (1958) in Japan. Since then several different
methods of making sand compaction piles such as sand
drain, packed drain, strong sand pile, and mammoth
compaction pile for different degrees of densification and
site condition have been developed. Sand compaction
piles are usually constructed in a soil which has2 an
undrained2 shear strength varying from 5kN/ m to
15kN/ m to provide enough confining pressure to the
completed sand compaction pile. Packed drain method
can be possibly applied if the existing soil has less than
the required undrained shear strength because it provides
pleted sand drain by means of flexible fiber sack.
Sand compaction piles on reclaimed land from the sea
usually have diameters varying between 0.6-0.8 m with
an area replacement ratio, a s ≤ 0.3 – 0.5. Typical pile
spacings range from 1.5 m to 2.5 m. Construction proce-
dures of the sand compaction piles are shown in Fig.1
The steps for sand compaction pile construction are as
follows:
Step 1. Installing a casing pipe having an outside diamete
r of 0.4 m and a wall thickness of 16 mm at a
designated position on the ground with an allowabl
e maximum horizontal deviation of 0.3 m .
Step 2. Driving the casing pipe into the ground by the
vibro-hammer with an allowable deviation of two d
egrees with respect to the vertical. The vibrator us
ed has the following characteristics: weight, 54 kN (
6.1 ton); driven by a 90-kW (120 hp) motor and had
a vibrating force of 443 kN (50 ton).
When a localized hard spot is encountered with
SPT N-values greater than 20, water jetting is used
to facilitate the penetration of soil layer.
If the possibility of mud to enter the casing, air
pressure in the range of 294-392 kN/m2 is applied.
Step 3. When the casing pipe reaches the desired depth
(that is, penetrated the full depth of the soft clayeys
oil which varied from 20 m to 25 m), about 2 m3of s
and is filled through the upper hopper of the
pipe. The casing pipe is then drawn up at the speed
of 9 m/min through a distance of 3 m .
Step 4. An air pressure of 588 kN/m2 is applied to the to
of the sand for extrusion from the tip of the casing.
Step 5. The casing pipe is redriven through a distance of
2 m under vibration to compact the sand pile.
Step 6. Steps 3, 4 and 5 are continued until the sand pile
is built up to the ground level.
Construction procedures of sand drain are Steps 1, 2, 3, 4,
and 6 outlined above. The diameters of sand drains are
usually varying from 0.4 m to 0.5 m with a center-to-
center spacing ranging from 1.8 m to 2.5 m. Therefore,
density of compacted sand in sand drain is less than that
of the sand compaction pile described above.
Construction sequence of strong sand pile is similar to
that for a sand drain with the exception of horizontal and
circular vibration of the casing pipe in Step 4. Additional
compaction is also applied directly to the sand discharged
out of the lower end of the casing pipe by a horizontal vi-
brator. The density of compacted sand in strong sand pile
is much higher than that of the sand compaction pile.
Strong sand pile can be constructed on reclaimed land or
sea.
Construction procedure of the mammoth compaction pile
is similar to that in sand compaction pile outlined previ-
ously. This particular method is usually used in offshore
construction as shown in Fig.2. Typical diameters and
area replacement ratio range from 0.8 m to 2.0 m and
as ≤ 0.5 – 0.8. Generally 2 to 4 mammoth compaction
piles are constructed simultaneously from a large barge.
Fig.1 Construction sequence for sand compaction pile
Fig.2 Construction of mammoth compaction pile
Shin, et al.(1992) reported the soil improvement case his-
tory of steel mill complex in Korea A total of 23,217
sand compaction piles and 27,224 sand drains were at-
tempted, out of which only 0.62% of the sand compac-
tion piles and 0.36% of the sand drains were not success-
ful. The cases for which sand pile construction was not
successful were due to one or more of the following rea-
sons:
1. The slope of the sand pile deviated more than two
degrees from the vertical direction.
2. The pre-estimated length of the sand pile was not
achieved due to localized hard spots.
3. The casing pipe did not reach the required depth past
localized hard spots due to the malfunctioning of wa-
ter jet equipment.
4. Horizontal deviation of the actual sand pile location
was more than 0.3 m from the designated location.
5. The sand pile was broken during the construction
process. The reason for breakage are (a) malfunction-
ing of the lower end of the casing (shoe) and (b) care-
less operation of the construction equipment.
