Try Beta Log in / create account

article discussion edit this page history

Leonhard Euler
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Euler)

"Euler" redirects here. For other uses, see Euler (disambiguation).

Leonhard Paul Euler[citation needed] (15 April 1707 – 18 September
navigation
1783) was a pioneering Swiss mathematician and physicist who spent
Leonhard Euler
Main page
Contents
most of his life in Russia and Germany. His surname is pronounced /
Featured content ˈɔɪlər/ OY-lər (like "Oiler") in English and [ˈɔʏlɐ] in German; the
Current events pronunciation /ˈjuːlər/ EW-lər is incorrect.[1][2][3][4]
Random article
Euler made important discoveries in fields as diverse as infinitesimal
search calculus and graph theory. He also introduced much of the modern
mathematical terminology and notation, particularly for mathematical
Go Search analysis, such as the notion of a mathematical function.[5] He is also
renowned for his work in mechanics, fluid dynamics, optics, and
interaction astronomy.
About Wikipedia
Euler is considered to be the preeminent mathematician of the 18th
Community portal
century and arguably the greatest of all time. He is also one of the
Recent changes
Contact Wikipedia most prolific; his collected works fill 60–80 quarto volumes.[6] A
Donate to statement attributed to Pierre-Simon Laplace expresses Euler's
Wikipedia influence on mathematics: "Read Euler, read Euler, he is the master of
Help us all."[7] Portrait by Emanuel Handmann 1756(?)

toolbox Euler was featured on the sixth series of the Swiss 10-franc banknote Born 15 April 1707
and on numerous Swiss, German, and Russian postage stamps. The Basel, Switzerland
What links here
Related changes asteroid 2002 Euler was named in his honor. He is also Died 18 September 1783 (aged 76)
[OS: 7 September 1783]
Upload file commemorated by the Lutheran Church on their Calendar of Saints on St. Petersburg, Russia
Special pages 24 May – he was a devout Christian (and believer in biblical inerrancy) Residence Prussia, Russia
Printable version who wrote apologetics and argued forcefully against the prominent Switzerland
Permanent link atheists of his time.[8] Nationality Swiss
Cite this page
Fields Mathematician and Physicist
languages Contents [hide]
Institutions Imperial Russian Academy of
Afrikaans 1 Life Sciences
‫اﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ‬ 1.1 Early years Berlin Academy
Aragonés 1.2 St. Petersburg Alma mater University of Basel
Azərbaycan 1.3 Berlin Doctoral
Johann Bernoulli
advisor
1.4 Eyesight deterioration
Bân-lâm-gú Doctoral
1.5 Return to Russia students
Joseph Louis Lagrange
Беларуская
2 Contributions to mathematics and physics Known for See full list
(тарашкевіца)
2.1 Mathematical notation
Bosanski Signature
2.2 Analysis
Brezhoneg
Български 2.3 Number theory
Català 2.4 Graph theory Notes
Česky 2.5 Applied mathematics He is the father of the mathematician Johann Euler
He is listed by academic genealogy authorities as
Dansk 2.6 Physics and astronomy
the equivalent to the doctoral advisor of Joseph
Deutsch 2.7 Logic Louis Lagrange.
Eesti 3 Personal philosophy and religious beliefs
Ελληνικά 4 Selected bibliography
Español 5 See also
Esperanto
6 References and notes
Estremeñu
7 Further reading
Euskara
8 External links
‫ﻓﺎرﺳﯽ‬
Fiji Hindi
Français Life [edit]
Galego
贛語
한국어
Early years [edit]

Euler was born in Basel to Paul Euler, a pastor of the Reformed Church, and
Hrvatski Marguerite Brucker, a pastor's daughter. He had two younger sisters named
Ido Anna Maria and Maria Magdalena. Soon after the birth of Leonhard, the Eulers
Bahasa Indonesia moved from Basel to the town of Riehen, where Euler spent most of his
Interlingua
childhood. Paul Euler was a friend of the Bernoulli family—Johann Bernoulli, who
Íslenska
was then regarded as Europe's foremost mathematician, would eventually be
Italiano
the most important influence on young Leonhard. Euler's early formal education Old Swiss 10 Franc banknote
‫עברית‬
Basa Jawa
started in Basel, where he was sent to live with his maternal grandmother. At honoring Euler
ქართული the age of thirteen he enrolled at the University of Basel, and in 1723, received
Kiswahili his Master of Philosophy with a dissertation that compared the philosophies of Descartes and Newton. At this time, he
Kreyòl ayisyen was receiving Saturday afternoon lessons from Johann Bernoulli, who quickly discovered his new pupil's incredible
Latina talent for mathematics.[9] Euler was at this point studying theology, Greek, and Hebrew at his father's urging, in order
Latviešu to become a pastor, but Bernoulli convinced Paul Euler that Leonhard was destined to become a great mathematician.
Lëtzebuergesch In 1726, Euler completed a dissertation, relating to his unsuccessful attempt to obtain a position at the University of
Lietuvių Basel, on the propagation of sound with the title De Sono[10] and in 1727, he entered the Paris Academy Prize Problem
Lojban
competition, where the problem that year was to find the best way to place the masts on a ship. He won second place,
Lumbaart
losing only to Pierre Bouguer—who is now known as "the father of naval architecture". Euler subsequently won this
Magyar
coveted annual prize twelve times in his career.[11]
Македонски

