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ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT

(OPEN ELECTIVE – I)
[AS PER CHOICE BASED CREDIT SYSTEM (CBCS) SCHEME]
SEMESTER – V

Subject Code 15ME562Teaching Hours / Week IA Marks 20

Lecture Tutorial Practical Exam Marks 80
03 00 00 Exam Hours 03
CREDITS – 03
Course Objectives
1. Understand energy scenario, energy sources and their utilization
2. Learn about methods of energy storage, energy management and economic analysis
3. Have proper awareness about environment and eco system.
4. Understand the environment pollution along with social issues and acts.
Course Outcomes
At the end of the course, the student will be able to:
1. Summarize the basic concepts of energy, its distribution and general Scenario.
2. Explain different energy storage systems, energy management, audit and economic
analysis.
3. Summarize the environment eco system and its need for awareness.
4. Identify the various types of environment pollution and their effects.
5. Discuss the social issues of the environment with associated acts.

Module – I

Basic Introduction to Energy: Energy and power, forms of energy, primary energy sources,
energy flows, world energy production and consumption, Key energy trends in India: Demand,
Electricity, Access to modern energy, Energy production and trade, Factors affecting India’s
energy development: Economy and demographics Policy and institutional framework, Energy
prices and affordability, Social and environmental aspects, Investment. 8 Hours

Module – II
Energy storage systems: Thermal energy storage methods, Energy saving, Thermal energy
storage systems
Energy Management: Principles of Energy Management, Energy demand estimation, Energy
pricing
Energy Audit: Purpose, Methodology with respect to process Industries, Characteristic method
employed in Certain Energy Intensive Industries
Economic Analysis: Scope, Characterization of an Investment Project 10 Hours

Module – III
Environment: Introduction, Multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies- Definition, scope
and importance, Need for public awareness.
Ecosystem: Concept, Energy flow, Structure and function of an ecosystem. Food chains, food
webs and ecological pyramids, Forest ecosystem, Grassland ecosystem, Desert ecosystem and
Aquatic ecosystems, Ecological succession. 8 Hours

Module – IV
Environmental Pollution: Definition, Cause, effects and control measures of - Air pollution,
Water pollution, Soil pollution, Marine pollution, Noise pollution, Thermal pollution and
Nuclear hazards , Solid waste Management, Disaster management Role of an individual in
prevention of pollution, Pollution case studies. 8 Hours

Module – V
Social Issues and the Environment: Climate change, global warming, acid rain, ozone layer
depletion, nuclear accidents and holocaust. Case Studies. Wasteland reclamation, Consumerism
and waste products, Environment Protection Act, Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
Water (Prevention and control of Pollution) Act, Wildlife Protection Act, Forest Conservation
Act, Issues involved in enforcement of environmental legislation. 8 Hours
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Textbook for Environmental Studies For Undergraduate Courses of all Branches of
Higher Education by University grant commission and Bharathi Vidyapeeth Institute of
environment education and Research ,Pune
2. De, B. K., Energy Management audit & Conservation, 2nd Edition, Vrinda Publication,
2010.
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Turner, W. C., Doty, S. and Truner, W. C., Energy Management Hand book, 7th edition,
Fairmont Press, 2009.
2. Murphy, W. R., Energy Management, Elsevier, 2007.
3. Smith, C. B., Energy Management Principles, Pergamum, 2007
4. Environment pollution control Engineering by C S rao, New Age Inytermnational, 2006,
reprint 2015, 2nd edition
5. Environmental studies, by Benny Joseph, Tata McGraw Hill, 2008, 2nd edition.
E- Learning
India Energy Outlook 2015(www.iea.org/.../IndiaEnergyOutlook_WEO2015.pdf)
Open courseware
 Module-I

Basic energy concepts

1. Introduction

Energy is involved in all life cycles, and it is essential in agriculture as much as in all other productive activities.
An elementary food chain already shows the need for energy: crops need energy from solar radiation to grow,
harvesting needs energy from the human body in work, and cooking needs energy from biomass in a fire. The
food, in its turn, provides the human body with energy.

Intensifying food production for higher output per hectare, and any other advancement in agricultural
production, imply additional operations which all require energy. For instance: land preparation and cultivation,
fertilising, irrigation, transport, and processing of crops. In order to support these operations, tools and
equipment are used, the production of which also requires energy (in sawmills, metallurgical processes,
workshops and factories, etc.).

Major changes in agriculture, like mechanisation and what is called the "green revolution", imply major changes
with respect to energy. Mechanisation means a change of energy sources, and often a net increase of the use of
energy. The green revolution has provided us with high yield varieties. But these could also be called low
residue varieties (i.e. per unit of crop). And it is exactly the residue which matters as an energy source for large
groups of rural populations.

