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05 Eia PDF
05 Eia PDF
05 Eia PDF
Impact Assessment
of Irrigation and
Drainage Projects
OVERSEAS DEVELOPMENT
Food and Agriculture Organization ADMINISTRATION OF THE
of the United Nations UNITED KINGDOM
i
Table of Contents
Preface 1
Purpose 2
Acknowledgements 3
List of Abbreviations 3
Introduction 5
The Need for Environmental Assessment 5
Objective 7
Using the Guide 8
EIA Process 17
Resources 19
Screening 20
Table of Contents ii
Scoping 20
Prediction and Mitigation 21
Management and Monitoring 23
Auditing 24
Public Participation 25
Managing Uncertainty 27
Techniques 28
Baseline studies 28
The ICID Check-list 28
Matrices 29
Network diagrams 33
Overlays 34
Mathematical modelling 35
Expert advice 37
Economic techniques 37
Human Migration 69
Resettlement 70
Women’s role 70
Minority groups 70
Sites of value 71
Regional effects 71
User involvement 71
Recreation 71
Ecological Imbalances 72
Pests and weeds 72
Animal diseases 73
Aquatic weeds 73
Table of Contents v
Human Health 75
Disease ecology 76
Specific risks and counter measures 79
Health opportunities 81
References 88
Recommended Texts 88
Bibliography 89
Annex 1: Glossary 95
Glossary 95
Preface
The importance of environmental protection and conservation measures
has been increasingly recognized during the past two decades. It is now
generally accepted that economic development strategies must be
compatible with environmental goals. This requires the incorporation of
environmental dimensions into the process of development. It is important
to make choices and decisions that will eventually promote sound
development by understanding the environment functions. The United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in its
Agenda 21, Chapter 18: Protection of the Quality and Supply of
Freshwater, underscored the importance of environmental protection and
conservation of the natural resource base in the context of water resources
development for agriculture and rural development.
PURPOSE
The aim of this publication is to provide guidance to personnel working
in irrigation and drainage to enable them to take into account the
environmental impacts of such developments. The main focus of the
document is on the process of undertaking environmental impact
assessment. In addition, major environmental impacts of irrigation and
drainage projects are discussed in detail. Guidance is also provided for
preparing terms of reference for undertaking an environmental impact
assessment study. A list of recommended texts and bibliography will help
the reader to obtain additional information on the subject.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the considerable assistance provided
by Dr. Arumugam Kandiah of the Land and Water Development Division
of FAO, Random Dubois of the FAO Investment Centre and their
colleagues at FAO. Also Robert Bos, Executive Secretary of PEEM, made a
major contribution, in particular to the section Human health. Other
notable contributors include Peter Furu (Danish Bilharzia Laboratory),
Alfred Heuperman (Institute of Sustainable Irrigated Agriculture, Victoria,
Australia), Dr. A Mauderli and Martin Fritsch (Institute for Land
Improvement and Water Management (ETH), Zürich, Switzerland), and
Wolfram Dirksen (German National Committee of the ICID). The
publication was reformatted and prepared for printing by Han Kamphuis
and Chrissi Redfern. The authors wish to thank the above, and others too
numerous to mention, for their contributions to this Guide.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ADB Asian Development Bank
AfDB African Development Bank
CWC Central Water Commission of India
EA, EIA Environmental Assessment, Environmental Impact Assessment.
EAP/EMP Environmental Action / Management Plan
EBRD European Bank for Reconstruction and Development
EC Electrical Conductivity
EIRR Economic Internal Rate of Return
EIS Environmental Impact Statement
EOP Effect on Production
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
ERL Environmental Resources Limited
ESCAP Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
GIS Geographic Information System
GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit
(German Agency for Technical Co-operation)
ICID International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage
ICOLD International Commission on Large Dams
IEE Initial Environmental Examination / Evaluation
ILO International Labour Organization
IPCS International Programme on Chemical Safety
IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature
IWRA International Water Research Association
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
ODA Overseas Development Administration of the UK
OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
Environmental Impact Assessment of Irrigation and Drainage Projects 4
Introduction
THE NEED FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
Economic, social and environmental change is inherent to
development. Whilst development aims to bring about positive change it
can lead to conflicts. In the past, the promotion of economic growth as the
motor for increased well-being was the main development thrust with little
sensitivity to adverse social or environmental impacts. The need to avoid
adverse impacts and to ensure long term benefits led to the concept of
sustainability. This has become accepted as an essential feature of
development if the aim of increased well-being and greater equity in
fulfilling basic needs is to be met for this and future generations.
• to predict problems,
• to find ways to avoid them, and
• to enhance positive effects.
OBJECTIVE
This guide aims to assist staff in developing countries from various
disciplines and backgrounds (government officials, consultants, planners)
to incorporate environmental considerations into planning, designing,
implementing and regulating irrigation and drainage programmes, plans
and projects, thus leading to sustainable projects. The guide aims to be of
general use throughout the developing world and has three main
functions:
The objective has been to produce a brief reference text that will be of
most benefit to non-specialists in developing countries who are perhaps
facing the need to carry out an environmental assessment for the first time.
To ensure brevity, and accessibility to all readers, technical, scientific or
engineering content has been kept to a minimum. It is assumed that this
information is readily available in other textbooks or manuals and that
many readers will already be familiar with some technical aspects.
Initially EIA was used for specific, particularly large scale, projects such
as dams, which have obvious long-term consequences. Now, however,
greater attention is given to the wider relationship between development
and the environment. The relatively insignificant actions of many
individual people may cumulatively have a much greater impact on the
environment than a single construction project. For example a programme
to support small-holder development, through agricultural credit schemes
to Water User Groups, may not warrant an EIA if each scheme is
considered in isolation. However, the impact within a river basin or in the
water sector in a region can be significant. A sectoral or basin-wide EIA
would enable an assessment of the collective impact of the programme. In
a further example from Tamil Nadu, India, a decision was made to provide
free electricity to farmers to pump water for irrigation. Whilst this
increased agricultural production it also led to groundwater mining: the
reduction in the groundwater level in some areas has resulted in severe
environmental and economic problems.
The Context of
Environmental Analysis
POLICY FRAMEWORK
Increasingly, at the national level, new environmental policies are being
introduced, perhaps including a National Environmental Action Plan or
National Plan for Sustainable Development. Such policies are often
supported by legislation. Government policies in areas such as water, land
distribution and food production, especially if supported by legislation, are
likely to be highly significant for irrigation and drainage projects. An EIA
should outline the policy environment relevant to the study in question.
Results are also likely to be most easily understood if they are interpreted
in the light of prevailing policies.
SOCIAL CONTEXT
A project or programme and its environmental impacts exist within a
social framework. The context in which an EIA is carried out will be
unique and stereotype solutions to environmental assessments are
therefore not possible. Cultural practices, institutional structures and legal
arrangements, which form the basis of social structure, vary from country
to country and sometimes, within a country, from one region to another. It
is a fundamental requirement to understand the social structure of the area
under study as it will have a direct impact on the project and the EIA.
Poor people often find themselves in a vicious circle. They are forced by
their poverty to exploit natural resources in an unsustainable manner and
Environmental Impact Assessment of Irrigation and Drainage Projects 11
One of the main conflicts arising from irrigation and drainage projects
is between those responsible for agriculture and those for water. In some
countries, there are several key ministries with differing responsibility, such
as agriculture, public works and irrigation, plus several parastatal
organizations and special authorities or commissions, some perhaps
directly under the Office of the President. The institutional aspects are
complex; for example in Thailand, over 15 institutions have responsibility
for various aspects of soil conservation work.
Environmental Impact Assessment of Irrigation and Drainage Projects 12
Laws designating what projects require EIA should, ideally, limit the
statutory requirements to prevent EIA merely becoming a hurdle in the
approval process. This will prevent large volumes of work being carried
out for little purpose. Most legislation lists projects for which EIA is a
discretionary requirement. The discretionary authority is usually the same
body that approves an EIA. This arrangement allows limited resources to be
allocated most effectively. However, it is essential that the discretionary
authority is publicly accountable.