Монгол
St. Petersburg [edit]

Nederlands Around this time Johann Bernoulli's two sons, Daniel and Nicolas, were working at the Imperial Russian Academy of
日本語 Sciences in St Petersburg. In July 1726, Nicolas died of appendicitis after spending a year in Russia, and when Daniel
Norsk (bokmål) assumed his brother's position in the mathematics/physics division, he recommended that the post in physiology that
Norsk (nynorsk) he had vacated be filled by his friend Euler. In November 1726 Euler eagerly accepted the offer, but delayed making
Piemontèis
the trip to St Petersburg while he unsuccessfully applied for a physics professorship at the University of Basel.[12]
Polski
Português Euler arrived in the Russian capital on 17 May 1727. He was promoted from his
Qaraqalpaqsha junior post in the medical department of the academy to a position in the
Română mathematics department. He lodged with Daniel Bernoulli with whom he often
Русский worked in close collaboration. Euler mastered Russian and settled into life in St
Petersburg. He also took on an additional job as a medic in the Russian
Scots Navy.[13]
Shqip
Sicilianu The Academy at St. Petersburg, established by Peter the Great, was intended to
improve education in Russia and to close the scientific gap with Western
Simple English Europe. As a result, it was made especially attractive to foreign scholars like
Slovenčina Euler. The academy possessed ample financial resources and a comprehensive 1957 stamp of the former Soviet
Slovenščina library drawn from the private libraries of Peter himself and of the nobility. Very Union commemorating the 250th
Српски / Srpski birthday of Euler. The text says: 250
few students were enrolled in the academy so as to lessen the faculty's
Srpskohrvatski / years from the birth of the great
teaching burden, and the academy emphasized research and offered to its mathematician, academician
Српскохрватски
faculty both the time and the freedom to pursue scientific questions.[11] Leonhard Euler.
Basa Sunda
Suomi The Academy's benefactress, Catherine I, who had continued the progressive
Svenska policies of her late husband, died on the day of Euler's arrival. The Russian nobility then gained power upon the
Tagalog ascension of the twelve-year-old Peter II. The nobility were suspicious of the academy's foreign scientists, and thus cut
funding and caused other difficulties for Euler and his colleagues.
Conditions improved slightly upon the death of Peter II, and Euler swiftly rose through the ranks in the academy and
Тоҷикӣ was made professor of physics in 1731. Two years later, Daniel Bernoulli, who was fed up with the censorship and
Türkçe hostility he faced at St. Petersburg, left for Basel. Euler succeeded him as the head of the mathematics
Українська department.[14]
‫اردو‬ On 7 January 1734, he married Katharina Gsell (1707–1773), a daughter of Georg Gsell, a painter from the Academy
Tiếng Việt
Gymnasium.[15] The young couple bought a house by the Neva River. Of their thirteen children, only five survived
Volapük
childhood.[16]
文言
Winaray
Yorùbá
Berlin [edit]