Other sectors of rural life require energy as well. The provision of shelter, space heating, water lifting, and the
construction of roads, schools and hospitals, are examples. Furthermore, social life needs energy for lighting,
entertainment, communication, etc. We observe that development often implies additional energy, and also
different forms of energy, like electricity.

Energy is a scarce resource, at least for some groups of people in some places and, maybe, for the world as a
whole. A rational use of energy is then necessary for economic and environmental reasons. This applies to
agriculture as much as to any other sector of the economy. A key to the rational use of energy is the
understanding of the role of energy. The following sections aim to help understand energy in agriculture and
rural development. It should help communication between agricultural planners and energy specialists. Anyone
familiar with energy concepts should skip this chapter and read immediately Chapter 2.

2. Forms of energy

Energy can exist in various forms. Examples are:

- Radiation energy: the radiation from the sun contains energy, and also the radiation from a light or a fire. More
solar energy is available when the radiation is more intense and when it is collected over a larger area. Light is
the visible part of radiation;

- Chemical energy: wood and oil contain energy in a chemical form. The same is true for all other material that
can burn. The content of chemical energy is larger the larger the heating value (calorific value) of the material is
and, of course, the more material we have. Also animate energy (delivered by bodies of human beings and
animals) is, in essence, chemical energy. Furthermore, batteries contain chemical energy;

- Potential energy: this is, for example, the energy of a water reservoir at a certain height. The water has the
potential to fall, and therefore contains a certain amount of energy. More potential energy is available when
there is more water and when it is at a higher height;
- Kinetic energy: this is energy of movement, as in wind or in a water stream. The faster the stream flows and
the more water it has, the more energy it can deliver. Similarly, more wind energy is available at higher
windspeeds, and more of it can be tapped by bigger windmill rotors;

- Thermal energy or heat: this is indicated by temperature. The higher the temperature, the more energy is
present in the form of heat. Also, a larger body contains more heat;

- Mechanical energy, or rotational energy, also called shaft power: this is the energy of a rotating shaft. The
amount of energy available depends on the flywheel of the shaft, i.e.:. on the power which makes the shaft
rotate;

- Electrical energy: a dynamo or generator and a battery can deliver electrical energy. The higher the voltage
and the current, the more electrical energy is made available.

Note that sometimes by "energy form" an energy source (cf. section 5), or even a particular fuel (like oil or
coal), is meant.

3. Energy conversion

"Utilising" energy always means converting energy from one form into another. For instance, in space heating,
we utilise energy, that is, we convert chemical energy of wood into heat. Or, in lift irrigation, a diesel engine
converts chemical energy of oil into mechanical energy for powering the shaft of a pump which, in its turn,
converts shaft power into potential energy of water (i.e. bringing the water to a higher height).

"Generating" energy also means converting energy from one form into another. We can say that a diesel engine
generates energy, which means that the engine converts chemical energy of oil into mechanical energy. Also, a
wind turbine generates energy, which means it converts kinetic energy from wind into mechanical energy. And
a solar photovoltaic cell generates energy by converting radiation energy into electricity.

The generation of energy, in fact, deals with a source of energy, whereas the utilisation of energy serves an end-
use of energy. In between, the energy can flow through a number of conversion steps. The words "generation"
and "utilisation" are a little confusing because, in fact, no energy can be created or destroyed. All we can do is
transform or convert energy from one form into another. In generating energy, we make energy available from a
source, by converting it into another form. In utilising energy, we also convert energy, often from some
intermediate form into a useful form. In all conversions, we find that part of the energy is lost. This does not
mean that it is destroyed, but rather that it is lost for our purposes, through dissipation in the form of heat or
otherwise (cf. figure 1).

Figure 1. Energy conversion

Energy conversions can take place from any one form of energy into almost any other form of energy. (Some
conversions have no practical value.) Which conversion is desired depends on our purposes. For instance, for
power generation, we convert potential energy from hydro resources into mechanical energy, whereas, in water
pumping for lift irrigation, we do the reverse. And, with photovoltaic cells, we convert radiation energy into
electricity, whereas with light bulbs we do the reverse.
Table 5 in section 9 gives examples of conversions and some typical efficiencies of energy converters.

Section 13 shows some calculations of energy conversions.