6. The level of sand inside the casing drawn on the
automatic recording graph was more than 0.3 m due
to the incomplete extrusion of sand from the bottom
end of the casing. This was due to insufficient air
pressure.
7. Automatic recording graphs were not drawn well due
to malfunctioning of the recording system.
8. The gradation of the sand was not in agreement with
the design requirements.
3 COMPACTION GROUTING
Grouting methods are categorized into : (a) permeating
grouting, (b) compaction grouting, (c) hydro-fracture
grouting. Among them, compaction grouting method is
commonly used for ground reinforcement. Compaction
grouting uses displacement to improve ground conditions.
A very viscous(low-mobility), aggregate grout is pumped
in several stages to form grout bulbs, which displace and
densify the surrounding soils. The high degree of soil im-
provement can be achieved by sequencing the grouting
work from primary to secondary to tertiary locations.
Compaction grouting technique can be applied in the ar-
eas of karstic regions, rubble fill and poorly placed fill,
loosened soil, liquefiable soils, and collapsible soils to fill
the void and to compensate for ground loss during tun-
neling work and reinforcement. The construction process
of the compaction grouting process is shown in Fig.3.
Fig.3 Construction of compaction grouting
Several geotechnical considerations must take into ac-
count to form a good quality of compaction grouting
(Hayward Baker, 2005).
1. The in-situ vertical stress in the treatment stratum must
be sufficient to enable the grout to displace the soil
horizontally. In this case, the grout injection pres
sure should be carefully selected to prevent the uncon-
trolled heave of the ground surface.
2. The grout injection rate should be show enough to
allow pore pressure dissipation. Pore pressure dissipa-
tion should also be considered in hole spacing and
sequencing.
3. Sequencing of grout injection is also important. If the
soil is not near saturation, compaction grouting can
usually be effective in most silts and sands.
4. The loss of the shear strength of soil during remolding
for the case of saturated, fine-grained soils, and sensi-
tive clays should be avoided.
5. The great amount of soil displacement could be oc-
curred in weaker soil strata. Exhumed grout bulbs con-
firm that compaction grouting focuses improvement
where it is most needed.
6. Collapsible soils can usually be treated effectively with
the addition of water during drilling prior to compac-
tion grout injection.
7. Stratified soils, particularly thinly stratified soils, can
be caused for difficult or reduced improvement capabil-
ity.
8. In case of compensation grouting, rate of tunnel ad-
vance and tunneling method must be considered to
avoid a void space in the grouted area.
The ade-
quate range of grain-size distribution for various soils for
compaction grouting is shown in Fig.4.
Fig.4 Adequate range of grain-size distribution for
compaction grouting.
There are several advantages of compaction grouting
such as pinpoint treatment, fast installation, and wide
range of application. This technique can be effectively
applicable in a variety of soil conditions. It can be per-
formed in very tight access and low headroom conditions.
Compaction grouting is non-hazardous and yields no
waste spoil disposal. There is no connection needed to
the footing or column. This method is used in the manner
of non-destructive way and adaptable to existing founda-
tions. There is no necessary to removal and replacement
or piling, so it is cost effective ground reinforcement
technique and minimized the surface environment.
Quality control of compaction grouting can be achieved
by following the procedural inspection and documenta-
tion of the work activity, testing to ensure proper mix de-
sign/injection rates, and verification of ground improve-
ment where applicable.
Ground improvement can be assessed by in-situ test like
standard penetration test (SPT), cone penetration test
(CPT), and geophysical methods. Data recording system
for monitoring the important grouting parameters can be
used on sensitive projects to have a good quality control.
4 COMPACTED STONE COLUMN
Compacted stone columns are stiffer than the surround-
ing soil which replaced. Because the stone column is co-
hesionless, its stiffness depends upon the lateral support
given by the soil around it. If that support is inadequate,
the stone column fails by bulging. Compacted stone col-
umn method is normally used the soil which has2 an
undrained2 shear strength varying from 15kN/ m to
45kN/ m to provide enough confining pressure to the
completed stone column. Densification of the soil with
stone columns is accomplished by either top-feed or the
bottom-feed method.