粵語 Concerned about the continuing turmoil in Russia, Euler left St. Petersburg on 19
Žemaitėška June 1741 to take up a post at the Berlin Academy, which he had been offered
中文 by Frederick the Great of Prussia. He lived for twenty-five years in Berlin, where
he wrote over 380 articles. In Berlin, he published the two works which he would
be most renowned for: the Introductio in analysin infinitorum, a text on functions
published in 1748, and the Institutiones calculi differentialis,[17] published in
1755 on differential calculus.[18] In 1755, he was elected a foreign member of
the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
Stamp of the former German
In addition, Euler was asked to tutor the Princess of Anhalt-Dessau, Frederick's
Democratic Republic honoring Euler
on the 200th anniversary of his death. niece. Euler wrote over 200 letters to her, which were later compiled into a best-
In the middle, it shows his polyhedral selling volume entitled Letters of Euler on different Subjects in Natural
formula V + F − E = 2. Philosophy Addressed to a German Princess. This work contained Euler's
exposition on various subjects pertaining to physics and mathematics, as well
as offering valuable insights into Euler's personality and religious beliefs. This
book became more widely read than any of his mathematical works, and it was published across Europe and in the
United States. The popularity of the 'Letters' testifies to Euler's ability to communicate scientific matters effectively to
a lay audience, a rare ability for a dedicated research scientist.[18]
Despite Euler's immense contribution to the Academy's prestige, he was eventually forced to leave Berlin. This was
partly because of a conflict of personality with Frederick, who came to regard Euler as unsophisticated, especially in
comparison to the circle of philosophers the German king brought to the Academy. Voltaire was among those in
Frederick's employ, and the Frenchman enjoyed a prominent position in the king's social circle. Euler, a simple
religious man and a hard worker, was very conventional in his beliefs and tastes. He was in many ways the direct
opposite of Voltaire. Euler had limited training in rhetoric, and tended to debate matters that he knew little about,
making him a frequent target of Voltaire's wit.[18] Frederick also expressed disappointment with Euler's practical
engineering abilities:

“ I wanted to have a water jet in my garden: Euler calculated the force of the wheels necessary to raise
the water to a reservoir, from where it should fall back through channels, finally spurting out in
Sanssouci. My mill was carried out geometrically and could not raise a mouthful of water closer than
”
 fifty paces to the reservoir. Vanity of vanities! Vanity of geometry![19] ”
Eyesight deterioration [edit]

Euler's eyesight worsened throughout his mathematical career. Three years

after suffering a near-fatal fever in 1735 he became nearly blind in his right eye,
but Euler rather blamed his condition on the painstaking work on cartography he
performed for the St. Petersburg Academy. Euler's sight in that eye worsened
throughout his stay in Germany, so much so that Frederick referred to him as
"Cyclops". Euler later suffered a cataract in his good left eye, rendering him
almost totally blind a few weeks after its discovery in 1766. Even so, his
condition appeared to have little effect on his productivity, as he compensated
for it with his mental calculation skills and photographic memory. For example,
Euler could repeat the Aeneid of Virgil from beginning to end without hesitation,
and for every page in the edition he could indicate which line was the first and
which the last. With the aid of his scribes, Euler's productivity on many areas of
study actually increased. He produced on average one mathematical paper
every week in the year 1775.[6]
A 1753 portrait by Emanuel
Return to Russia [edit] Handmann. This portrayal suggests
problems of the right eyelid, and
The situation in Russia had improved greatly since the accession to the throne possible strabismus. The left eye
of Catherine the Great, and in 1766 Euler accepted an invitation to return to the appears healthy; it was later affected
St. Petersburg Academy and spent the rest of his life in Russia. His second stay by a cataract.[20]
in the country was marred by tragedy. A fire in St. Petersburg in 1771 cost him
his home, and almost his life. In 1773, he lost his wife Katharina of 40 years, daughter of Swiss painter Georg Gsell.
Three years after his wife's death Euler married her half sister, Salome Abigail Gsell (1723–1794).[21] This marriage
would last until his death.

On 18 September 1783, Euler died in St. Petersburg after suffering a brain hemorrhage, and was buried with his wife in
the Smolensk Lutheran Cemetery on Vasilievsky Island (the Soviets destroyed the cemetery after transferring Euler's
remains to the Orthodox Alexander Nevsky Lavra). His eulogy was written for the French Academy by the French
mathematician and philosopher Marquis de Condorcet, and an account of his life, with a list of his works, by Nikolaus
von Fuss, Euler's son-in-law and the secretary of the Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg. Condorcet commented,

“ …il cessa de calculer et de vivre — … he ceased to calculate and to live.[22]

”
Contributions to mathematics and physics [edit]

Euler worked in almost all areas of mathematics: geometry, infinitesimal

calculus, trigonometry, algebra, and number theory, as well as continuum
physics, lunar theory and other areas of physics. He is a seminal figure in the
history of mathematics; if printed, his works, many of which are of fundamental
interest, would occupy between 60 and 80 quarto volumes.[6] Euler's name is
associated with a large number of topics.
Euler's grave at the Alexander
Mathematical notation Nevsky Lavra