4. Energy and power

Energy and power are related but totally different concepts. A tank of petrol contains a certain amount of
energy. We can combust this petrol in a certain time period, that is, we convert the energy of the petrol into
mechanical energy, perhaps to power a car. The power is the energy produced per unit of time. The combustion
process can be fast or slow. In the case of faster combustion, more power is produced. Obviously, the tank will
be empty sooner in the case of high power production than in the case of low power production. If power is
energy per time unit, then energy is power multiplied by time period. For Instance, if an oxen delivers a certain
amount of power, then after a certain time period it will have delivered a cerain amount of energy, i.e. the power
times the time period.

The same principle applies to all other energy conversions, whether for energy generation or for energy
utilisation. This implies that we characterise energy resources in units of energy (the amount of energy they
contain), and energy conversion devices in units of power (the amount of power they can produce or consume).

A closer look at the list of forms of energy in section 2 reveals that some of them have actually been described
in terms of power (radiation, kinetic, mechanical and electrical energy). They become energy quantities when
we specify the time period during which the power is delivered, and multiply the power by this time period.
Also in section 2, the quantities of chemical, potential and thermal energy become power quantities when we
divide them by a time period during which the energy quantity is being converted.

5. Energy sources

Energy sources partly correspond to the energy forms of section 2, but not entirely. The following energy
sources can be relevant for rural areas.

- Biomass. We distinguish between: woody biomass (stems, branches, shrubs, hedges, twigs), non-woody
biomass (stalks, leaves, grass, etc.), and crop residues (bagasse, husks, stalks, shells, cobs, etc.). The energy is
converted through combustion (burning), gasification (transformation into gas) or anaerobic digestion (biogas
production). Combustion and gasification ideally require dry biomass, whereas anaerobic digestion can very
well take wet biomass. Fuel preparations can include chopping, mixing, drying, carbonising (i.e. charcoal
making) and briqueting (i.e. densification of residues of crops and other biomass).

- Dung from animals, and human excreta. The energy is converted through direct combustion or through
anaerobic digestion.

- Animate energy. This is the energy which can be delivered by human beings and animals by doing work.

- Solar radiation, i.e. energy from the sun. We distinguish between direct beam radiation and diffuse (reflected)
radiation. Direct radiation is only collected when the collector faces the sun. Diffuse radiation is less intense,
but comes from all directions, and is also present on a cloudy day. Solar energy can be converted through
thermal solar devices (generating heat) or through photovoltaic cells (generating electricity). Direct beam solar
devices (whether thermal or photovoltaic) would need a tracking mechanism to have the device continuously
facing the sun.

- Hydro resources, i.e. energy from water reservoirs and streams. We distinguish between: lakes with storage
dams, natural heads (waterfalls), weirs, and run-of-river systems. Hydro energy can be converted by
waterwheels or hydro turbines.

- Wind energy, i.e. energy from wind. Wind machines can be designed either for electricity generating or for
water lifting (for irrigation and drinking water).

- Fossil fuels, like coal, oil and natural gas. Unlike the previous energy sources, the fossil energy sources are
non-renewable.

- Geothermal energy, that is, the energy contained in the form of heat in the earth. A distinction is made
between tectonic plates (in volcanic areas) and geopressed reservoirs (could be anywhere). Geothermal energy
is, strictly speaking, non-renewable, but the amount of heat in the earth is so large that for practical reasons
geothermal energy is generally ranked with the renewables. Geothermal energy can only be tapped at places
where high earth temperatures come close to the earth's surface.

This list only contains primary energy sources. These are the energy sources which are present in our natural
environment. Secondary energy sources, like batteries, are not included here.

We observe that the primary energy sources are not the ultimate sources of energy. For instance, animate energy
comes from biomass, whereas biomass energy ultimately comes from the sun. Apart from geothermal and
nuclear energy, all our so-called primary energy sources have ultimately got their energy from the sun!

Section 10 will discuss methods for comparing the energy content of energy sources.

6. Some notes on energy terminology

Energy sources are sometimes classified according to characteristics like: renewable, traditional, commercial,
etc. The terminology is rather ambiguous, as the meaning of the words often depends on the context. Some
connotations are given below.

Renewable is generally contrasted with fossil. Renewable are biomass, animate, solar, water and wind energy,
as well as geothermal energy. Fossil energy is contained in coal, oil and natural gas.

Traditional energy is often contrasted with non-traditional energy, and also with new energy. However, what is
considered as traditional depends on what one is used to. In industrialised societies which are used to fossil
fuels, renewable energies like biomass and animate energy are often called traditional. At the same time,
engineers working on "new" energies like wind or solar energy often consider fossil fuels as traditional.
Apparently, what people call traditional are the forms they are actually notused to.

New and renewable energy sources are often put together. They exclude fossil and nuclear energy.