Data are essential to an EIA and the organizations responsible for data
collection and analysis, for meteorology, hydrology, water quality etc,
should be strengthened (or established if not already existing). The
organizations must be well funded so that the data collected are reliable
and complete and the staff well trained and motivated. Inadequate and
unreliable data will result in poor studies based purely on qualitative
analysis which can be subjective and easily refuted.
Once a project has been approved, responsibility for ensuring that EIA
recommendations are implemented may fall to a weak unit within the
executing agency. This institutional weakness can considerably devalue an
EIA and render it a mere hurdle on the path to implementation to be
discarded once a project starts. When preparing an EIA it is essential that
the environmental authorities are identified and strengthened to ensure
they are not toothless. The authority responsible for project implementation
should be accountable to “watchdog” environmental agencies. One way of
ensuring this would be to link budget allocations from the Ministry of
Finance/Planning to satisfactory performance.
Environmental Impact Assessment of Irrigation and Drainage Projects 17
EIA Process
The EIA process makes sure that environmental issues are raised when a
project or plan is first discussed and that all concerns are addressed as a
project gains momentum through to implementation. Recommendations
made by the EIA may necessitate the redesign of some project
components, require further studies, suggest changes which alter the
economic viability of the project or cause a delay in project
implementation. To be of most benefit it is essential that an environmental
assessment is carried out to determine significant impacts early in the
project cycle so that recommendations can be built into the design and
cost-benefit analysis without causing major delays or increased design
costs. To be effective once implementation has commenced, the EIA
should lead to a mechanism whereby adequate monitoring is undertaken
to realize environmental management. An important output from the EIA
process should be the delineation of enabling mechanisms for such
effective management.
• screening
• scoping
• prediction and mitigation
• management and monitoring
• audit
Figure 1 shows a general flow diagram of the EIA process, how it fits in
with parallel technical and economic studies and the role of public
participation. In some cases, such as small-scale irrigation schemes, the
transition from identification through to detailed design may be rapid and
some steps in the EIA procedure may be omitted.
Environmental Impact Assessment of Irrigation and Drainage Projects 18
RESOURCES
An EIA team for an irrigation and drainage study is likely to be
composed of some or all of the following: a team leader; a hydrologist; an
irrigation / drainage engineer; a fisheries biologist/ecologist; an
agronomist/pesticide expert; a soil conservation expert; a
biological/environmental scientist; an economist, a social scientist and a
health scientist (preferably a epidemiologist). The final structure of the team
will vary depending on the project. Specialists may also be required for
fieldwork, laboratory testing, library research, data processing, surveys and
modelling. The team leader will require significant management skill to co-
ordinate the work of a team with diverse skills and knowledge.
There will be a large number of people involved in EIA apart from the
full-time team members. These people will be based in a wide range of
organizations, such as the project proposing and authorizing bodies,
regulatory authorities and various interest groups. Such personnel would
be located in various agencies and also in the private sector; a
considerable number will need specific EIA training.
The length of the EIA will obviously depend on the programme, plan or
project under review. However, the process usually lasts from between 6
and 18 months from preparation through to review. It will normally be
approximately the same length as the feasibility study of which it should
form an integral part. It is essential that the EIA team and the team carrying
out the feasibility study work together and not in isolation from each other.
This often provides the only opportunity for design changes to be made
and mitigation measures to be incorporated in the project design.
Environmental Impact Assessment of Irrigation and Drainage Projects 20
The cost of the study will vary considerably and only very general
estimates can be given here. Typically, costs vary from between 0.1 and
0.3 percent of the total project cost for large pro-jects over US$ 100
million and from 0.2 to 0.5 percent for projects less than US$ 100 million.
For small projects the cost could increase to between 1 and 3 percent of
the project cost.
SCREENING
Screening is the process of deciding on whether an EIA is required. This
may be determined by size (eg greater than a predetermined surface area
of irrigated land that would be affected, more than a certain percentage or
flow to be diverted or more than a certain capital expenditure).
Alternatively it may be based on site-specific information. For example, the
repair of a recently destroyed diversion structure is unlikely to require an
EIA whilst a major new headwork structure may. Guidelines for whether or
not an EIA is required will be country specific depending on the laws or
norms in operation. Legislation often specifies the criteria for screening
and full EIA. All major donors screen projects presented for financing to
decide whether an EIA is required.
SCOPING
Scoping occurs early in the project cycle at the same time as outline
planning and pre-feasibility studies. Scoping is the process of identifying
the key environmental issues and is perhaps the most important step in an
EIA. Several groups, particularly decision makers, the local population and
the scientific community, have an interest in helping to deliberate the
issues which should be considered, and scoping is designed to canvass
their views, (Wathern 1988).
At this stage the option exists for cancelling or drastically revising the
project should major environmental problems be identified. Equally it may
be the end of the EIA process should the impacts be found to be
insignificant. Once this stage has passed, the opportunity for major
changes to the project is restricted.
Before the scoping exercise can be fully started, the remit of the study
needs to be defined and agreed by the relevant parties. These will vary
depending on the institutional structure. At a minimum, those who should
contribute to determining the remit will include those who decide whether
a policy or project is implemented, those carrying out the EIA (or
responsible for having it carried out by others) and those carrying out
parallel engineering and economic studies relating to the proposal.
Chapter 5 gives details on preparing terms of reference for an EIA. A
critical issue to determine is the breadth of the study. For example, if a
proposed project is to increase the area of irrigated agriculture in a region
by 10%, is the remit of the EIA to study the proposal only or also to
consider options that would have the same effect on production?
• prediction methods;
• interpretation of predictions, with and without mitigating measures;
• assessment of comparisons.
The use of satellite imagery to monitor changes in land use and the
“health” of the land and sea is becoming more common and can prove a
cost-effective tool, particularly in areas with poor access. Remotely
sensed data have the advantage of not being constrained by political and
administrative boundaries. They can be used as one particular overlay in
a GIS. However, authorization is needed for their use, which may be
linked to national security issues, and may thus be hampered by
reluctant governments.
AUDITING
In order to capitalise on the experience and knowledge gained, the last
stage of an EIA is to carry out an Environmental Audit some time after
completion of the project or implementation of a programme. It will
therefore usually be done by a separate team of specialists to that working
Environmental Impact Assessment of Irrigation and Drainage Projects 25
on the bulk of the EIA. The audit should include an analysis of the
technical, procedural and decision-making aspects of the EIA. Technical
aspects include: the adequacy of the baseline studies, the accuracy of
predictions and the suitability of mitigation measures. Procedural aspects
include: the efficiency of the procedure, the fairness of the public
involvement measures and the degree of coordination of roles and
responsibilities. Decision-making aspects include: the utility of the process
for decision making and the implications for development, (adapted from
Sadler in Wathern, 1988). The audit will determine whether
recommendations and requirements made by the earlier EIA steps were
incorporated successfully into project implementation. Lessons learnt and
formally described in an audit can greatly assist in future EIAs and build up
the expertise and efficiency of the concerned institutions.
PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
Projects or programmes have significant impacts on the local
population. Whilst the aim is to improve the well being of the population,
a lack of understanding of the people and their society may result in
development that has considerable negative consequences. More
significantly, there may be divergence between national economic interests
and those of the local population. For example, the need to increase local
rice production to satisfy increasing consumption in the urban area may
differ from the needs as perceived by the local farmers. To allow for this,
public participation in the planning process is essential. The EIA provides
an ideal forum for checking that the affected public have been adequately
consulted and their views taken into account in project preparation.
There are no clear rules about how to involve the public and it is
important that the process remains innovative and flexible. In practice, the
views of people affected by the plan are likely to be heard through some
form of representation rather than directly. It is therefore important to
understand how decisions are made locally and what are the methods of
communication, including available government extension services. The
range of groups outside the formal structure with relevant information are
likely to include: technical and scientific societies; Water User Groups;
NGOs; experts on local culture; and religious groups. However, it is
important to find out which groups are under-represented and which ones
are responsible for access to natural resources, namely: grazing, water,
fishing and forest products. The views of racial minorities, women,
religious minorities, political minorities and lower cast groups are
commonly overlooked, (World Bank,1991).