Euler introduced and popularized several notational conventions through his

[edit]
numerous and widely circulated textbooks. Most notably, he introduced the
Part of a series of articles on
concept of a function[5] and was the first to write f(x) to denote the function f
The mathematical
applied to the argument x. He also introduced the modern notation for the constant e
trigonometric functions, the letter e for the base of the natural logarithm (now also
known as Euler's number), the Greek letter Σ for summations and the letter i to
denote the imaginary unit.[23] The use of the Greek letter π to denote the ratio of a
circle's circumference to its diameter was also popularized by Euler, although it did
not originate with him.[24]

Analysis [edit]

The development of infinitesimal calculus was at the forefront of 18th century

mathematical research, and the Bernoullis—family friends of Euler—were
responsible for much of the early progress in the field. Thanks to their influence,
studying calculus became the major focus of Euler's work. While some of Euler's Natural logarithm · Exponential
proofs are not acceptable by modern standards of mathematical rigour,[25] his function
ideas led to many great advances. Euler is well-known in analysis for his frequent
Applications in: compound
use and development of power series, the expression of functions as sums of interest · Euler's identity & Euler's
infinitely many terms, such as formula · half-lives & exponential
growth/decay

Defining e: proof that e is

irrational · representations of e ·
Notably, Euler directly proved the power series expansions for e and the inverse Lindemann–Weierstrass theorem

tangent function. (Indirect proof via the inverse power series technique was given People John Napier · Leonhard
by Newton and Leibniz between 1670 and 1680.) His daring use of power series Euler
enabled him to solve the famous Basel problem in 1735 (he provided a more
Schanuel's conjecture
elaborate argument in 1741):[25]

Euler introduced the use of the exponential function and logarithms in analytic
proofs. He discovered ways to express various logarithmic functions using power
series, and he successfully defined logarithms for negative and complex
numbers, thus greatly expanding the scope of mathematical applications of
logarithms.[23] He also defined the exponential function for complex numbers,
and discovered its relation to the trigonometric functions. For any real number
φ, Euler's formula states that the complex exponential function satisfies

A special case of the above formula is known as Euler's identity,

called "the most remarkable formula in mathematics" by Richard Feynman, for

A geometric interpretation of
its single uses of the notions of addition, multiplication, exponentiation, and
[26] Euler's formula
equality, and the single uses of the important constants 0, 1, e, i and π. In
1988, readers of the Mathematical Intelligencer voted it "the Most Beautiful
Mathematical Formula Ever".[27] In total, Euler was responsible for three of the top five formulae in that poll.[27]
De Moivre's formula is a direct consequence of Euler's formula.
In addition, Euler elaborated the theory of higher transcendental functions by introducing the gamma function and
introduced a new method for solving quartic equations. He also found a way to calculate integrals with complex limits,
foreshadowing the development of modern complex analysis, and invented the calculus of variations including its
best-known result, the Euler–Lagrange equation.
Euler also pioneered the use of analytic methods to solve number theory problems. In doing so, he united two
disparate branches of mathematics and introduced a new field of study, analytic number theory. In breaking ground
for this new field, Euler created the theory of hypergeometric series, q-series, hyperbolic trigonometric functions and
the analytic theory of continued fractions. For example, he proved the infinitude of primes using the divergence of the
harmonic series, and he used analytic methods to gain some understanding of the way prime numbers are distributed.
Euler's work in this area led to the development of the prime number theorem.[28]

Number theory [edit]

Euler's interest in number theory can be traced to the influence of Christian Goldbach, his friend in the St. Petersburg
Academy. A lot of Euler's early work on number theory was based on the works of Pierre de Fermat. Euler developed
some of Fermat's ideas, and disproved some of his conjectures.
Euler linked the nature of prime distribution with ideas in analysis. He proved that the sum of the reciprocals of the
primes diverges. In doing so, he discovered the connection between the Riemann zeta function and the prime
numbers; this is known as the Euler product formula for the Riemann zeta function.
Euler proved Newton's identities, Fermat's little theorem, Fermat's theorem on sums of two squares, and he made
distinct contributions to Lagrange's four-square theorem. He also invented the totient function φ(n) which is the
number of positive integers less than or equal to the integer n that are coprime to n. Using properties of this function,
he generalized Fermat's little theorem to what is now known as Euler's theorem. He contributed significantly to the
theory of perfect numbers, which had fascinated mathematicians since Euclid. Euler also made progress toward the
prime number theorem, and he conjectured the law of quadratic reciprocity. The two concepts are regarded as
fundamental theorems of number theory, and his ideas paved the way for the work of Carl Friedrich Gauss.[29]
By 1772 Euler had proved that 231 − 1 = 2,147,483,647 is a Mersenne prime. It may have remained the largest known
prime until 1867.[30]