The stability of a soil-stone column composite system
also depends on whether skin friction develops between
the column and the soil surrounding it. Soft compressible
soils undergo much lower settlements when they are
stiffened by stone column. Bulging of the stone column
under the applied load causes horizontal compression of
the soil between columns which provides additional con-
finement for the stone. An equilibrium is eventually
reached resulting in reducing probable settlement, in-
creasing the shear strength of soil and hence the bearing
capacity, and mitigate the potential for liquefaction when
compared to unreinforced soil..
The two primary construction methods of compacted
stone column are practiced : (a) wet, top feed method, re-
placement and displacement method, (b) dry, bottom feed
method, displacement method.
In the first method, that is, replacement and displacement
method, jetting water is used to remove soft material,
stabilize the probe hole, and ensure that the stone backfill
reaches the tip of the vibrator. This is the most commonly
used and most cost-efficient of the deep vibratory meth-
ods. However, handling of the spoil generated by the
process may make this method more difficult to use on
confined sites or in environmentally sensitive areas. The
latter method, that is, dry and bottom feed method uses
the same vibrator probes as standard compacted stone
columns, but with the addition of a hopper and supply
tube to feed the stone backfill directly to the tip of the vi-
brator. Bottom feed displacement method is a completely
dry operation where the vibrator remains in the ground
during the construction process. The elimination of flush-
ing water in turn eliminates the generation of spoil, ex-
tending the range of sites that can be treated. up to a
depth of 24 m and is not inhibited by the presence of
groundwater. The construction process of compacted
stone column is shown in Fig.5.

Fig.5 Construction process of compacted stone column
A blanket of sand or a semi-rigid mat of reinforced earth
is usually placed above the stone column-reinforced soil.
This mat facilitates transfer of superimposed loads to the
stone columns by arching over the in-situ soil. With time,
as the surrounding clay consolidates, further load trans-
fer takes place from the native soil to the stone columns
by negative friction resulting in additional reduction in
soil settlement (Munfakh et. al. 1984). The critical depth
(which does not contribute of bearing capacity) of stone
column is usually about four column diameters (Mattes
and Poulos, 1969).
Design of stone column-soil structure is subject to the
several parameters such as column diameter, spacing,
stone size, internal soil friction angle, undrained shear
strength, degree of saturation, and permeation.
The diameter of stone column is depended on the desired
level of improvement, the method of installation, the
stone size and the strength of the in-situ soil. The column
diameters range from 0.5 to 1.2 m. Square or rectangular
grid patterns with center to center column spacing of 1.5
to 3.6 m are used. It is a function of the desired im-
provement, construction process, and the sensitivity of
the existing soil. Angle of internal friction of the stone is
depended on the size and shape of the stone, the installa-
tion process and the infiltration of the native soil between
stone particles. Greenwood (1970) assumed an angle of
internal friction of 35 degrees for evaluation of stone col-
umn horizontal resistance. High values of 40 to 45 de-
grees have been used, based on the results of direct shear
tests performed in the field on constructed columns
(Munfakh et. al. 1984.
Fig.6 Ultimate bearing capacity of stone columns
(Greenwood and Kirsch, 1984)
The friction angle, may have a big effect on the horizon-
tal shear resistance of the stone reinforced
2
soil. Modulus
values in the range of 40 to 70 MN/ m . Settlement and
stability calculations were also performed using effective
stress parameters of the soil (Goughnour, 1983 ; Priebe,
1976 ).
Design values of 20 to 30 tons per column are typical for
columns in soft to stiff clays (Mitchell, 1981). Both limit
analysis (Hughes and Withers, 1974) and experience
(Thorburn, 1975) indicate that the allowable vertical
stress, on a single column can be expressed by
= N SC c u /F.S
Where cu is the undrained shear strength of the soft
ground and F.S is the factor of safety. A value of 3 is
recommended for the F.S. Mitchell (1981) recommends
using an N SC of 25 for vibro-replacement stone columns.
Barksdale and Bachus (1983) propose a range for cu be-
tween 18 to 22, depending on the stiffness of the soil.
Brauns (1978) compared the results of a number of ana-
lytical approaches for determining ultimate capacity of
stone columns which is reproduced by Greenwood and
Kirsch (1984) as shown in Fig.6. Estimated settlement of
stone column treated group as a function of soil strength
and column spacing is shown in Fig.7. To theses esti-
mated should be added any anticipated settlements con-
tributed by the underlying strata. The installation of stone
columns led to a reduction in settlement to about 30 to
40% of the values to be expected on unimproved ground.