Commercial energy is contrasted with non-commercial energy, and sometimes with traditional energy.
Commercial energy certainly includes energy from fossil fuels which have been monetarized, but also some
forms of new and renewable energies which are part of the cash economy. Biomass and some other sources of
renewable energy (thermal solar energy) are sometimes considered non-commercial, because they are thought
to be freely available. However, in many areas, biomass fuels have to be paid for!
7. Energy flow

As we have seen, generating and utilising energy means converting energy from one form into another. Often,
intermediate steps are Implied. The energy flows through a number of forms, as well as conversion steps,
between the source and the end-use. The costs increase accordingly. We distinguish between primary,
secondary, final and useful energy.

An example is an energy flow which is related to charcoal. Here, the primary energy form is wood. The wood is
converted into charcoal in a charcoal kiln. Charcoal is the secondary form of energy, and it is transported to the
consumer. What the consumer buys at the market place is charcoal, and this is called final energy. The
consumer eventually converts the charcoal into heat for cooking. The heat is the useful energy.

Another example of an energy flow is: primary energy in the form of a hydro resource, secondary energy in the
form of electricity at the hydro power station, final energy in the form of electricity at a saw mill, and useful
energy in the form of shaft power for sawing.

energy Technology examples

primary coal, wood, hydro, dung, oil, etc.
Conversion power plant, kiln, refinery, digester
secondary refined oil, electricity, biogas
transport/transmission trucks, pipes, wires
final diesel oil, charcoal, electricity, biogas
Conversion motors, heaters, stoves
useful shaft power, heat

Energy flow is represented In the diagram in Figure 2. It refers to the following terminology.

Primary energy is the energy as it is available in the natural environment, i.e. the primary source of energy.

Secondary energy is the energy ready for transport or transmission.

Final energy is the energy which the consumer buys or receives.

Useful energy is the energy which is an input in an end-use application.

Note that useful energy is almost invariably either in the form of heat or in the form of shaft power. For a few
end-uses (e.g. communication equipment), electricity is the form of useful energy.

Note that in some cases the primary energy is at the same time the secondary, and even the final energy (c.f.
wood gathered for cooking purposes, or animate power for pulling).

The breakdown of primary to useful energy is relevant, because with each conversion step some energy is lost.
In order to reduce costs and avoid unnecessary losses, we will always aim at eliminating unnecessary steps in
the flow of energy.

Furthermore, the breakdown of energy flows is relevant for surveys and statistics. We may not simply add
primary energy with, say, final energy! (cf. section 10.)
8. Energy units and dimensions

So far, we have discussed energy in qualitative terms. In order to proceed, we must discuss energy
quantitatively. That means, we need units for measuring quantities of energy and related concepts. We use the
International system of units (SI units), which is based on the dimensions and basic units in Table 1.

Table 1. Basic SI units

dimension basic unit symbol

length meter M
mass kilogram Kg
time Second S
electric current ampere A
temperature kelvin °K

The unit of energy in this unit system is joule (J), and the unit of power is watt (W). These and many other units
can be derived from the basic SI units. The relationship between some derived SI units and the basic SI units is
represented in Table 2.

Table 2. Derived SI units

dimension Unit symbol

area square meter m²
volume cubic meter m³
speed meter per second m/s
acceleration meter per second m/s²
pressure Pascal Pa (=N/m)
volume flow cubic meter per second m ³/s
mass flow kilogram per second kg/s
density kilogram per cubic meter kg/m³
force newton (*) N(=kg.m/s²)
energy joule (**) J(=N.m)
power Watt W (=J/s)
energy flux watt per square meter W/m²
calorific value joule per kilogram J/kg
specific heat joule per kilogram kelvin J/kg.K
voltage Volt V (=W/A)
(*) The force exerted by a mass of 1 kg equals ca. 10 N.
(**) The energy required to lift 1 kg by 1 meter. Note that = W.s.

In some countries, or in a particular context, other units than SI units are also used. They can be converted into
SI units, which are more convenient for calculations. The conversion of some non-SI units into SI units is given
in Table 3, for energy and for power.
Table 3. Conversion of non-SI units

Non-SI unit for energy symbol equivalence in SI-units

erg Erg 10-7 J
foot pound force ft.lbf 1.356 J
calorie Cal 4.187 J
kilogramforce meter kgf.m 9.8 J
British thermal unit Btu 1.055 x 103 J
horsepower hour (metric) hp.hr 2.646 x 106 J
horsepower hour (GB) hp.hr 2.686 x 106 J
kilowatt hour kWh 3.60 x 106 J
barrel oil equivalent b.o.e. 6.119 x 109 J
ton wood equivalent - 9.83 x 109 J
ton coal equivalent Tee 29.31 x 109 J
ton oil equivalent Toe 41.87 x 109 J
quad (PBtu) - 1.055 x 1018 J
tera watt year TWy 31.5 x 1018 J
Non-SI unit for power symbol equivalence in SI-Units
foot pound per hour ft.lb/h 0.377 x 10-3 W
calorie per minute cal/min 69.8 x 10-3 W
British thermal unit per hour Btu/h 0.293 W
British thermal unit per second Btu/s 1.06 x 103 W
kilocalorie per hour kcal/h 1.163 W
foot poundforce per second ft.lbf/s 1.356 W
calorie per second cal/s 4.19 W
kilogramforce meter per second kgf.m/s 9.8 W
horsepower (metric) hp 735.49 W
horsepower (GB) hp 746 W

The powers of ten are often abbreviated by writing prefixes before the unit. For instance, the symbol G stands
for giga, which means 10 to the power 9, i.e. a billion. One billion W is then written as 1 GW (one giga Watt).
Common prefixes are given in Table 4.

Table 4. SI prefixes

prefix symbol multiplier

exa E 1018
peta P 1015
tera T 1012
giga G 109 (= 1,000,000,000)
mega M 106 (= million)
kilo k 103 (= thousand)
hecto h 102 (= hundred)
deca da 101 (= ten)
deci d 10-1 (= a tenth)
centi c 10 (= a hundredth)
milli m 10-3 etc....
micro u 10-6
nano n 10-9
pico P 10-12
femto f 10-15
atto a 10-18

Magnitudes of energy forms

Now we have Introduced units for measuring energy, we can make quantitative comparisons and calculations.
The following results give us some feeling of magnitudes of energy, as represented in different energy forms.

The examples are all equivalent to about 100 kJ;

- radiation from the sun on the roof of a house (of ca. 40 m²) in 2.5 s

- energy released in burning 3.5 g coal or 2.9 g petrol; or the energy stored in 1/4 slice of bread

- a large object (1,000 kg) at a height of 10 m

- energy produced by a windmill of 3 m diameter in a wind speed of 5 m/s (a breeze) during 20 minutes; or the
energy stored in the mass of a car (1,000 kg) moving at 50 km/h heat emanated in cooling three cups of coffee
(0.4 kg) from 80°C to 20° C; or the energy needed to melt 0.3 kg ice

- an iron flywheel of 0.6 m diameter and 70 mm thick, rotating at 1,500 revolutions per second

- energy consumed by a 100 W electric light bulb in 17 minutes

Section 13 illustrates the use of energy units in some calculations of energy conversions.

9. Energy losses and efficiency

As has been stated in Section 3, energy conversions always imply energy losses. This leads us to the concept of
efficiency, as follows. A quantity of energy in a certain form is put into a machine or device, for conversion into
another form of energy. The output energy in the desired form is only a part of the Input energy. The balance is
the energy loss (usually in the form of diffused heat). It means the converter has less than 100% efficiency.

The efficiency of an energy converter is now defined as the quantity of energy in the desired form (the output
energy) divided by the quantity of energy put in for conversion (the input energy). The efficiency is usually
expressed by the Greek letter .

Hence:

Table 5 gives some typical efficiencies of energy converters.

Table 5. Some typical efficiencies of energy converters

Converter form of input energy form of output energy efficiency %

petrol engine chemical mechanical 20 - 25
diesel engine chemical mechanical 30 - 45
electric motor electrical mechanical 80 - 95
boiler & turbine thermal mechanical 7-40
hydraulic pump mechanical potential 40 - 80
hydro turbine potential mechanical 70 - 99
hydro turbine Kinetic mechanical 30 - 70
generator mechanical electrical 80 - 95
battery chemical electrical 80 - 90
solar cell radiation electrical 8-15
solar collector radiation thermal 25 - 65
electric lamp electrical light ca. 5
waterpump mechanical potential ca. 60
water heater electrical thermal 90 - 92
gas stove chemical thermal 24 - 30

In some of these converters, intermediate forms of energy occur between the form of the input energy and the
form of the output energy. For instance, with diesel engines, the intermediate form is thermal energy.

When thermal energy is Involved either as the input or as an intermediate form, the efficiency is generally low.

The energy converter can be a device, or a process, or a whole system. An example of the efficiency of an
energy conversion system is given in Table 6. The overall efficiency equals the product of the efficiencies of the
various components of the system. We see that it can be very low indeed.

Table 6

energy form energy converter efficiency

chemical energy
diesel engine 30%
mechanical energy
generator 80%
electricity
electric motor 80%
mechanical energy
waterpump 60%
potential energy
efficiency of the system = 30% x 80% x 80%x 60% = 12%
Efficiency of an energy conversion system: An example

Where energy is a scarce resource, we want the efficiency of conversion to be high, in order to save energy. But
higher efficiency often implies higher costs for better equipment. Optimisation with respect to, on the one hand,
the costs of energy and, on the other hand, the costs of equipment, is a major task in energy planning. The
problem of optimization is different when energy sources are free (like with wind, solar and some hydro
sources). Energy efficiency has then a limited meaning, and the choice of technology will be guided by the cost
effectiveness of the equipment.

A very high system efficiency can be obtained when heat losses from one converter are utilised as energy inputs
in another. We call this waste heat utilisation. It is applicable, for instance, in agro-processing where heat from
Industrial converters is utilised for drying of products. Cogeneration is another example, i.e. the utilisation of
"waste" heat from electricity production, for purposes of process heat in Industry.

10. Equivalence and replacement of energy forms

In principle, the energy content of a fuel is known when the fuel Is specified. For chemical energy, the energy
content is given as the calorific value, or heating value, of the fuel. The unit can be MJ/kg. And so we can
compare different fuels with different energy contents. We can work out how much of one fuel is equivalent to
a quantity of another fuel. For quantifying energy resources, we sometimes use coal as a reference, and the unit
for comparison is then ton-of-coal-equivalent (tee). A certain amount of an energy resource is then characterised
by its tee. That is, the resource has an energy content equivalent to so many tee.

Alternatively, we can express the energy equivalent of a resource in units of ton-of-oil-equivalent (toe), or in
barrels-of-oil-equivalent (boe). Table 7 gives the equivalent values of some fuels.

Table 7. Energy equivalent values of some fuels

fuel Unit tonnes of coal tonnes of oil barrels of oil GJ

equivalent equivalent equivalent (*)
coal Tone 1.00 0.70 5.05 29.3
firewood (**) Tone 0.46 0.32 2.34 13.6
(airdried)
kerosine (jet fuel) Tone 1.47 1.03 7.43 43.1
natural gas 1000 1.19 0.83 6.00 34.8
m3
gasoline Barrel 0.18 0.12 0.90 5.2
gasoil/diesel Barrel 0.20 0.14 1.00 5.7
(*) Note that GJ/tonne is the same as MJ/kg.

(**) Note that the energy equivalent of wood can vary a factor 3 depending on the moisture content of the
wood.

However, what we can achieve with an amount of energy depends very much on how the energy is utilised, that
is, on the efficiencies of the energy converters applied. Efficiencies can vary enormously for different
converters, as we have seen in Section 9. The energy equivalent is then of limited use to us. In practice, when
comparing sources of energy, we are more interested in the replacement value of the energy form. The latter
Indicates how much of that energy form is required to do the same job (i.e. serve the same use) as another
energy form or fuel. Again, as a reference, coal is sometimes used. The replacement value of an energy form is,
then again, expressed in tee. However, this value will be different from the equivalent value of that energy form.

An easy way of comparing replacement values of different energy forms is by indicating how many units of the
energy form (or fuel) can replace one kg of coal. We call this the replacement ratio of the fuel. Replacement
ratios of some household energy forms compared with coal are given in Table 8, as taken from a particular
survey. (Alternatively, a similar table could be made with oil as a reference.) It should be noted that the figures
serve as an example only, as they depend on the actual efficiencies of the conversion techniques applied.

Table 8. Coal replacement ratio of some forms of energy

energy form or fuel unit coal replacement ratio (kg coal per unit)
dung cake kg 0.30
vegetable waste kg 0.60
firewood kg 0.70 - 0.95
soft coke kg 1.50
charcoal kg 1.80
kerosire (lamp) 1 2.10
kerosine (stove) 1 5.20 - 7.00
electricity kWh 0.70
(The coal replacement ratio is the number of kg of coal which is required to effectively replace 1 unit of the
energy form or fuel, under certain assumptions.)

Good examples of coal replacement are a kerosine lamp and a kerosine stove. The coal equivalent of kerosine
was 1.47, which means that the heating value of 1 kg kerosine equals that of 1.47 kg coal. However, the coal
replacement ratio for a kerosine lamp is 2.10, which means that 2.10 kg coal would be required to get as much
light as from 1 kg kerosine. And the coal replacement ratio of a kerosine stove is around 6, which means that 6
kg coal is required to get as much heat in a pot as from 1 kg kerosine.

In Section 7, it was mentioned that the breakdown of energy flows is relevant for surveys and statistics. This is
illustrated by the previous discussion of energy equivalence and energy replacement. We can add the primary
energy resources of a particular region by adding the energy equivalences of all the various primary energy
resources available. This will give us a rather theoretical figure, as it does not say what can be done with this
amount of energy. We can also add, say, the consumption of final energy for a particular sector in a region, and
work this out in a coal replacement value. Or we can consider, say, the amount of useful energy for particular
end-uses, and express this in an oil (or coal) replacement value. For working out the replacement values, we
should know the conversion methods and their efficiencies which are involved in the energy flow.

11. Energy balance

An energy balance of a region (or country) is a set of relationships accounting for all energy which is produced,
transformed and consumed in a certain period. This basic equation of an energy balance is:

source + import = export + variation of stock + use + loss

Consider a primary energy balance.

Sources are the local (or national) primary energy sources, like coal, hydro, biomass, animate, etc.
Imports are energy sources which come from outside the region (or country).

Exports go to other regions (or countries).

Variations of stock are reductions of stocks (like of forests, coal, etc.), and storage.

Use can be specified sectoral, or by energy form, or by end-use, etc., as required.

Losses are technical losses and administrative losses:

technical losses are due to conversions and transport or transmission

administrative losses are due to non-registered consumptions.

An energy balance usually refers to a year, and can be made for consecutive years to show time variations.

Energy balances can be aggregate, or very detailed, depending on their functions. They can also be elaborate,
showing all sorts of structural relationships between energy production and consumption, and specifying
various Intermediate forms of energy.

An energy balance can also be set up for a village, a household, a farm, or an agricultural unit. It will show the
inputs of energy in various forms, the end-use energy, and the losses. Specific for energy balances of
agricultural systems is the fact that parts of the outputs of the system are, at the same time, energy Inputs into
the system (agricultural residues, dung).

Energy balances have to be built up from surveys of what is actually going on. This requires energy resource
surveys, and energy consumption surveys, as well as more technical energy audits. Section 12 goes into some
aspects of energy auditing.

Energy balances provide overviews, which serve as tools for analysing current and projected energy positions.
The overviews can he useful for purposes of resource management, or for indicating options in energy saving,
or for policies of energy redistribution, etc. However, care must be taken not to single out energy from other
economic goods. That means that an energy balance should not be taken as our ultimate guide for action.
Energy data are to be translated into economic terms, for a further analysis of options for action. And, of course,
socio-cultural and environmental aspects are equally important.

12. Process energy requirements and gross energy requirements

Energy use in agriculture, or in any other productive system, can be analysed at different levels.

1. The direct energy input in the production process and related transport requirements is considered.

2. The same as 1., but, in addition, the energy embodied in the materials (e.g. fertiliser) for the production
process and related transport is considered.

3. The same as 2., but, in addition, the energy required by the machines to produce these materials is
considered'.

4. The same as 3., but, in addition, the energy required by the machine Cools is considered. Etc....

Which level of analysis is relevant for whom?

Let us first distinguish:

GER = Gross Energy Requirement is the total amount of energy required for a product.

e.g. the GER of milk is 5.2 MJ/pint in the U.K.

This includes the energy Co produce fertiliser, grow the grass, feed the cows, process the milk in the dairy, and
energy for transport.

PER = Process Energy Requirement is the energy required for processing the product.

e.g. the PER of milk is 0.38 MJ/pint in the U.K.

This is the energy required to process the milk in the dairy itself.

Generally, when the PER can be lowered, as a result the GER will also be lowered. However, this will not
always be the case, and it can also be the reverse. For instance, energy economies of scale can sometimes be
achieved at farm level, at the expense of energy requiring investments in Infrastructure or transport facilities.

The answer to the question as to which level of analysis is relevant obviously depends oh which policy or
management level is involved.

For instance, for management at the farm level, it is the PER which matters, and so the first level of analysis is
the relevant one.

For regional policy makers, however, level 2 is relevant when regional materials and resources are involved.
Furthermore, the linkages between the agricultural sector and other sectors will be a concern. For instance, large
scale biogas digesters can be an energy efficient option for agro-processing plants, but they may compete with
alternative utilisation of the inputs (e.g. dung for poor peoples' household fuel).

For national policy makers, level 2 or 3 may be relevant. For instance, the establishment of plants for energy
intensive goods can be attractive when cheap energy is available (e.g. fertilizer production).

The analyses of PER and GER provide data for energy balances. However, these data do not give information
on the forms of energy, or time variations (seasonality) in the energy flows, etc. Such information has to be
added, as required.