MANAGING UNCERTAINTY
An EIA involves prediction and thus uncertainty is an integral part.
There are two types of uncertainty associated with environmental impact
assessments: that associated with the process and, that associated with
predictions. With the former the uncertainty is whether the most important
impacts have been identified or whether recommendations will be acted
upon or ignored. For the latter the uncertainty is in the accuracy of the
findings. The main types of uncertainty and the ways in which they can be
minimized are discussed by de Jongh in Wathern (1988). They can be
summarized as follows:
The results of the EIA should indicate the level of uncertainty with the
use of confidence limits and probability analyses wherever possible.
Sensitivity analysis similar to that used in economic evaluation, could be
used if adequate quantifiable data are available. A range of outcomes can
be found by repeating predictions and adjusting key variables.
EIA cannot give a precise picture of the future, much as the Economic
Internal Rate of Return cannot give a precise indication of economic
success. EIA enables uncertainty to be managed and, as such, is an aid to
better decision making. A useful management axiom is to preserve
flexibility in the face of uncertainty.
TECHNIQUES
Baseline studies
Baseline studies using available data and local knowledge will be
required for scoping. Once key issues have been identified, the need for
further in-depth studies can be clearly identified and any additional data
collection initiated. The ICID Check-list will be found useful to define both
coarse information required for scoping and further baseline studies
required for prediction and monitoring. Specialists, preferably with local
knowledge, will be needed in each key area identified. They will need to
define further data collection, to ensure that it is efficient and targeted to
answer specific questions, and to quantify impacts. A full year of baseline
data is desirable to capture seasonal effects of many environmental
phenomena. However, to avoid delay in decision making, short-term data
monitoring should be undertaken in parallel with long-term collection to
provide conservative estimates of environmental impacts.
The results sheet from the Check-list is reproduced as Table 1. The very
simple layout of the sheet enables an overview of impacts to be presented
clearly which is of enormous value for the scoping process. Similarly, data
shortages can be readily seen. The process of using the ICID Check-list
may be repeated at different stages of an EIA with varying levels of detail.
Once scoping has been completed, the results sheet may be modified to
omit minor topics and to change the horizontal classification to provide
further information about the impacts being assessed. At this point the
output from the Check-list can be useful as an input to matrices. The ICID
Check-list is also available as a WINDOWS based software package. This
enables the rapid production of a report directly from the field study.
Matrices
The major use of matrices is to indicate cause and effect by listing
activities along the horizontal axis and environmental parameters along the
vertical axis. In this way the impacts of both individual components of
projects as well as major alternatives can be compared. The simplest
matrices use a single mark to show whether an impact is predicted or not.
However it is easy to increase the information level by changing the size
of the mark to indicate scale, or by using a variety of symbols to indicate
different attributes of the impact. An example of a matrix is given as Table
2. The choice of symbols in this example enables the reader to see at a
glance whether or not there was an impact and, if so, whether the impact
was beneficial or detrimental, temporary or permanent. Figure 8 is another
example of a matrix, in this case used to clearly indicate the importance of
a range of wetland values.
ICOLD has prepared a large and comprehensive matrix for use in EIAs
for dams. The system of symbols for each box shows: whether the impact
is beneficial or detrimental; the scale of the impact; the probability of
occurrence; the time-scale of occurrence; and, whether the design has
taken the impact into account, (ICOLD, 1980). This comprehensive
approach, however, makes the final output rather difficult to use and a
maximum of three criteria is recommended per impact to maintain clarity.
Ahmad and Sammy (1985) suggest that the most important criteria are:
magnitude, or degree of change; geographical extent; significance; and,
Environmental Impact Assessment of Irrigation and Drainage Projects 30
The greatest drawback of matrices are that they can only effectively
illustrate primary impacts. Network diagrams, described below, are a
useful and complementary form of illustration to matrices as their main
purpose is to illustrate higher order impacts and to indicate how impacts
are inter-related.
Negative impact
Negative impact
Positive impact
Positive impact
No judgement
For each
Comments
No impact
very likely
very likely
as present
enviromental
possible
possible
possible
effect place
likely
a cross (X) in one
of the columns
D
A
C
B
F
1-1 Low flow regime
Hydrology
Forestry/Vegetation -1P +2P -1T -1P -1P -1P +4P -3P +3P +1P
Birds -2T -2T -1T +3P +4P +2P
Fisheries -1T -1T -1P +2P +3P +2P
Other wildlife/
land animals -1P -1T -1T -1T -1T -1T -1P +2P +3P +2P
Sedimentation/erosion -1T -1T -2T +2P +2P +3P -1P -1P
Floods -1P -1P +1P +3P
Historical/ cultural
Monuments +2P -2P
Communications +3P +2P +1P +2P -1T +2P
Land/area development -2P +2P +2P +2P -2P +2P +2P +4P +3P
Agriculture +2P -1P -1P -1P -1P +2P -1P +4P +3P
Food production +2P +1P -2P -1P -1P +2P -1P +4P +3P
Public revenue/income +2P +2P +3T +2T -2P +2P -2P +4P +3P
Drinking water +1P -1T -1T +4P +3P +2P
Water quality -1T -1T -2T -2T -1P +1P
Air quality -1T -1T -1T -1T +1P +2P +1P
Climate +1P +2P +1P
Groundwater table +2P +2P
Industrialization +2P +1P +3T +2T +2P +3P +3P
Housing +2P +1P +1T +2P -2P +1P +1P
Employment/training +1T +1T +4T +2T +2T +2P +2P
Health and safety -1T -1T -2T -1T -1T -2T +2P +2P +2P
Scenic views and vistas +1P +2P -1P -2T +2P +2P +3P +4P +2P +2P
Tourism +2P +2P +3P +3P +1P +2P
W - 0 0 0.5 0.5
X 1 - 1 0 2
Y 1 0 - 0 1
Z 0.5 1 1 - 2.5
Network diagrams
A network diagram is a technique for illustrating how impacts are
related and what the consequences of impacts are. For example, it may be
possible to fairly accurately predict the impact of increased diversions or
higher irrigation efficiencies on the low flow regime of a river. However,
there may be many and far reaching secondary or tertiary consequences of
a change in low flow. These consequences can be illustrated using network
diagrams. For example, reduced low flows are likely to reduce the
production of fish which may or may not be of importance depending on
the value (either ecological or economic) of the fish. If fish are an
important component of diet or income, the reduction may lead to a local
reduction in the health status, impoverishment and possibly migration.
Environmental Impact Assessment of Irrigation and Drainage Projects 34
Overlays
Overlays provide a technique for illustrating the geographical extent of
different environmental impacts. Each overlay is a map of a single impact. For
example, saline effected areas, deforested areas, limit of a groundwater
pollution plume etc can be analysed and clearly demonstrated to non experts.
Environmental Impact Assessment of Irrigation and Drainage Projects 35
Mathematical modelling
Mathematical modelling is one of the most useful tools for prediction
work. It is the natural tool to assess both flow quantities and qualities (eg
salt/water balances, pollution transport, changing flood patterns).
However, it is essential to use methods with an accuracy which reflects
the quality of the input data, which may be quite coarse. It should also
be appreciated that model output is not necessarily an end in itself but
may be an input for assessing the impact of changes in economic, social
and ecological terms. Mathematical modelling was used very effectively
to study the Hadejia-Jama’are region in Nigeria. In this case the
modelling demonstrated the most effective method of operating upstream
reservoirs in order to conserve economically and socially valuable, and
ecologically important downstream wetlands. Optimal operation was
found to be considerably different from the traditional method originally
proposed. Under the revised regime the economic returns were also
found to be higher.