Graph theory [edit]

See also: Seven Bridges of Königsberg

In 1736, Euler solved the problem known as the Seven Bridges of
Königsberg.[31] The city of Königsberg, Prussia was set on the
Pregel River, and included two large islands which were connected
to each other and the mainland by seven bridges. The problem is to
decide whether it is possible to follow a path that crosses each
bridge exactly once and returns to the starting point. It is not: there
is no Eulerian circuit. This solution is considered to be the first
theorem of graph theory, specifically of planar graph theory.[31]
Euler also discovered the formula V − E + F = 2 relating the
number of vertices, edges, and faces of a convex polyhedron,[32]
and hence of a planar graph. The constant in this formula is now
known as the Euler characteristic for the graph (or other
mathematical object), and is related to the genus of the object.[33]
The study and generalization of this formula, specifically by Map of Königsberg in Euler's time showing the actual
Cauchy[34] and L'Huillier,[35] is at the origin of topology. layout of the seven bridges, highlighting the river
Cauchy and L'Huillier, is at the origin of topology.
Pregel and the bridges.

Applied mathematics [edit]

Some of Euler's greatest successes were in solving real-world problems analytically, and in describing numerous
applications of the Bernoulli numbers, Fourier series, Venn diagrams, Euler numbers, the constants e and π, continued
fractions and integrals. He integrated Leibniz's differential calculus with Newton's Method of Fluxions, and developed
tools that made it easier to apply calculus to physical problems. He made great strides in improving the numerical
approximation of integrals, inventing what are now known as the Euler approximations. The most notable of these
approximations are Euler's method and the Euler–Maclaurin formula. He also facilitated the use of differential
equations, in particular introducing the Euler–Mascheroni constant:

One of Euler's more unusual interests was the application of mathematical ideas in music. In 1739 he wrote the
Tentamen novae theoriae musicae, hoping to eventually incorporate musical theory as part of mathematics. This part
of his work, however, did not receive wide attention and was once described as too mathematical for musicians and
too musical for mathematicians.[36]

Physics and astronomy [edit]

Euler helped develop the Euler–Bernoulli beam equation, which

Classical mechanics
became a cornerstone of engineering. Aside from successfully
applying his analytic tools to problems in classical mechanics, Euler
also applied these techniques to celestial problems. His work in
astronomy was recognized by a number of Paris Academy Prizes over Newton's Second Law
the course of his career. His accomplishments include determining
with great accuracy the orbits of comets and other celestial bodies, History of ...

understanding the nature of comets, and calculating the parallax of Fundamental concepts [show]
the sun. His calculations also contributed to the development of Formulations [show]
accurate longitude tables.[37] Branches [show]
In addition, Euler made important contributions in optics. He disagreed Basic motions [show]
with Newton's corpuscular theory of light in the Opticks, which was
Scientists [hide]
then the prevailing theory. His 1740s papers on optics helped ensure
Isaac Newton · Jeremiah Horrocks ·
that the wave theory of light proposed by Christian Huygens would
Leonhard Euler · Jean le Rond d'Alembert ·
become the dominant mode of thought, at least until the development Alexis Clairaut · Joseph Louis Lagrange ·
of the quantum theory of light.[38] Pierre-Simon Laplace ·
William Rowan Hamilton · Siméon-Denis Poisson
Logic [edit]
This box: view • talk • edit
He is also credited with using closed curves to illustrate syllogistic
reasoning (1768). These diagrams have become known as Euler diagrams.[39]

Personal philosophy and religious beliefs [edit]

Euler and his friend Daniel Bernoulli were opponents of Leibniz's monadism and the philosophy of Christian Wolff. Euler
insisted that knowledge is founded in part on the basis of precise quantitative laws, something that monadism and
Wolffian science were unable to provide. Euler's religious leanings might also have had a bearing on his dislike of the
doctrine; he went so far as to label Wolff's ideas as "heathen and atheistic".[40]
Much of what is known of Euler's religious beliefs can be deduced from his Letters to a German Princess and an earlier
work, Rettung der Göttlichen Offenbahrung Gegen die Einwürfe der Freygeister (Defense of the Divine Revelation
against the Objections of the Freethinkers). These works show that Euler was a devout Christian who believed the
Bible to be inspired; the Rettung was primarily an argument for the divine inspiration of scripture.[8]
There is a famous anecdote inspired by Euler's arguments with secular philosophers over religion, which is set during
Euler's second stint at the St. Petersburg academy. The French philosopher Denis Diderot was visiting Russia on
Catherine the Great's invitation. However, the Empress was alarmed that the philosopher's arguments for atheism
were influencing members of her court, and so Euler was asked to confront the Frenchman. Diderot was later informed
that a learned mathematician had produced a proof of the existence of God: he agreed to view the proof as it was
presented in court. Euler appeared, advanced toward Diderot, and in a tone of perfect conviction announced, "Sir,