PER and GER are part of what is often called energy auditing. This is the monitoring of energy use in
productive systems. The analogue in consumption systems is energy end-use analysis. In subsistence
agriculture, productive and consumption systems are intertwined, and the two approaches have to be combined
in energy surveys.

13. Examples of calculations of energy conversions

The following examples aim to illustrate methods of calculations, rather than to arrive at accurate numbers. For
convenience, the calculations are made in round figures. More exact figures would, anyway, depend on the
accuracy of the input data.

13.1 How much heat is produced by a human body?

A man doing no or very little physical work needs about 2,000 kcal (or less) of energy in his daily food. The
body converts this energy almost entirely into heat.

1 day = 24 x 60 x 60 s = 86,400 s 1 cal = 4.2 J

Hence

We see that a human body doing no work is equivalent to a heat source of about 100 W - the equivalent of a
good bulb.

13.2 The power of oil

It was said that two teaspoons of diesel oil are equivalent to the work done by a man in a day. Can that be
correct?

Assume that the power which can be delivered by a man in a day's work is 60 W (cf. example 13.3), and that he
can do that for 4 hours per day. So, per day, he delivers:

60 W x 4 h = 240 Wh = 240 x 3,600 Ws = 860 kWs = 860 kJ (1)

Note: the power of ca. 60 W delivered by doing work is on top of the 100 W produced by the body as heat (cf.
example 13.1). The additional power requires additional kcal in the food!

We estimate that two teaspoons are equal to 1/50 litre.

Diesel oil has an energy content of 42 MJ/kg.

For simplicity, we assume that 1 litre of oil weighs 1 kg.

Then, 1 litre of oil contains 42 MJ, and 2 teaspoons contain:

1/50 x 42 MJ =840 kJ (2)

Note: the power delivered by a man can be compared with the power which can be delivered by an oxen, which
is:

0.3 to 1.3 hp = 220 to 960 W.

We see that the figures (1) and (2) are approximately the same. So - the comparison was correct!

13.3 How can we check that a human body can deliver 60 W during a few hours per day?

The actual value could be measured, and it will vary a lot, depending on many factors. One way of checking the
order of magnitude is the following.

Mountaineers know that a man can climb about 300 metres per hour. Assume that his weight is 75 kg. The
gravitational force he is counteracting is then:
75 x 9.8 Newton = 750 N The energy delivered by the man in an hour is:

300 m x 750 N = 225 kNm = 225 kJ.

The power delivered is:

13.4 How can we compare the power from oxen with the energy from wood?

We cannot compare power and energy. We can make a comparison only if we specify a time period, so as to
relate power to energy. For instance, the time period that oxen work.

An oxen can deliver typically 0.8 hp. With Table 3 on the conversion of non-SI units, we see that this equals
about 740 x 0.8 = 600 W. The amount of energy delivered in one year by this oxen can be calculated if we
know how many hours the oxen works in a year. Assume this is 4 hours a day during 300 days, i.e. 1,200 hours
per year. One hour is 3,600 s.

Hence, the energy from one oxen in a year is:

600 x 1,200 x 3,600 Ws = 2,600,000,000 = 2.6 GJ

Thus, 4 oxen would deliver about 10 J in one year. From Table 3 it is seen that this equals roughly the amount
of energy in one ton of (wet) wood.

13.5 Do we really need more energy under the pot than in the pot?

We have seen that a person needs in his food ca. 2,000 kcal per day (cf. example 13.1). This is 8.4 MJ/day for
one person. We assume that the food mainly consists of crop products, i.e. biomass.

Dry biomass, whether edible or not, has an energy content of typically 18 MJ/kg.

The daily energy of 8.4 MJ can thus be delivered by:

On a yearly basis, the biomass for food per person is:

365 days x 0.5 kg/day = 180 kg/year

We can compare this amount with the amount of biomass required as fuel by a household. From surveys, we
know that a typical household fuel need for cooking purposes is 500 kg/year of dry biomass per person. Hence

This means that roughly 3 times more energy is required under the pot than in the pot!
13.6 On the price of rural electricity

A consumer in a town centre is charged Rs 0.75 per kWh for his electricity from the national grid. In a rural
area, a consumer has a lamp connected to the local micro hydro unit at a cost of Rs 1 per day. Which consumer
pays more for his electricity?

Assume that the lamp in the village consumes a power of 40 W and Chat It is switched on for an average of 4
hours per day. This implies an energy consumption of:

4 h x 40 W = 160 Wh = 0.16 KWh for 1Rs.

The consumer in the town pays for this amount of energy:

0.16 x Rs 0.75 = Rs 0.12

We see that the villager pays about 8 times more for his electricity than the consumer in the town.