TABLE 4 - Example of network analysis showing of a policy to utilize groundwater by subsiding tubewells
Primary Impacts Secondary impacts Tertiary impacts Quaternary impacts Mitigation
➜ Lowering of groundwater ➜ Loss of income & water from ➜ Use of poorer quality water ➜ Increased health risks
in dry season domestic hand pump 1. Ensure that the new DTW either
➜ Income diverted to buy water ➜ Decreased income & time hold domestic water locally or feed
into distributary system
➜ Travel to distant source ➜ Reduced quality of life Note: Effected group are poorer people
➜ Loss of income & water from ➜ Income diverted to buy water ➜ Decreased income & time 1. Deepen STW
shallow tubewells for irrigation leading to possible food shortage 2. Ensure new DTWs supply STWs in dry season
3. Provide compensation from DTW taxation
➜ Crop failure ➜ Reduced quality of life
➜ Drawdown of surface water bodies ➜ Decreased fish capture/fish mortality ➜ Loss of protein intake 1. Artificially stock water bodies
2. Recharge water bodies from DTW
Note: Fishermen are already poorer
than farmers in general
➜ Loss of wetland ➜ Loss of wetland flora/fauna migratory 1. Restrict DTW development in vulnerable areas
birds, fish spawning areas Note: Landness & Rural poor are greatest
users of wetlands
➜ Loss of wetland products
➜ Reduced navigation possibilities ➜ Increased transport costs 1. Increase navigation depth by dredging
➜ Agricultural intensification ➜ Increased fertilizer ➜ Groudwater contamination ➜ Polluted drinking water by nitrate 1. Control fertilizer use
by nitrate causes various illness, particularly 2. Educate users of groundwater as well
in babies as fertilizer users babies
➜ Eutrophication of surface water ➜ Increased weeds in channels & 1. Remove and control weeds
due to runoff surface water bodies, algal blooms 2. Educate about dangers of algal blooms
➜ Increased pestidice use ➜ Groundwater contamination ➜ More expensive alternative for 1. Regulate pesticide use
drinking water must be found 2. Encourage rainwater storage
3. Encourage integrated pest management
➜ Poisoning of fish & shrimp ➜ Reduction in fish catches 4. Subsidize non-persistent pesticides
& protein availability 5. Tax undesirable pesticides
6. Educate pesticide users & fish eaters
➜ Reduced income for fishermen
➜ Increased level of pest & disease ➜ Increased pesticide use ➜ Bioaccumulation of pesticide in man
vectors due to loss of fallow period 1. Vaccinate to prevent epidemics
➜ Increase in animal & human disease ➜ Loss of quality of life 2. Encourage alternative cropping patterns
due to vector 3. Educate about disease vectors
➜ Reduced fallow land & grassland ➜ Fewer livestock or poor ➜ Reduced protein intake & income 1. Develop alternative grazing
for grazing quality livestock for landness groups
➜ Reduced scrubland for fuel wood ➜ Alternative sources sought for fuel ➜ Income & time spent collecting fuel 1. Develop fuelwood supplies
2. Introduce more efficient cookers
➜ Destruction of trees
Expert advice
Expert advice should be sought for predictions which are inherently
non-numeric and is particularly suitable for estimating social and cultural
impacts. It should preferably take the form of a consensus of expert
opinion. Local experience will provide invaluable insight. Expert opinions
are also likely to be needed to assess the implications of any modelling
predictions. For example, a model could be developed to calculate the
area of wetlands no longer annually flooded due to upstream abstractions.
However, the impact on wetland species or the reduction in wetland
productivity resulting from the reduced flooding may not be so precisely
quantifiable but require a prediction based on expert opinion.
Economic techniques
Economic techniques have been developed to try to value the
environment and research work is continuing in environmental economics.
This is a specialist subject and only a brief introduction is included here.
For more detailed information the reader is advised to read Winpenny
(1991) and other standard texts. It is important to stress that
environmentally sound development brings long term economic benefits.
Unfortunately, short term gains are often given priority.
Experts preparing an EIA must appreciate that the final report will be
read by a wide range of people and the subject matter may be technically
complex. Senior administrators and planners may not understand the
importance of technical arguments unless they are presented carefully
and clearly. The quality of the executive summary is particularly important
as some decision-makers may only read this part of the report. The
executive summary must include the most important impacts (particularly
those that are unavoidable and irreversible), the key mitigating measures,
proposed monitoring and supervision requirements, and the
recommendations of the report.
Environmental Impact Assessment of Irrigation and Drainage Projects 39
The main text should maximize the use of visual aids such as maps,
drawings, photographs, tables and diagrams. Matrices, network diagrams,
overlays and graphical comparisons should all be included. The main text
should cover the following points (adapted from EBRD (1992) and World
Bank (1991)):
Major Impacts of
Irrigation and
Drainage Projects
When considering impacts, two perspectives must be taken into
account, those of:
In the detailed sections below, many of the impacts described are most
extreme in the case of new irrigated areas. However, rehabilitation and
changes resulting from alterations to the operating infrastructure, for
example, will also have environmental impacts that may not at first be
anticipated. The intensification of agriculture can lead to groundwater
pollution related to the increased use of pesticides and fertilizers.
Improved efficiency may significantly reduce return flows which are often
utilized downstream by other irrigation schemes or wildlife habitats.
Similarly, upstream developments are likely to impact on an irrigation
scheme either in the form of reduced water availability (surface or
groundwater) or reduced water quality.
Different types of irrigation will have different impacts and it should not
be assumed that modern methods will have fewer impacts: they may
significantly increase energy consumption and lead to social problems due
to reduced employment in agriculture. Impacts will also vary according to
the stage of implementation. For example, during the construction period
there may be specific health and other social risks due to an influx of
migrant workers living in temporary and unsanitary accommodation. Later,
once the project has been operating for several years, cumulative impacts
may begin to present serious environmental constraints to project
sustainability. Such issues must be predicted by the EIA and mitigation
measures prepared.
The most common problems of, and threats to, irrigation schemes are
listed in Table 5, together with potential mitigation measures. Irrigation is
defined as much, if not more, by farmers and managers as by the physical
infrastructure; the “hardware”. Its sustainable operation is just as
dependent on the “soft” environment:education, institutional building,
legal structures and external support services. These are all powerful tools
to ensure sustainability in conjunction with well-designed and well-
managed hardware and Table 5 indicates that many of the mitigation
measures are “soft”.
Environmental Impact Assessment of Irrigation and Drainage Projects 42
Degradation of irrigated land: • Improve I & D operation to match demand both “how much & when”.
Salinization • Provide drainage including disposal of water to evaporation ponds or
Alkalization the sea if quality of river flow adversely affected by drainage water.
Waterlogging • Maintain channels to prevent seepage, and reduce inefficiencies
Soil acidification resulting from siltation and weeds. Allow for access to channels for
maintenance in design.
• Provide water for leaching as a specific operation.
• Set-up or adjust irrigation management infrastructure to ensure
sufficient income to maintain both the irrigation and drainage systems.
• Analyse soils and monitor changes so that potential problems can be
managed.
Poor water quality: • Define and enforce return water quality levels (including monitoring).
Reduction in irrigation water quality • Control industrial development.
Water quality problems for downstream • Designate land for saline water disposal; build separate disposal
users caused by irrigation return flow quality channels.
• Educate for pesticide or sewage contamination dangers.
• Monitor irrigation water quality
HYDROLOGY
This section is concerned with the consequences of impacts resulting
from a change in the flow regime of rivers, or a change in the movement
of the water table, through the seasons. The consumptive nature of
irrigation means that some change to the local hydrological regime will
occur when new schemes are constructed and, to a lesser extent, when
old schemes are rehabilitated. The ecology and uses of a river will have
developed as a consequence of the existing regime and may not be able to
adapt easily to major changes. It is also important to recognize the
interrelationship between river flows and the water table. During high flow
periods, recharge tends to occur through the river bed whereas
groundwater often contributes to low flows. Figure 3 is a conceptual
diagram of flow through a river-supplied irrigation scheme. Figure 4
illustrates the links between surface and groundwater.
Habitats both within and alongside rivers are particularly rich, often
supporting a high diversity of species. Large changes to low flows (± 20%)
will alter micro-habitats of which wetlands are a special case. It is
particularly important to identify any endangered species and determine
the impact of any changes on their survival. Such species are often
endangered because of their restrictive ecological requirements. An
example is the Senegal river downstream of the Manantali Dam where the
extent of wetlands has been considerably reduced, fisheries have declined
and recession irrigation has all but disappeared.
The ecology of estuaries is sensitive to the salinity of the water which may
be determined by the low flows. Saline intrusion into the estuary will also
affect drinking water supplies and fish catches. It may also create breeding
places for anopheline vectors of malaria that breed in brackish water.
45
FIGURE 4 - The interrelationship between surface water and groundwater
Flood regime
Uncontrolled floods cause tremendous damage and flood control is
therefore often an added social and environmental benefit of reservoirs
built to supply irrigation water. However, flood protection works, although
achieving their purpose locally, increase flooding downstream, which
needs to be taken into account.
Radically altered flood regimes may also have negative impacts. Any
disruption to flood recession agriculture needs to be studied as it is often
highly productive but may have low visibility due to the migratory nature
of the farmers practising it. Flood waters are important for fisheries both in
rivers and particularly in estuaries. Floods trigger spawning and migration
and carry nutrients to coastal waters. Controlled floods may result in
areduction of groundwater recharge via flood plains and a loss of seasonal
or permanent wetlands. Finally, changes to the river morphology may
result because of changes to the sediment carrying capacity of the flood
waters. This may be either a positive or negative impact.
Operation of dams
The manner in which dams are operated has a significant impact on the
river downstream. There is a range of measures that can be undertaken to
reduce adverse environmental impacts caused by changing the
hydrological regime that need not necessarily reduce the efficacy of the
dam in terms of its main functions, namely irrigation, flood protection and
hydropower. Multi-purpose reservoirs offer enormous scope for minimizing
adverse impacts. In the case of modifying low flows, identifying
downstream demands to determine minimum compensatory flows, both
for the natural and human environment, is the key requirement and such
demands need to be allowed for at the design stage. The ability to mimic
natural flooding may require modifications to traditional dam offtake
facilities. In particular, passing flood flows early in the season to enable
timely recession agriculture may have the added advantage of passing
flows carrying high sediment loads.
Environmental Impact Assessment of Irrigation and Drainage Projects 48
Rooted aquatic weeds along the shore (or in shallow reservoirs) can be
partially controlled by alternate desiccation and drowning. In some parts
of the world local communities are willing to de-weed reservoirs and use
the weeds as animal fodder.
Solute dispersion
The changing hydrological regime associated with irrigation schemes
may alter the capacity of the environment to assimilate water soluble
pollution. In particular, reductions in low flows result in increased
pollutant concentrations already discharged into the water course either
from point sources, such as industry, irrigation drains and urban areas, or
from non-point sources, such as agrochemicals leaking into groundwater
and soil erosion. Reduced flood flows may remove beneficial flushing, and
reservoirs may cause further concentration of pollutants. Where low flows
increase, for example as a result of hydropower releases, the effect on
solute dispersion is likely to be beneficial, particularly if the solutes are not
highly soluble and tend to move with sediments.
Environmental Impact Assessment of Irrigation and Drainage Projects 52
Toxic substances
Dissolved salts may be present in high enough concentrations to be
toxic (eg naturally occurring selenium in the soils of the Central Valley,
California and boron in Southern Peru). However, pesticides are a more
common source of poisons associated with irrigation schemes. They are
poisonous to plants, fish, birds and mammals including humans. Persistent
chemicals are a threat to aquatic systems even when not soluble, as many
bond chemically to soil particles and may be transported by erosion.
Persistent organochlorine insecticides (eg DDT, dieldrin and endosulfan)
are particularly hazardous to aquatic systems and become rapidly
concentrated in the food chain. Non-specific herbicides can rapidly affect
the supply of food. Pesticide risks are likely to increase if a monoculture is
practised, so that weeds and pests are not controlled by rotation, or if the
method of agricultural management requires high applications, such as
low tillage methods.
Environmental Impact Assessment of Irrigation and Drainage Projects 53
Salinity 2
(affects crop water availability)
ECw dS/m < 0.7 0.7 - 3.0 > 3.0
(or)
Infiltration
(affects infiltration rate of water into the
3
soil.
Evaluate using ECw and SAR together)
SAR =0 - 3 and Ecw = > 0.7 0.7 - 0.2 < 0.2
=3 - 6 = > 1.2 1.2 - 0.3 < 0.3
=6 - 12 = > 1.9 1.9 - 0.5 < 0.5
=12 - 20 = > 2.9 2.9 - 1.3 < 1.3
=20 - 40 = > 5.0 5.0 - 2.9 < 2.9
Miscellaneous Effects
(affects susceptible 5crops)
Nitrogen (NO3 - N) mg/l <5 5 - 30 > 30
Bicarbonate (HCO3)
(overhead sprinkling only) me/l < 1.5 1.5 - 8.5 > 8.5
pH Normal Range
6.5 - 8.4
Agrochemical pollution
A high nutrient level is essential for productive agriculture. However,
the use of both natural and chemical fertilizers may result in an excess of
nutrients which can cause problems in water bodies and to health. Nitrates
are highly soluble and therefore may quickly reach water bodies.
Phosphates tend to be fixed to soil particles and therefore reach water
courses when soil is eroded. Phosphate saturated soils and high phosphate
level groundwater are now found in some developed countries.
TABLE 8 - Water quality for freshwater fish (temperate zone excluding salmonids)
Characteristic Level at which no stress is shown
Notes:
1 The two parameters to which fish are most sensitive are temperature
and dissolved oxygen. Oxygen is less soluble in water at higher
temperatures. Also more non-ionized
1+
ammonia, which is toxic to fish,
moves into solution from NH4 as the temperature rises as well as
with an increase in pH. The higher the ambient temperature, the
closer fish are living to their upper tolerance limit and the less able
they are to tolerate changes to their environment. Organic pollution
will reduce the dissolved oxygen content of the water.
2 A wide range of heavy metals, industrial pollutants and agrochemicals
are toxic to fish.
3 More information may be obtained from various FAO Fisheries
Technical Papers.
A high nutrient level is toxic to some aquatic life and encourage rapid
rates of algae growth which tends to decrease the oxygen level of the water
and thus lead to the suffocation of fish and other aquatic biota. Clear water
enhances the effect as it enables increased photosynthesis to take place:
reservoirs and slow-moving water are therefore most at risk. Some algae
produce toxins, and if deoxygenation is severe, eutrophic conditions occur.
Environmental Impact Assessment of Irrigation and Drainage Projects 56
Anaerobic effects
Most anaerobic conditions in water bodies are the result of an over-
supply of nutrients, as discussed above, resulting in eutrophication. In
reservoirs, anaerobic conditions may occur in the deeper areas as organic
material on the bed decays in an environment with progressively less
oxygen. Reservoirs should be cleared of organic matter, prior to
impoundment to limit anaerobic decomposition once the dam is filled.
Anaerobic conditions also occur when water is so polluted as to kill most
aquatic life. Anaerobic decomposition should be avoided as it produces
gases such as hydrogen sulphide, methane and ammonia all of which are
poisonous and some of which contribute to the greenhouse effect. The
production of greenhouse gases may also be produced by irrigated rice fields
and this is being investigated by the International Rice Research Institute.
Gas emissions
Irrigated areas can become contaminated by emissions from industry,
particularly areas that are close to urban or industrial sites.
choice of crop, adversely affect crop germination and yields, and can
make soils difficult to work. Careful management can reduce the rate of
salinity build up and minimize the effects on crops. Management strategies
include: leaching; altering irrigation methods and schedules; installing sub-
surface drainage; changing tillage techniques; adjusting crop patterns; and,
incorporating soil ameliorates. All such actions, which may be very costly,
would require careful study to determine their local suitability. Figure 6
indicates the sensitivity of a range of important crops to soil salinity.
Soil salinity
There are four main reasons for an increase in soil salinity on an
irrigation scheme:
• salts carried in the irrigation water are liable to build up in the soil
profile, as water is removed by plants and the atmosphere at a much
faster rate than salts. The salt concentration of incoming flows may
increase in time with development activities upstream and if rising
demand leads to drain water reuse;
• solutes applied to the soil in the form of artificial and natural fertilizers
as well as some pesticides will not all be utilized by the crop;
• salts which occur naturally in soil may move into solution or may
already be in solution in the form of saline groundwater. This problem
is often severe in deserts or arid areas where natural flushing of salts
(leaching) does not occur. Where the groundwater level is both high
and saline, water will rise by capillary action and then evaporate,
leaving salts on the surface and in the upper layers of the soil; and
Note:
ECe means average root zone salinity as measured by electrical
conductivity of the saturation extract of the soil, reported in decisiemens
per metre (dS/m) at 25°C.
Soil properties
The accumulation of salts in soils can lead to irreversible damage to soil
structure essential for irrigation and crop production. Effects are most extreme
in clay soils where the presence of sodium can bring about soil structural
collapse. This makes growing conditions very poor, makes soils very difficult
to work and prevents reclamation by leaching using standard techniques.
Gypsum in the irrigation water or mixed into the soil before irrigation is a
practice that is used to reduce the sodium content of sodic soils.
Environmental Impact Assessment of Irrigation and Drainage Projects 59
Saline groundwater
An increase in the salinity of the groundwater is often associated with
waterlogging. An appropriate and well-maintained drainage network will
mitigate against such effects. Saline groundwater can be particularly
critical in coastal regions.
Saline drainage
Drainage may not be required initially but it should be allowed for if
there is insufficient natural drainage. Areas with a flat topography or with
water tables that have a low hydraulic gradient are at risk from salinization
as are areas with soils of a low permeability which are difficult to leach.
Groundwater drains, either pipe (tile) drains or deep ditches, carry out the
dual task of controlling the water table and through leaching,
counteracting the build up of salts in the soil profile. Normally water is
applied in excess of the crop water requirement and soluble salts are
carried away in the drainage water although in some areas leaching can be
achieved during the rainy season.
Saline intrusion
The location of the boundary between fresh and salt water at the coast
line is a function of the hydraulic potential of the fresh water. A lowered
water table will result in the boundary moving inland as the pressure
reduces. Large numbers of people may be affected by a reduction in the
quality of their drinking supplies when fresh water is replaced by salty
water. Moreover, people may be forced to turn to sources of water whose
collection and use have important health risks. The plant life in the area
may also change as only salt tolerant species survive. The environmental
effects can be irreversible as reversing the movement of a salt water wedge
is usually both difficult and very expensive.
Changes to the flow regime may alter the salinity of the estuary. This is
likely to have a major impact on the local ecology: a highly productive
habitat which is often sensitive to salinity levels.
Soil erosion rates are greatest when vegetative cover is reduced and can
be 10 to 100 times higher under agriculture compared with other land
uses. However, there are a wide range of management and design
techniques available to minimize and control erosion. For erosion to take
place, soil particles need to be first dislodged and then transported by
either wind or water. Both actions can be prevented by erosion control
techniques which disperse erosive energy and avoid concentrating it. For
example, providing good vegetative cover will disperse the energy of rain
drops and contour drainage will slow down surface runoff. See Figure 7 for
factors effecting erosion potential.
Local erosion
The method of irrigation profoundly affects the vulnerability of the land
to erosion. Because irrigated land is wetter, it is less able to absorb rainfall
and runoff will therefore be higher. Field size, stream size (drop size),
slope and field layout are all difficult to change and all significantly affect
erosion rates. Careful design can avoid the occurrence of erosion
problems. Agricultural practices affect soil structure and therefore the soil’s
erosivity, or the ease with which particles are dislodged. In general land-
forming for irrigation, such as land-levelling and the construction of field
bunds, tends to reduce erosion.
Archaic in-field water management practices involving poor cut and fill
operations through watercourse embankments can result in serious local
erosion at the head end of the irrigated field and in sedimentation at the
mid or tail-end locations of the field. The micro-topography of a field will
thus be disturbed. Unavoidably, this effect creates disproportionate water
distribution over the irrigated field. In addition it might create disputes
between water users. Improved water management practices related to
surface irrigation methods (for example by using gates, siphons, checks)
can reduce such hazards.
Environmental Impact Assessment of Irrigation and Drainage Projects 62
Hinterland effect
The development of irrigation schemes in developing countries is often
associated with an increase in intensity of human activity in areas
surrounding the scheme. This may be due to people moving into the area
as a result of the increased economic activity or may be carried out by
farmers and their families who are directly engaged in irrigation activities.
In either case typical activities are: more intensive rain fed agriculture; an
increase in the number of livestock; and, greater use of forests,
particularly for fuel wood. All these activities are liable to increase
erosion in the area by decreasing vegetative cover which will have a
detrimental effect on the local fertility and ecology as well as contribute
to sediment related problems.
River morphology
The capacity and shape of a river results from its flow, the river bed and
bank material, and the sediment carried by the flow. A fast flowing river
has more energy and is able to carry higher sediment loads (both more
and larger particles) than a slow moving river. Hence, sediments settle out
in reservoirs and in deltas where the flow velocity decreases. A river is said
to be in regime when the amount of sediment carried by the flow is
constant so that the flow is not erosive nor is sediment being deposited.
The regime condition changes through the year with changing flows.
Environmental Impact Assessment of Irrigation and Drainage Projects 63
Reductions in low flows and flood flows may significantly alter the river
morphology, reducing the capacity to transport sediment and thereby
causing a build up of sediments in slower moving reaches and possibly a
shrinking of the main channel. Increasing flows will have the reverse
effect. Where the sediment balance changes over a short distance, perhaps
due to a reservoir or the flushing of a sediment control structure, major
changes to the local river morphology are likely to occur. The release of
clear water from reservoirs may result in scour and a general lowering of
the bed level immediately downstream of the dam, the reverse of the effect
that might be expected with a general reduction in flows.
Channel structures
The susceptibility of channel structures to damage is strongly related to
changes in channel morphology and changes in sediment regime.
Increased suspended sediment will cause problems at intake structures in
the form of siltation as well as pump and filtration operation.Abstraction
structures may become clogged with sediment or left some distance from
the water. Degradation of the river bed is likely to threaten the structural
integrity of hydraulic structures (intakes, headworks, flood protection etc)
and bridges. The construction of new structures impacts on nearby
structures by changing local flow conditions.
Sedimentation
Irrigation schemes can fail if the sediment load of the water supply is
higher than the capacity of the irrigation canals to transport sediment.
Sediment excluders/extractors at the headworks can mitigate this effect to
some extent. Sedimentation from within the scheme itself can also be a
problem, for example, wind-blown soil filling canals. Canal desilting is an
extremely costly element of irrigation maintenance and design measures
should minimize sediment entry. Reservoir siltation shortens the active life
of the reservoir and must be given careful consideration at the design
stage. The increases in erosion due to the economic activity prompted by
the reservoir and its access roads needs to be taken into account.
Upstream erosion prevention, particularly within the project catchment is
an important consideration of an EIA. However, this may not be sufficient
to significantly reduce reservoir sedimentation, especially in view of the
time delay between soil conservation activities and a reduction in river
sediment loads.
Environmental Impact Assessment of Irrigation and Drainage Projects 64
Estuary erosion
Changes to the morphology of river estuaries can result from increased
erosion or sedimentation. Areas of mangrove may be threatened by
changes to the estuary morphology and special studies may be required to
determine any adverse impacts. Navigation and fishing may also be
adversely affected.
• The more conditions in a locality deviate from the normal, and thus
from the optimum for most species, the smaller the number of species
and the greater the biomass of each.
• The longer a locality has been in a stable condition, the richer its
biological community. (Petermann 1993).
Project lands
The nature of irrigation, ie providing water to water-short land, will
radically change both the agricultural and natural ecology in the project
area. The creation of compensation areas or habitat enhancement outside
the project area may be useful mitigation measures where the natural
habitat change is assessed as detrimental. In order to predict the likely
significant effects that irrigation projects have on human interests, low
intensity, pre-project use of the study area needs to be assessed, such as
seasonal grazing, recreation, hunting for wild meat or bee keeping and the
use of the vegetation for fuel, building, medicine etc.
Environmental Impact Assessment of Irrigation and Drainage Projects 65
Water bodies
The creation of reservoirs and channels provides the possibility
ofenhanced aquatic habitats. In particular, reservoirs and channels offer the
opportunity of pisciculture and aquaculture and favourable habitats for
water fowl, both permanent and migrating, but may also offer favourable
habitats for disease transmitting insects and snails (see the section Human
health). Bird sanctuaries and wildlife parks can be created around
reservoirs.
Surrounding area
It is important to consider the biological and ecological changes that
may result in areas surrounding irrigation and drainage work. Irrigation
may have a positive impact, for example by settling migrant slash and burn
farmers, or a negative impact, for example by raising the demand for fuel
wood due to increases in the local population.
Mangroves need both significant fresh water recharges and sediment rich
flows in order to thrive. A reduction in flow leads to an increase in the soil
salinity which favours more salt-tolerant species. Mangroves trap silt,
transported by flood flows, and obtain their inorganic nutrients from it. These
flushing flows also serve to keep the deltaic channels open. In the Lower
Indus, which now receives no fresh water for nine months of the year, the
mangroves have become stunted and reduced to one, salt-tolerant species.
Environmental Impact Assessment of Irrigation and Drainage Projects 68
Socio-economic impacts
The major purpose of irrigated agriculture is to increase agricultural
production and consequently improve the economic and social well-
being of the area of the project. Although irrigation schemes usually
achieve this objective, they could often have been more successful in
developing countries if more attention had been paid to the social and
economic structure of the project area. An EIA should thus equally
concentrate on ways in which positive impacts can be enhanced as on
negative impacts mitigated.
Population change
Irrigation projects tend to encourage population densities to increase
either because they are part of a resettlement project or because the
increased prosperity of the area attracts incomers. Major changes should
be anticipated and provided for at the project planning stage through, for
example, sufficient infrastructure provision. Impacts resulting from changes
Environmental Impact Assessment of Irrigation and Drainage Projects 69
HUMAN MIGRATION
Human migration (outside of the nomadic way of life) and displacement
are commensurate with a breakdown in community infrastructure which
results in a degree of social unrest and may contribute to malnutrition and
an increased incidence of disease. Large, new irrigation schemes attract
temporary populations both during construction and during peak periods
of agricultural labour demands and provision for their accommodation
needs to be anticipated. The problems of displacement during project
construction or rehabilitation can usually be solved by providing short-
term support.
Environmental Impact Assessment of Irrigation and Drainage Projects 70
Resettlement
Often the most significant social issue arising from irrigation
development is resettlement of people displaced by the flooding of land
and homes or the construction of canals or other works. This can be
particularly disruptive to communities and, in the past, insensitive project
development has caused unnecessary problems by a lack of consultation
at the planning stage and inadequate compensation of the affected
population. Technical ministries should seek expert assistance at an
earlystage. Community re-establishment often includes, for example, pilot
farms, extension services and credit schemes. For more detailed
information see Burbridge, 1988.
Women’s role
Changing land patterns and work loads resulting from the introduction or
formalizing of irrigation are likely to affect men and women, ethnic groups
and social classes unequally. Groups that use “common” land to make their
living or fulfil their household duties, eg for charcoal making, hunting,
grazing, collecting fuel wood, growing vegetables etc, may be disadvantaged
if that same land is taken over for irrigated agriculture or for building
irrigation infrastructure. Historically, it has been men from the more settled
and powerful groups that have had greatest access to the benefits and
increased income from irrigated agriculture. Women, migrant groups and
poorer social classes have often lost access to resources and gained
increased work loads. Conversely, the increased income and improved
nutrition from irrigated agriculture benefit women and children in particular.
Inclusion of disadvantaged groups into the planning process maybe time-
consuming, but should be considered an important aspect of EIA.
Minority groups
Minority groups or tribal minorities can benefit from the increased
economic developmentof a new irrigation area. However, they are often
disadvantaged by irrigation development as they are excluded from the
scheme because of uncertain land rights and may be pastoralists rather
than farmers. An EIA should consider the impacts on minority groups and,
after consultation, appropriate rehabilitation or compensation measures
should be allowed for in the project design.
Environmental Impact Assessment of Irrigation and Drainage Projects 71
Sites of value
New irrigation schemes should avoid destroying or downgrading sites of
value whether that value be: aesthetic, historical, religious, mineral,
palaeotological or recreational. A change in water table, associated with
well-established schemes, can threaten buildings.
Regional effects
As with ecological impacts, the socio-economic impacts of irrigation
projects will be significant outside the project area. A new project will
both place demands on the region (marketing, migration, physical
infrastructure) and contribute to regional development. For irrigation
schemes to be economically viable, they need to complement other
activities in the region and the EIA should consider the effects of any other
development, such as agro-industries or new roads. Industrial and urban
development may adversely affect irrigation schemes by competing for
water and reducing the quality of water available. A regional planning
system is essential to minimize conflicts and co-ordinate development.
User involvement
Projects planned with the beneficiaries rather than for them have
proved more sustainable and no more costly. However, they do take longer
to plan and design because consultation is a lengthy process. Some
countries have public participation in the planning process enshrined in
law but many countries have a top down procedure only. Local
consultation of all interested (not just well-organized, vocal groups) will
improve the project and thus increase the potential for economic benefit
and sustained operation. The process may take a particularly long-time if
the mechanisms for consultation also have to be set up. Local NGOs can
be helpful to government agencies in this work and should be brought into
the planning process at an early stage in order to avoid later conflicts
building up.
Recreation
New and rehabilitation works offer the potential for improved
recreational facilities, particularly around reservoirs and the EIA should
highlight such potential for enhancement.
Environmental Impact Assessment of Irrigation and Drainage Projects 72
ECOLOGICAL IMBALANCES
Without appropriate management measures, irrigated agriculture has
the potential to create serious ecological imbalances both at the project
site and in adjacent areas. Excessive clearance of natural vegetation cover
in the command area, for example, can affect the microclimate and
expose the soil to erosion, leading to a loss of top soil and nutrient
leaching. The removal of roots and vegetation disrupts the water cycle,
increasing the rate at which water enters rivers and streams, thereby
changing flow regimes and increasing siltation in the downstream zone.
This is often to the detriment of fisheries and aquaculture activities. The
destruction of natural habitats in this manner and the creation of
agricultural monocultures also impacts on the local flora and fauna
reducing biodiversity. The introduction of exotic species of plant or animal
may oust indigenous species or introduce disease agents which may affect
plants, animals and/or man. Fertilizers and pesticides are widely applied to
correct imbalances. These can percolate through the soil and/or be carried
away in the drainage water polluting both groundwater and surface waters
especially in the downstream zone. The nutrients in fertilizers may give rise
to eutrophication of surface water bodies and promote the growth of
aquatic weeds. Pesticide residues are hazardous to the health of both man
and animals.
Animal diseases
Animals are subject to a similar range ofwater related diseases as
humans. They may also act as reservoirs for human water-based infections
and infections with water-related insect vectors, see Figure 9. The
promotion of animal husbandry as a secondary, income generating activity
for farmers in newly irrigated areas should be carefully evaluated for its
possible environmental and health risks.
Aquatic weeds
The main problems of aquatic weeds are that they reduce the storage
and conveyance capacity of reservoirs, canals and drains and increase
water loss through evapotranspiration. Most irrigation schemes suffer
infestations of exotic species. They are difficult and expensive to control,
though the use of linings, shade and intermittent drying out can
compliment traditional techniques of mechanical removal, careful
herbicide application and the introduction of weed eating fish and insects.
The costs of removing weeds may be offset in some cases by using the
debris for compost, bio-gas and animal and fish food. Other problems of
aquatic weeds are that they can provide a favourable and protected habitat
for disease vectors such as snails and mosquitoes.
Environmental Impact Assessment of Irrigation and Drainage Projects 74
HUMAN HEALTH
This section concentrates on human health issues associated with
irrigation and drainage. It refers to items of the ICID checklist which cover
health and safety in their broadest sense, including for example human
settlements and shelter, and nutrition. Relevant characteristics of diseases,
whose transmission potential is a function of ecological parameters
affected by irrigation development, are summarized for non-expert
readership;health risks mentioned in connection with the environmental
and socioeconomic changes are discussed with possible preventive and
mitigating measures; and, opportunities to promote human health in an
integrated approach to irrigation development are presented. Health is a
complex subject and specialist expertise will be required when preparing
an EIA. Only brief introductory comments are made here and for further
information the reader is referred to the PEEM Guidelines listed in the
references. Human health considerations may warrant a separate Health
Impact Assessment and the Asian Development Bank have produced
guidelines for this (ADB, 1992).
Disease ecology
This section covers vector-borne diseases. Ecological and demographic
changes resulting from the introduction of irrigation may create new or
more favourable habitats for disease vectors. There are subtle differences in
the ecological requirements of a range of disease vectors and there are
intricate transmission patterns in different parts of the world. Local health
authorities will have this information at hand. An interdisciplinary dialogue
should guide planners in the incorporation of engineering and
environmental management measures in the design, construction and
rehabilitation of irrigation schemes. In general terms, two key determinants
can be influenced: vector density (which is, up to a saturation point,
linearly related to the transmission level) and vector longevity (the longer
the lifespan of an individual mosquito, the greater the chance it transmits a
disease to one or more humans).
TABLE 9 - Main infective diseases in relation to water (adpted from Feacham et al., 1977)
Category Disease Frequency Severity Chronicity % suggested reduction
by water improvements
I Cholera + +++ 90
I Typhoid ++ +++ 80
I Leptospirosis + ++ 80
I Tularaemia + ++ 40?
I Paratyphoid + ++ 40
I Infective hepatitis ++ +++ + 10?
I Some enteroviruses ++ + 10?
I, II Bacillary dysentery ++ +++ 50
I, II Amoebic dysentery + ++ ++ 50
I, II Gastroenteritis +++ +++ 50
II Skin sepsis and ulcers +++ + + 50
II Trachoma +++ ++ ++ 60
II Conjunctivitis ++ + + 70
II Scabies ++ + + 80
II Yaws + ++ + 70
II Leprosy ++ ++ ++ 50
II Tinea + + 50
II Louse-borne fevers +++ 40
II Diarrhoeal diseases +++ +++ 50
II Ascariasis +++ + + 40
III a Schistosomiasis ++ ++ ++ 60
III b Guinea worm ++ ++ + 100
IV Gambian sleeping sickness + +++ + 80
IV Onchocerciasis ++ ++ ++ 20?
IV Yellow fever + +++ 10?
India, SE Asia, the Indonesian and Philippine archipelago and Indian Ocean
Widespread dengue, guinea worm, widespread bancroftian and brugian filariasis, some cutaneous and more visceral
leishmaniasis, restricted schistosomiasis (japonicum), widespread malaria, Japanese encephalitis.
New Guinea, Solomons, Vanuatu and other Islands of the Western Pacific
Restricted dengue, widespread bancroftian filariasis, restricted schistosomiasis (japonicum), widespread malaria.
Salinity effects: as for the fall in the water table, saline intrusion of
groundwater may force people to use unsafe drinking water and change
their water contact patterns. If such effects cannot be prevented or are
considered an acceptable trade-off, then proper water supplies should be
installed to counter the health risks involved.
Environmental Impact Assessment of Irrigation and Drainage Projects 81
Health opportunities
Irrigation projects offer ample opportunities for health promotional
measures as an integral part of development. Up to a certain level their
cost may be absorbed in the overall budget, but for larger health
components additional loans or bilateral grants may have to be sought.
enter the human body in its larval form inside the water flea (cyclops).
Safe, clean drinking water (or at least filtered drinking water) is the key to
elimination of this disease.
Preparation of
Terms of Reference
The need for EIAs has become increasingly important and is now a
statutory requirement in many developing countries. Similarly, all major
donors require some form of environmental analysis for irrigation and
drainage projects. If an EIA is required, irrespective of the source of
funding, the promoting agency will be required to either prepare it
themselves or appoint others to do the study for them.
If the promoter intends to prepare the EIA study using its own staff,
reference should be made to the publications prepared by most donors
and UN agencies outlining their requirements and procedures. The World
Bank Operational Directive 4.01 (1991) is perhaps the most
comprehensive and well known manual and is a useful reference text. All
international organizations and bilateral agencies frequently update their
procedures and it is important to obtain the current version from the
organization. Many United Nations agencies publish guidelines on various
themes related to environmental assessment of irrigation and drainage
which could be of use to developing country staff if they are to carry out
an EIA and the most useful are listed in Chapter 6.
The study should identify the relevant natural resources, the eco-system
and the population likely to be affected. Direct and indirect impacts must
be identified and any particularly vulnerable groups or species highlighted.
In some instances views will be subjective and the consultants should give
an indication of the degree of risk or confidence and the assumptions on
which conclusions have been drawn. In most cases the output required
will be a report examining the existing environment, the impacts of the
proposed project on the environment and the affects of the environment
on the project, both positive and negative, the mitigating measures to be
taken and any actions needed. Interim reports, for example of baseline
studies, should be phased to be of maximum value to parallel technical
and economic studies.
The timing of the study is important. Scoping prior to a full EIA will
enable the major issues to be identified. The terms of reference for the full
EIA can then be better focused. The study should be carried out early
enough in the project cycle to enable recommendations to be incorporated
into the project design.
The requirements stated in the TOR will determine the length of time
needed for the study, the geographical boundary of the EIA, its cost and
the type of expertise required. Baseline data collection, if needed, can be
time consuming and will have a major impact on the cost and time
needed for the study. If considerable data exists, for example a good record
of water quality information and hydrological statistics, the EIA may be
possible without further primary data collection. If data are scarce, time
must be allowed for field measurement and analysis.
The TOR should give an indication of the team considered necessary for
the study. Depending on the scope of the study this may include one or
several of the following: an irrigation specialist, drainage specialist, rural
sociologist, terrestrial ecologist (of various specializations), aquatic
ecologist/fisheries expert, hydrologist, agronomist, soil chemist or physicist,
economist and epidemiologist. However, as mentioned earlier the team
should not be rigidly imposed on the consultant.
The budget limit should be given in the TOR. The type of experts, and
whether foreign or local, and the duration of their inputs will usually be
the deciding cost factors although a large field survey or measurement
programme with laboratory analysis could significantly increase costs.
References
RECOMMENDED TEXTS
“Environmental Impact Assessment - Theory and Practice”, edited by
Wathern (1988) and “Environmental Impact Assessment for Developing
Countries”, edited by Biswas and Qu Geping (1987) are two of the most
useful books on the general philosophy of EIA and are a good basis for
those wishing to gain a more in-depth understanding of EIA techniques.
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Environment Paper No. 7. Asian Development Bank, Manila,
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Environmental Impact Assessment of Irrigation and Drainage Projects 95
ANNEX 1:
Glossary
GLOSSARY
Anopheline: A mosquito of the subfamily which includes the genus
Anopheles. May transmit malaria.
Multil- Multilingual
* Out of print
** In preparation