, hence God exists—reply!". Diderot, to whom (says the story) all mathematics was gibberish, stood

dumbstruck as peals of laughter erupted from the court. Embarrassed, he asked to leave Russia, a request that was
graciously granted by the Empress. However amusing the anecdote may be, it is apocryphal, given that Diderot was a
capable mathematician who had published mathematical treatises.[41]

Selected bibliography [edit]

Euler has an extensive bibliography. His best known books include:

Elements of Algebra . This elementary algebra text starts with a discussion
of the nature of numbers and gives a comprehensive introduction to algebra,
including formulae for solutions of polynomial equations.
Introductio in analysin infinitorum (1748). English translation Introduction to
Analysis of the Infinite by John Blanton (Book I, ISBN 0-387-96824-5, Springer-
Verlag 1988; Book II, ISBN 0-387-97132-7, Springer-Verlag 1989).
 Two influential textbooks on calculus: Institutiones calculi differentialis (1755)
and Institutionum calculi integralis (1768–1770).
Lettres à une Princesse d'Allemagne (Letters to a German Princess) (1768–
1772). Available online (in French). English translation, with notes, and a
life of Euler, available online from Google Books: Volume 1 , Volume 2
Methodus inveniendi lineas curvas maximi minimive proprietate gaudentes,
sive solutio problematis isoperimetrici latissimo sensu accepti (1744). The
Latin title translates as a method for finding curved lines enjoying properties
of maximum or minimum, or solution of isoperimetric problems in the
broadest accepted sense.[42] The cover page of Euler's Methodus
A definitive collection of Euler's works, entitled Opera Omnia, has been inveniendi lineas curvas.

published since 1911 by the Euler Commission of the Swiss Academy of

Sciences.

See also [edit]

List of topics named after Leonhard Euler

References and notes [edit]