Fig.7 Effect of stone column on anticipated foundation
settlement (Greenwood, 1970)
Fig.8 shows that the soil improvement factor with the
area replacement ratio and the internal stone fric-
tion angle.
The degree of soil improvement is proportional to the The quality control and quality assurance of this tech-
angle of stone friction in the stone column and reverse to nique is somewhat similar to the case of compacted stone
the area replacement ratio. Fig.8 shows these relation- column. Fig.11 shows the degree of soil compaction with
ships. respect to the site surface area per compaction probe in
sandy soils.
Quality control of compacted stone columns can be pro-
ceed by means of the stone column location, resistance
level as measured by amp meter (Vibrator draws more
current in denser soils), quality and quantity of stone
added – friction angle and diameter of completed stone
columns. Several field tests can be done for quality as-
surance such as, SPT, CPT, DMT(Dilatometer Test),
load test, and shear wave velocity test with respect to
the depth of stone column.

5 VIBROFLOTATION

This technique was developed in Germany in the 1930s

and has been practiced in the United States since 1940s.
Fig.10 Treated and untreated soil profiles for granular
Vibroflotation also knows as Vibro-compaction is used to soil
densify clean, cohesionless soils. The performance of
this techniques in loose granular soil is excellent. How-
ever, it is marginal to good for silty sand and mine granu-
lar spoils. The action of the vibrator, usually accompa-
nied by water jetting, reduces the inter-granular forces
between the soil particles, allowing them to move into a
denser configuration, typically achieving a relative den-
sity of 70 to 85 percent. Compaction is achieved above
and below the water table. Fig.9 shows the process of soil
densification by vibroflotation method. The vibroflot
with a diameter of 350 to 450mm is lowered into the
ground with the help of water jetting at the bottom of the
vibroflot. Granular material is poured into the top of the
hole. The vibrating unit is lowering with a rate of 1 to 2
m per minute and gradually raised in about 0.3m lift per Fig.11 Soil treatment requirements for densification
minute and held vibrating for about 30 seconds at a time.

6 DEEP AND SHALLOW DYNAMIC COMPACTIONS

Deep dynamic compaction is the dropping of heavy dead

weights on the ground surface to densify soils at depth.
The degree of soil compaction involves a number of
blows and the weight of hammer, drop height, the spac-
ing of drop spot, and types of soil to be compacted. This
method is used to reduce the probable foundation settle-
ments and also reduce seismic subsidence. It can be used
in the area of garbage dumps, mine spoils, and collapsi-
ble soils. The typical weight of hammer, dead weight
which normally consisted with thin metal plates, ranges
from 10 to 30 tons and its drop heights of 15 to 30 m.
Impact grids are normally in of 2.1 x 2.1 m to 6.0 x 6.0 m.
Fig.9 Construction of the vibro-compaction process.

The 100-HP unit are normally used in the vibroflot. The
weight of a vibroflot is about 20kN and induced the
maximum centrifugal forces of 160kN. The vibration
amplitude can be up to 25mm with the operating fre-
quencies of 30 to 50HZ. The use of vibroflotation method
on granular fills increases bearing capacity and hence re-
duces foundation size. It can be reduced the foundation
settlement and mitigated the liquefaction potential during
earthquake
The configuration of treated and untreated soil profiles
for sandy ground is shown in Fig.10. The important pa-
rameters related to this technique are the type of soils in
the ground and its gradation as well as relative density.
Important geotechnical engineering parameters for deep
dynamic compaction are such as soil conditions, ground-
water level, relative density of soil, degree of saturation,
and permeability of soil to be compacted. The coarse
granular soils such as gravel and sand(PI=0) are excellent
material to be compacted and applied energy of 20-
25ton/m3 is normally required. The compaction effi-
ciency of fine grained soil like silty soil(0 PI 8) is
moderated to good and applied energy of 25-35ton/m3 is
normally required. For cohesive soil which has a plastic-
ity index greater than 8, the deep dynamic compaction
method is not applicable.
The maximum depth of improvement by this method can
be estimated as
D = 1/2 (WH)0.5
Where D is the maximum depth of influence in meter, W
is a falling weight in metric tons, and H is the drop height
in meter.
The compaction area should be 30-45 m away from any
structures and sensitivity of vibration must be evaluated.
The number of blows per per area is depended on the
type of soil and depth of improvement required. The
tamping is normally executed in square pattern and 2-
43overages of an area is required. Meanwhile the pore
water pressure is checked by utilizing the piezometer.
The standard penetration tests in the deep dynamic com-
pacted area for Incheon International Airport(IIA) in Ko-
rea is shown in Fig.12. The depth of soil improvement is
about 5.0 6.0 m
Fig.12 SPT results for IIA site.
Dynamic compaction quality control can be made by
measuring the crater depth, surface elevation monitoring,
pore water pressure, SPT, CPT, geophysical monitoring.
The shallow dynamic or heavy hydraulic hammer com-
paction method was adopted in the area where the height
of the hydraulic fill was 2.0 6.1 m. The diameter of
rammer in this compaction equipment is 1.5 m and its
weight are 10 metric ton for runway and taxiway area and
7 metric ton for the rest of area (Fig.13).
(a) Hydraulic hammer
(b) Ground condition after tamping
Fig.13 Equipment and ground condition of heavy
hydraulic hammer compaction for IIA site
The number of blow per one spot was 20 blows with the
drop height of 1.5 m. The spacing of tamping was 2.1 m
and the pore water pressure was measured during the
tamping period. Comparison of soil improvement effects
is tabulated in Table 1.
Table 1. Comparison of soil improvement effects
In-situ test Pre- After
investigation tamping
SPT N value 16 24 42 44
DCPT N d value 36 43 59 99
Degree of compaction 84 86 94 97
(%)
Void ratio 0.719 0.765 0.526 0.572
7 PREFABRICATED VERTICAL DRAIN
This method was first developed in 1937, Sweden, by
Kjellman. Since then it is very popular to use in soft clay
to improve the ground, particularly in South East Asian
Countries. Construction without soil treatment is usually
impractical due to unpredictable long-term settlement.
Simple surcharging as a soil consolidation method can
take many years. Soil consolidation using prefabricated
vertical drains (PVD or wick drains) can rapidly increase
settlement rates with dissipation of water and cut con-
struction period drastically. The prefabricated vertical
drain core is made of high quality flexible polypropylene
which exhibits a large water flow capacity in the longitu-
dinal direction of the core via preformed grooves or wa-
ter channels on both sides of the core. Each vertical wick
drain can provide a greater vertical discharge capacity
than a 15 cm diameter sand column. The prefabricated
vertical wick drain core is tightly wrapped in a geotextile
filter jacket of spun-bonded polypropylene which has a
very high water permeability while retaining the finest of
soil particles. Both the core and geotextile filter jacket
have high mechanical strength, a high degree of durabil-
ity in most environments, and high resistance to chemi-
cals, micro-organisms, and bacteria.
The width of drain board is 100 mm with its thickness of
3 mm. It can be installed in triangular or square pattern
with an anchor plate and quantity of installation is about
40 – 80 m per day. Fig.14 shows the installation of PVD
in a square pattern for the construction site of Incheon In-
ternational Airport. The approximate settlement trends
for various ground conditions are depicted in Fig.15.
Prefabricated vertical drains are installed vertically to
depths exceeding 65 m. The inclination of installed PVD
should be less then 5 % and the slope of ground level is
no more than 2%.The water, under pressure in excess of
hydrostatic, flows through the filter fabric of the prefab-
ricated vertical drain and into the channels of the vertical
drain core where it can flow vertically out of the soil.
This flow mat be either up or down to intersecting natural
sand layers or to the surface where a sand drainage blan-
ket of 50 cm thick (k=2.0 x 10-2 cm/sec) or prefabricated
horizontal strip drains are provided. The water in the soil
has only to travel the distance to the nearest prefabricated
vertical drain to reach a free drainage path.
Fig.14 Installation of PVD in IIA site
Fig.15 Settlement versus time with or without PVD
The PVDs are usually placed in 1.0 -2.0 m interval de-
pending on the desired consolidation time. As a result of
this method of accelerating the consolidation process, un-
evenpost - construction settlements can be virtually
eliminated.
8 VACUUM CONSOLIDATION
Vacuum Consolidation is an effective means for im-
provement of saturated soft soils. The soil site is covered
with an airtight membrane and a vacuum is created un-
derneath it by using a dual venturi and vacuum pump.
The technology can provide an equivalent pre-loading of
about 4.5 m high conventional surcharge fill.
Instead of increasing the effective stress in the soil mass
by increasing the total stress by means of conventional
mechanical surcharging, vacuum-assisted consolidation
preloads the soil by reducing the pore pressure while
maintaining a constant total stress.
Fig.16 Schematic diagram of vertical vacuum consolida-
tion method
Typical layout of a vacuum-assisted prefabricated verti-
cal drain consolidation scheme is shown in Fig.16.
Construction process of the vertical vacuum consolida-
tion is described as below.
Step 1. Placing a free drainage sand blanket (60-80 cm
thickness) above the saturated ground in order to
provide for a working platform.
Step 2. Installation of vertical drains, generally of 5 cm
in equivalent diameter, as well as relief wells
from the sand blanket.
Step 3. Installation of closely spaced horizontal drains
at the base of the sand blanket using a special la-
ser technique to maintain them horizontal.
Step 4. The horizontal drains in the longitudinal and
transverse directions are linked through connec-
tions.
Step 5. Excavation of trenches around the perimeter of
the preload area to a depth of about 50 cm below
the groundwater level and filled with an impervi-
ous Bentonite Polyacrolyte slurry for subsequent
sealing of the impermeable membrane along the
perimeter.
Step 6. The transverse connectors are linked to the edge
of the peripheral trench. They are then connected
to a prefabricated module designed to withstand
future pressure due to the vacuum.
Step 7. Installation of the impermeable membrane on
the ground surface and sealing it along the periph-
eral trenches. The membrane is delivered to the
site folded and rolled in elements of approxi-
mately 1000m2. The membrane elements are
welded together and laid in the peripheral trench
where they are sealed with the Bentonite Polyac-
rolyte slurry. The trenches are backfilled and
filled with water to improve the tight sealing be-
tween the membrane and the bentonite slurry.
Step 8. Vacuum pumps are connected to the prefabri-
cated discharge module extending from the
trenches. The vacuum station consists of specifi-
cally designed high-efficiency vacuum pumps act-
ing solely on the gas phase in conjunction with
conventional vacuum pumps allowing liquid and
gas suction.
The vacuum consolidation technique is often combined
with surcharge preloading either by placing an additional
surcharge by backfilling or using water placed on the top
of the impervious membrane. The major practical advan-
tage of the vacuum consolidation is that it generates in
the granular layer an apparent cohesion due to the in-
crease of the effective stress and the granular layer pro-
vides a useful working platform to accelerate the sur-
charge backfilling process. Experience indicates that
within days after vacuum pump is turned on, construc-
tion vehicles can maneuver on the top of the membrane.
Yeocheon industrial complex extension project in Korea
began in May 1996 and was completed in February 2002.
Total area of this project was 8,485,000 m2. It is located
on the South Sea about 300 km south of Seoul. The first
stage of this project was reclaiming the land from the sea
with the construction of earth dikes and hydraulically fill-
ing the soil by dredging ship with a capacity of 12,000
HP. The filled soil was silty clay in a slurry state. Prior to
the soil improvement work, it was necessary to obtain the
trafficability of subsurface soil layer for soil improve-
ment equipment. Schematic diagram of horizontal vac-
uum consolidation technique was adopted by using a
small barge-ship as shown in Fig.17 (Cheon 2000). The
depth of soil improved in this area is about 5 m with the
natural water content of 80%.
Vaccum Pump
Drainage
Head Pipe
Membrane Sheet
Ship
Earth Dike Soft Soil Earth Dike
Sealing Cap PBD
Fig.17 Schematic diagram of horizontal vacuum
consolidation method
9. PROGRESSIVE TRENCHING METHOD
Progressive Trenching Method(PTM) is executed prior
to any deep soil improvement work for strengthening the
surface of dredged clay fill layer by making a system of
trench network. The dredged-extremely soft clay fill
layer at the site had excessive water soon after pumping
activity. The success of this improvement method de-
pends on the effective removal of excessive water from
the layer. Heat energy of sun was one of main sources for
surface water removal from the dredged-clay fill layer by
the action of evaporation and eventually made the hard
crust at the surface.
Evaporation
Crust
Crust
Seepage
Infiltration
Self-Consolidation
Drainage Dredged-Clay Fill (M arine Clay)
Original Subsoil (M arine Clay)
O riginal Subsoil (Sand)
Fig.18 Schematic diagram of working mechanism of
PTM
Once hard crust was made, the effectiveness of evapora-
tion process was minimized by the presence of crust. To
expedite the evaporation activity, a system of trench net-
work was formed and later deepened for the drainage of
excessive water from the vicinity of surface. This trench
turned out to be also useful for draining of rain runoff
(Fig.18).
The adopting of PTM in soil improvement work is to
gain the shear strength of ground surface with a certain
thickness to support the soil improvement equipment.
Youlcheon industrial complex located on the South Sea ,
300 km away from Seoul, was also constructed on land
reclaimed from the sea. The dike is devided in several
blocks and it is filled by means of the hydraulically fill-
ing technique with utilizing the dredging ship. It has a
capacity of 12,000 HP cutter suction pump dredger with
dredging capacity of 1.2 mil. m3 per month.
When the self-weight consolidation of soft clay pro-
gressed for about 3-4 months after completion of soil par-
ticle sedimentation, PTM was applied over the soft
ground which had a water content of about 150 %. This
method is also one of the soft soil improvement tech-
Water
Outlet
niques in the upper soil layer to obtain the trafficability of
deep soil improvement equipment. Perimeter trench was
constructed along the earth dikes and then shallow inte-
rior trench was constructed (Geotechnical Eng. 2000).
The fundamental process of PTM is shown in Figure 16.
Normally, the contact pressure of soil improvement
equipment is about 1 t/m2. Therefore, the required shear
strength of clay for obtaining the trafficability could be
0.60 t/m2 with the corresponding water content of 70%.
The natural water content on the surface ground with
elapsed time is shown in Figure 17. The required natural
water content of 70% was achieved 1 year after filling the
dredged soft clay at the site.
PTM construction procedures are categoried into three
major parts: (1) construction of containment dyke and di-
vision of the area inside dyke into several blocks, (2)
pumping dredged-clay material into blocks in two phases,
and (3) removal of extra water through the weir and leav-
ing the fill to rest for 3.5 months and shallow-trenching
with Amfirol and deepening with disc wheel and ditch
cutter.
When the pumping work was completed, trenching work
was started at the end of 3.5 month rest period. The depth
of trenching was to deepen to 50 cm from the initial 20
cm as the strength of surface layer increased with time.
Different equipment combinations were used for the
deepening of trench. The main equipment Amfirol, which
could travel on land and water content of soil less than
150% was used at the site to form up the trench in the
beginning. Once the trench was formed in shape to about
20 cm deep, then disc wheel was employed to deepen the
trench to about 30 cm deep (Fig.19 a) and ditch cutter to
Drainage
Trench
50cm deep (Fig.19 b). The spacing of trench constructed
at the site was determined due to mainly turning radius of
equipment at the end of each path travel. The surface
natural water content of clay soil with the elapsed time
for PTM is given in Fig. 20.
 9 CONCLUSION REMARKS

Soil improvement techniques have been practiced since

in the early 1960s with the exception of soil stabilization.
The primitive soil reinforced works were also practiced
in the pre-history period. In this paper, only recent devel-
opment of deep soil improvement methods are mostly in-
troduced. Chemical soil stabilization and geosynthetics
reinforcement technology, slope reinforcement tech-
niques such as soil nailing and micro-piles are not dis-
cussed. Several case histories of deep soil improvement
methods are also described with a specific construction
and design critera. It is found out that any marginal land
can be possibly used for the foundation soil of the struc-
tures as long as the water table is not so high. In the early
period of the soil improvement techniques, the soil and
rocks are the major sources for the ground reinforcement.
While the recent soil improvement technologies are being
used more artifical synthetics materials in soil. The ad-
vanced new soil improvement technologies are being de-
veloped with cost effective and environmentally sound
methods for the future generation.

(a) Amfirol + Disc Wheel

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