1. ^ "Euler", Oxford English Dictionary, second edition, Oxford University Press, 1989.
2. ^ "Euler" , Merriam–Webster's Online Dictionary, 2009.
3. ^ "Euler, Leonhard" , The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, fourth edition, Houghton Mifflin Company,
Boston, 2000.
4. ^ Peter M. Higgins (2007). Nets, Puzzles, and Postmen: An Exploration of Mathematical Connections. Oxford University Press.
p. 43.
5. ^ a b Dunham, William (1999). Euler: The Master of Us All. The Mathematical Association of America. p. 17.
6. ^ a b c Finkel, B.F. (1897). "Biography- Leonard Euler". The American Mathematical Monthly 4 (12): 300.
doi:10.2307/2968971 .
7. ^ Dunham, William (1999). Euler: The Master of Us All. The Mathematical Association of America. xiii. "Lisez Euler, lisez Euler,
c'est notre maître à tous."
8. ^ a b Euler, Leonhard (1960). Orell-Fussli. ed. "Rettung der Göttlichen Offenbahrung Gegen die Einwürfe der Freygeister".
Leonhardi Euleri Opera Omnia (series 3) 12.
9. ^ James, Ioan (2002). Remarkable Mathematicians: From Euler to von Neumann. Cambridge. p. 2. ISBN 0-521-52094-0.
10. ^ Translation of Euler's dissertation in English by Ian Bruce
11. ^ a b Calinger, Ronald (1996). "Leonhard Euler: The First St. Petersburg Years (1727–1741)". Historia Mathematica 23 (2):
156. doi:10.1006/hmat.1996.0015 .
12. ^ Calinger, Ronald (1996). "Leonhard Euler: The First St. Petersburg Years (1727–1741)". Historia Mathematica 23 (2): 125.
doi:10.1006/hmat.1996.0015 .
13. ^ Calinger, Ronald (1996). "Leonhard Euler: The First St. Petersburg Years (1727–1741)". Historia Mathematica 23 (2): 127.
doi:10.1006/hmat.1996.0015 .
14. ^ Calinger, Ronald (1996). "Leonhard Euler: The First St. Petersburg Years (1727–1741)". Historia Mathematica 23 (2): 128–
129. doi:10.1006/hmat.1996.0015 .
15. ^ Gekker, I.R.; Euler, A.A. (2007). "Leonhard Euler's family and descendants". in Bogoliubov, N.N.; Mikhaĭlov, G.K.; Yushkevich,
A.P.. Euler and modern science. Mathematical Association of America. ISBN 088385564X., p. 402.
16. ^ Fuss, Nicolas. "Eulogy of Euler by Fuss" . Retrieved 30 August 2006.
17. ^ "E212 -- Institutiones calculi differentialis cum eius usu in analysi finitorum ac doctrina serierum"
. Dartmouth.
18. ^ a b c Dunham, William (1999). Euler: The Master of Us All. The Mathematical Association of America. xxiv–xxv.
19. ^ Frederick II of Prussia (1927). Letters of Voltaire and Frederick the Great, Letter H 7434, 25 January 1778. New York:
Brentano's.
20. ^ Calinger, Ronald (1996). "Leonhard Euler: The First St. Petersburg Years (1727–1741)". Historia Mathematica 23 (2): 154–
155. doi:10.1006/hmat.1996.0015 .
21. ^ Gekker, I.R.; Euler, A.A. (2007). "Leonhard Euler's family and descendants". in Bogoliubov, N.N.; Mikhaĭlov, G.K.; Yushkevich,
A.P.. Euler and modern science. Mathematical Association of America. ISBN 088385564X., p. 405.
22. ^ Marquis de Condorcet. "Eulogy of Euler - Condorcet" . Retrieved 30 August 2006.
23. ^ a b Boyer, Carl B.; Uta C. Merzbach (1991). A History of Mathematics. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 439–445. ISBN 0-471-54397-7.
24. ^ Wolfram, Stephen. "Mathematical Notation: Past and Future" . Retrieved August 2006.
25. ^ a b Wanner, Gerhard; Harrier, Ernst (March 2005). Analysis by its history (1st ed.). Springer. p. 62.
26. ^ Feynman, Richard (1970). "Chapter 22: Algebra". The Feynman Lectures on Physics: Volume I. p. 10.
27. ^ a b Wells, David (1990). "Are these the most beautiful?". Mathematical Intelligencer 12 (3): 37–41.
doi:10.1007/BF03024015 .
Wells, David (1988). "Which is the most beautiful?". Mathematical Intelligencer 10 (4): 30–31. doi:10.1007/BF03023741 .
See also: Peterson, Ivars. "The Mathematical Tourist" . Retrieved March 2008.
28. ^ Dunham, William (1999). "3,4". Euler: The Master of Us All. The Mathematical Association of America.
29. ^ Dunham, William (1999). "1,4". Euler: The Master of Us All. The Mathematical Association of America.
30. ^ Caldwell, Chris. The largest known prime by year
31. ^ a b Alexanderson, Gerald (July 2006). "Euler and Königsberg's bridges: a historical view". Bulletin of the American
Mathematical Society 43: 567. doi:10.1090/S0273-0979-06-01130-X .
32. ^ Peter R. Cromwell (1997). Polyhedra. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 189–190.
33. ^ Alan Gibbons (1985). Algorithmic Graph Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 72.
34. ^ Cauchy, A.L. (1813). "Recherche sur les polyèdres—premier mémoire". Journal de l'Ecole Polytechnique 9 (Cahier 16): 66–
86.
35. ^ L'Huillier, S.-A.-J. (1861). "Mémoire sur la polyèdrométrie". Annales de Mathématiques 3: 169–189.
36. ^ Calinger, Ronald (1996). "Leonhard Euler: The First St. Petersburg Years (1727–1741)". Historia Mathematica 23 (2): 144–
145. doi:10.1006/hmat.1996.0015 .
37. ^ Youschkevitch, A P; Biography in Dictionary of Scientific Biography (New York 1970–1990).
 38. ^ Home, R.W. (1988). "Leonhard Euler's 'Anti-Newtonian' Theory of Light". Annals of Science 45 (5): 521–533.
doi:10.1080/00033798800200371 .
39. ^ Baron, M. E.; A Note on The Historical Development of Logic Diagrams. The Mathematical Gazette: The Journal of the
Mathematical Association. Vol LIII, no. 383 May 1969.
40. ^ Calinger, Ronald (1996). "Leonhard Euler: The First St. Petersburg Years (1727–1741)". Historia Mathematica 23 (2): 153–
154. doi:10.1006/hmat.1996.0015 .
41. ^ Brown, B.H. (May 1942). "The Euler-Diderot Anecdote". The American Mathematical Monthly 49 (5): 302–303.
doi:10.2307/2303096 .; Gillings, R.J. (February 1954). "The So-Called Euler-Diderot Incident". The American Mathematical
Monthly 61 (2): 77–80. doi:10.2307/2307789 .
42. ^ E65 — Methodus… entry at Euler Archives

Further reading [edit]

Lexikon der Naturwissenschaftler, 2000. Heidelberg: Spektrum Akademischer Verlag.

Demidov, S.S., 2005, "Treatise on the differential calculus" in Grattan-Guinness, I., ed., Landmark Writings in
Western Mathematics. Elsevier: 191–98.
Dunham, William (1999) Euler: The Master of Us All, Washington: Mathematical Association of America. ISBN
0883853280
Fraser, Craig G., 2005, "Leonhard Euler's 1744 book on the calculus of variations" in Grattan-Guinness, I., ed.,
Landmark Writings in Western Mathematics. Elsevier: 168–80.
Gladyshev, Georgi, P. (2007) “Leonhard Euler’s methods and ideas live on in the thermodynamic hierarchical theory
of biological evolution, ” International Journal of Applied Mathematics & Statistics (IJAMAS) 11 (N07), Special Issue
on Leonhard Paul Euler’s: Mathematical Topics and Applications (M. T. A.).
W. Gautschi (2008). "Leonhard Euler: his life, the man, and his works". SIAM Review 50 (1): 3–33.
doi:10.1137/070702710 .
Heimpell, Hermann, Theodor Heuss, Benno Reifenberg (editors). 1956. Die großen Deutschen, volume 2, Berlin:
Ullstein Verlag.
Krus, D.J. (2001) "Is the normal distribution due to Gauss? Euler, his family of gamma functions, and their place in
the history of statistics, " Quality and Quantity: International Journal of Methodology, 35: 445–46.
Nahin, Paul (2006) Dr. Euler's Fabulous Formula, New Jersey: Princeton, ISBN 978-06-9111-822-2
Reich, Karin, 2005, " 'Introduction' to analysis" in Grattan-Guinness, I., ed., Landmark Writings in Western
Mathematics. Elsevier: 181–90.
Richeson, David S. (2008) Euler's Gem: The Polyhedron Formula and the Birth of Topology. Princeton University
Press.
Sandifer, Edward C. (2007), The Early Mathematics of Leonhard Euler, Mathematical Association of America. IBSN
0883855593
Simmons, J. (1996) The giant book of scientists: The 100 greatest minds of all time, Sydney: The Book Company.
Singh, Simon. (1997). Fermat's last theorem, Fourth Estate: New York, ISBN 1-85702-669-1
Thiele, Rüdiger. (2005). The mathematics and science of Leonhard Euler, in Mathematics and the Historian's Craft:
The Kenneth O. May Lectures, G. Van Brummelen and M. Kinyon (eds.), CMS Books in Mathematics, Springer
Verlag. ISBN 0-387-25284-3.
"A Tribute to Leohnard Euler 1707–1783". Mathematics Magazine 56 (5). November 1983.

External links [edit]

Weisstein, Eric W., Euler, Leonhard (1707–1783) at ScienceWorld.

Encyclopedia Britannica article Find more about Leonhard Euler on
Wikipedia's sister projects:
Leonhard Euler at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
How Euler did it contains columns explaining how Euler solved various Definitions from Wiktionary
problems Textbooks from Wikibooks
Euler Archive
Quotations from Wikiquote
Euler Committee of the Swiss Academy of Sciences
References for Leonhard Euler Source texts from Wikisource
Euler Tercentenary 2007
Images and media from Commons
The Euler Society
Leonhard Euler Congress 2007 —St. Petersburg, Russia News stories from Wikinews
Project Euler Learning resources from
Euler Family Tree Wikiversity
Euler's Correspondence with Frederick the Great, King of Prussia
"Euler - 300th anniversary lecture" , given by Robin Wilson at Gresham College, 9 May 2007 (can download as
video or audio files)
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Leonhard Euler" , MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of
St Andrews.

Categories: 1707 births | 1783 deaths | 18th-century Latin writers | 18th-century mathematicians | Blind people |
Calculating prodigies | Fluid dynamicists | Latin squares | Mathematical analysts | Ballistics experts | Members of the
Prussian Academy of Sciences | Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences | Members of the Royal Swedish
Academy of Sciences | Number theorists | People celebrated in the Lutheran liturgical calendar | People from Basel-
City | Russians of Swiss descent | Saint Petersburg State University faculty | Swiss mathematicians | Swiss music
theorists | Swiss physicists | Swiss Christians | University of Basel alumni | 18th-century Swiss people | 18th-century
scientists
 This page was last modified on 5 April 2010 at 23:22.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use
for details.
Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Contact us Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers