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Project Report 2010

CONTENTS
I. SYNOPSIS

II. INTRODUCTION

III. ABOUT KMML

IV. ELECTRICAL SYSTEM OF KMML

V. SUBSTATION

VI. FAULTS IN POWER SYSTEM

VII. SYSTEM PROTECTION

VIII. PROTECTIVE RELAYING AND CIRCUIT BREAKING

i. OVERCURRENTRELAY
ii. DIFFERENTPROTECTIONRELAY
iii. BUCHHOLZ RELAY
iv. EARTH FAULT RELAY
v. MOTOR PROTECTIONRELAY
vi. CIRCUIT BREAKERS

IX. PROTECTIVE SCHEME OF 110KV SUBSTATION

X. SEQUENCE COMPONENTS

XI. PROJECT MODEL

i. BLOCK DIAGRAM
ii. BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION
iii. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
iv. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION
v. DESIGN
vi. COMPONENTSLIST

XII. CONCLUSION

XIII. REFERENCE

XIV. BIBLIOGRAPHY

XV. APPENDIX

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SYNOPSIS
The project is completed at KMML, world's first fully integrated Titanium
dioxide pigment plant. The electrical system of KMML includes 110 kV
substation. The project aims to design the protective system of the
substation along with setting up a trip circuit.

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INTRODUCTION

Protection is significant to the everyday life of human beings in

several ways. The electrical energy has become part of man's life. The advancing
modern world comes to standstill without electrical energy supply. The power system
protection is essential in assuring continuous, reliable energy supply in the form of
electricity to the consumers. Failure of supply system due to surges or other causes
hinders the delivery of electrical power to the loads. This undesirable conditions
results in huge damages to the system with loss of resources.

The "PROTECTIVE SYSTEM" is a collection of equipments engaged in

perceiving and secluding faults. Faults are abnormal states of any system. The
protective system of the entire power system is beyond the scope of this project, so
a substation is chosen. Substations are points on the power system that form
centers of power distribution. Substations handle numerous equipments for various
purposes. Sufficient protection need to be provided for the apparatus so that
damages due to faults are reduced. The level of protection provided and protective
scheme designated depends mainly on the voltage grading of the substation.

The functioning of protective system is relaying and circuit

breaking. Relaying is the perception and circuit breaking is seclusion. The relays and
circuit breakers along with other switch gears avert the consequences of fault.
Faults, though rare events, cannot be completely excluded from the system, but can
be minimised through better design and effective protection unit.

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ABOUT KMML

Located on the coast of the Arabian Sea, one of the richest mineral
deposits in the world, Kerala Minerals and Metals Ltd. (KMML) is among the
pioneers in the field of mineral sand industry in India. The mineral separation
industry, MIs F.X. Perira and sons Pvt. Ltd., established in 1932, turned KMML in
1972. Today KMML has variety of products like iIImenite, silimenite, monozite,
synthetic rutile, zircon, leucoxene, titanium dioxide pigment, etc. in finest quality.

Two main plants of KMML are:-

1. Mineral Separation Plant

2. Titanium dioxide Pigment Plant.

The integrated Titanium dioxide Pigment Plant consists of:-

IBP - IIImenite Beneficiation Plant

ARP - Acid Regeneration Plant

U100/200 - Chlorination Plant

U300 - Oxidation Plant
U400/500 - Treatment and sand Milling Final Product Plant

The Plants U100 - 500 forms together the Pigment Production Plant (PPP).
Utilities available are:-

 Boiler
 Water Treatment Plant
 Air Compressor Station
 Oxygen Plant.

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Plant Process

The Mineral Separation Plant mines and separates iIImenite, rutile and
leucoxene. Since the availability of rutile (95% Ti02) is limited, illmenite is the raw
material for the Ti02 Production. The raw illmenite is beneficiated to 90-92% Ti02 by
reduction and leaching in the ISP. The spent Hydrochloric acid (leach liquor) is
regenerated in the ARP for minimum pollution. Finally, the PPP converts the
beneficiated illmenite to the Titanium dioxide Pigment.

The Pigment Production Plant first purifies the beneficiated illmenite by

chlorination in presence of petroleum coke. The titanium tetrachloride (tickle) vapor
is condensed and further purified a by distillation. The condensed tickle is vaporised,
preheated and oxidised to obtain raw Ti02 which is formed into slurry with water.
The slurry is then treated with various chemicals and agitated with san,d in the sa'nd
miller. After surface treatment it is filtered and washed to remove salt. The dried,
michronised Ti02 powder is then packed in hags of 25kg in the bagging machine.
The packets are stacked on pallets by the palletiser.

The installed capacity of KMML is 22000 tonnes of Ti02 pigment per

year. The ISO 9002:2000 certified company sets up a Titanium sponge plant, in
addition to expanding the present capacity of the titanium dioxide Plant from 50,000 tonnes
per annum

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Products and their application

TITANIUMDIOXIDE PIGMENT(RUTILE) Paints, Printing inks, Plastic, paper, rubber,

Textiles, Ceramics.

TITANIUMTETRA CHLORID Rutile grade Titanium Dioxide Pigment, titanium

sponge Imetal, titanium salts butyl titanate,
titanium Oxychlorides.

ILLMENITE Synthetic rutile, Welding Electrodes, , Titanium

Tetra Chloride, Titanium Dioxide Pigment, Ferro
Titanium Alloys, Titanium Salt.

RUTILE Welding Electrodes, Titanium Dioxide Pigment

Titanium Components, Titanium Tetrachloride,
Titanium metal/sponge

LEUCOXENE Welding Electrodes, Titanium Tetrachloride,

titanium Dioxide Pigment, Titanium Components.

ZIRCON Ceramics, Zirconium, Chemical, Foundries,

Zirconium Metals, Refractory, Nuclear Technology

SILLIMENITE High temperature refractory, Ceramic industry

IRONOXIDE BRICK As building material

The wide range of products offered by KMML are exported to well-known

companies in Korea, Italy, Mauritius, China, West Africa, Turkey, Sri Lanka,
Singapore, Bahrain, UAE and Thailand. These high quality chemicals from KMML
are used in the manufacture of dress, cosmetics, rubber products, plastics, paints,
newsprints, tablets, enamels, emulsions and, printing ink.
The eco-friendly and socially committed company maintains high
Standards of performance in every phase of production.

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ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM OF KMML

The KMML is an EHT consumer of KSEB,supplied by the Edappon-Kundra
substations 110kv. This 110kv is stepped down to 6.6kv using two 110/6.6kv,lO/12.5
MVA step-down transformer in the main H.T substation, from here the supply is fed to
H.T Substation, lads and other five in plant L.T substation (6.6/0.433kv) through
cables. The diesel generator (OG) sets of 500 KAV (x2) and 1OKAV UPS system are
used for emergency supply during power failure. The KMML power system like the
ring system of distribution as shown the figure

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Yard

The 11OkVyard contains a pair of 3-phase lines incorporating

lightning Arresters

Isolators

Earth switches

Gas Circuit Breaker (SF6 Breaker)

Instrument Transformers

Power Transformers

Power Transformer

The yard includes two power transformers one an each line, steps down
11Okvto 6.6kV for further distribution, with specification:

10/12,5MVA, 110/6.6kV, 3<1>50 Hz, Y-Y-Δ ONAN/ONAF with on load tap

changer OLTC, primary rigidly earthed and secondary earthed through NGR

ONAN/ONAF indicates type of cooling - Oil Natural Air Natural and Oil Natural Air
Forced. Above 10MVA transformers are air-blast cooled using fans. The on load
tap changer is provided for regulating the secondary voltage at 6.9 kV. The value of
NGR is 9.5Ω

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SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM

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Main Step Down Station (MSDS)

The 110kv tapped from the Edk-2 line is stepped down to 6.9kV using
the power transformers. This power is fed to 13HT motors and 5 inplant substations.
The MSDS facilitates the control of the yard derives - isolators, GCB, earth switch.
Various relays are installed to sense the faults on both the 110kv and 6.9kv sides.
The circuit breakers on the 6.9kV side. MOCBs are set up on the control panel for
the HT motors. The Remote Tap Changing Centre (RTCC) , monitors and controls
the on load tap changer.

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Implant Substation
There are fine 6.6/.433kV substations erected at the site of different plants.
The implant substations consists two 6.6/.433kV transformers. The .433V supply is
fed to the PowerControlCentre(PCC)through bus ducts and then to Motor Control
Centers (MCC) that feed the LT motors.

Power Control Centre (PCC)

PCC distributes power to different MCCs and PDBs through protective relays
and circuit breakers. The secondary of the two transformers at each implant
substation is loaded through the PCC. The two sections from the two transformers
can be connected through bus-coupler when any section fails.

Motor Control Centre (MCC)

Every Motor in the industry is controlled from the 17MCCs. The motors are
operated using the local start and stop buttons from the MCC. MCC module for each
motor consists of DOL starter. Overload Relay (OLR), Contactor and the switch fuse
units. The module has provisions for protection and isolation of the motors.

In. addition to the above features, the j3lectricalsystem involves

capacitor banks for power factor improvement. Capacitor banks are provided at the
MSDS and all the 5 substations. The 110V D.C. supply requirements are met with
the 49 x 2.2V Lead-Acid battery unit. The Power Distribution Boards supply the
power for domestic purposes, to plug points, lights, etc. Metering equipments,
protective relays and circuit breakers are installed wherever necessary. Air circuit
breakers are used for the operation of LT motors at 433V level.

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SUBSTATION

The electrical supply management system maintains the energy

supply to all consumers instantly, automatically and safety with required quality, at all
times. The substations ensure the service reliability and continuity of the system.
The flow of electrical energy takes place through the substations and they serve
many purposes:
 Sources of energy supply for the local area of distribution.
 Points of control and protection of the supply system.
 Centers of power factor improvement.
 Voltage regulators on the feeders.
 Street lighting control and switching.

Basically, the substations are an assemblage of devices to change some

characteristic of the electric supply. The main purpose of the substations is to
change the voltage level, with provisions for control and protection of the power
lines. Substations are thus relevant to all regions of the power system. The major
substation equipments are briefed below:

Bus bars

Copper or Aluminum rods kept at a constant voltage, form bus-bars. The

electrical energy is tapped to and from the bus-bars. The equipments of the
substations are connected to the bus-bar conductors. Various bus-bar arrangements
are possible depending on the facilities and utilities.

Power Transformers

Power transformers perform voltage transformations at the substation.

Generally, three-phase transformers are used rather than 3 - Single phase bank of
transformers so that 3 - phase, load tap changing mechanism can be used and the
installation is simple.

Circuit Breakers

Circuit breakers are operated to make or break any circuit manually under
normal conditions and automatically on fault. Air circuit breaker, Oil circuit breaker,
Vacuum circuit breaker and SF6 breakers are commonly used. Relays are provided
to inform the breaker about the fault.

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Isolators

In order to disconnect a part of the system for repair and maintenance

isolators are employed. They are operated on no load, after opening the circuit
using the circuit breaker. For reconnection, isolators are closed and then circuit
breaker is turned.

Instrument transformers

For the purpose of measuring and monitoring the current and voltage in the
line Instrument transformers; current transformers (C.T) and Potential transformer
(P.T) are used. Current transformers are step - up transformers lowering the current
level proportionately. Potential transformers are step - down transformers with a
lower secondary voltage. In addition to metering, instrument transformers are
important to protective units.

lightning Arresters

lightning Arresters are provided on the three lines for protection against
surges due to lightning. The over voltages produced are passed to the earth without
interfering the system operation.

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FAULTS IN POWER SYSTEM

In electrical engineering view, the fault is a defect which diverts current from
its intended path in the circuit. The causes of faults and types of faults are
numerous. Generally, breaking of conductors or failure of insulation leads to faulty
conditions of the system. Causes of failures may be broadly classified as below:
 Breakdown at normal voltage due

1. deterioration or ageing of insulation

2. damages caused by unpredictable incidents (blowing, of

heavy winds, trees falling across the lines, vehicles colliding
with towers or poles, birds shorting lines, line breaks etc.)

 Breakdown due to abnormal voltages caused by switching

surges or lightning.

Faults lead to the damaging of the equipment and the entire installation
as the faulty current level is excessive. During faults, voltages of the three phases
become unbalanced and the power flow is towards the fault. In power system the
probability of occurrence of abnormality is more on power lines.

For the purpose of analysis ac faults can be classified as:

.
 Single line to ground fault (L-G)

 Double line to ground fault (L-L-G)

 Three phase fault (L-L-L)

 Line to line fault (L-L)

 Simultaneous fault

 Three phase to ground fault (L-L-L-G)

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The above mentioned are the most common and dangerous faults occurring
in the power system and are together called short - circuit or shunt faults. They are
a result of the breakdown of insulation.

These short circuit faults have the following harmful effects on power system.

 Excessive heating due to heavy currents resulting in fire or

explosion.

 In the form of are, short circuits damage the elements of power

system.

 Introduce unbalance in symmetrical circuit

 Stability is disturbed

 Marked reduction in voltage

 Loads such as motor turn sources of fault power

The other abnormal conditions in ac systems include

 Voltage and current unbalance

 Over voltages

 Reversal of power

 Power swings

 Under frequency

 Temperature rise

 Instability

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 Open circuit etc

Some faults are not serious enough to call for the tripping of
circuit breakers. In such cases protective relaying is arranged for giving an alarm. In
more serious cases, the continuation of abnormal condition can be harmful. In such
cases the faulty part should be disconnected without any delay.

SYSTEM PROTECTION

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The "System Protection" is pertinent to the undisturbed operation of electrical

system; to safeguard the equipment and the operating personnel from the hazards of
arising abnormalities. Electrical supply management systems employ protective
devices to ensure the continuity and reliability of service. Protective systems isolate
the faulty section from the healthy part. instantly, without delay.

Every electrical system must operate continuously under normal service conditions
and must withstand short-time over currents and over voltages during abnormal conditions.
The abnormal state, fault, diverts current from its intended path. The faulty impedance is
negligible and heavy current flows. An uncleared fault may result in fire which not only
damages the equipment of its origin but may spread in the system and cause total failure. If
the faulty section is not isolated soon, the entire installation will be destroyed.

Faults can be minimized by improved system design, better operation

and high quality maintenance but cannot be eliminated completely. Erection of
efficient protective systems is therefore highly important. Essential qualities of
protection are reliability, sensitivity, selectivity, discrimination and fastness of
operation.

The system reliability is improved by the protective system and so its

reliable operation is essential. The protective system must be ready to function
correctly at all times, under every conditions of faults of the system for which it has
been designed. The protective reliability is influenced by the simplicity in
construction. The reliability of simple protective schemes is greater.

The peculiar nature of the protective system lies in their selective

and discriminative operation. The selectivity is the ability to detect the fault position
and disconnect the flaw from the healthy system. Also, the protective system must
be able to discriminate the faulty situation for prompt operation, time - delayed
operation or no operation. A well designed protective system must have properties -
selectivity and discrimination, otherwise unnecessary tripping and excess isolation
results.

Any protective system must be sufficiently sensitive so that the

smallest fault current is detected and cleared. The faulty section must be
disconnected quickly and therefore fast operation of the protective system plays
important role. In short, the protective system must prevent any chances of failure
due to flaws while ensuring desirable operations.

The protective system must differentiate the normal and abnormal

situations and act accordingly. The smallest fault must be detected and cleared
quickly, with minimum disruption to the system. The property of selectivity allows the
isolation of flaw with the healthy equipments intact. Basically reliable protection with

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less chances of failure is ensured.

Zones of Protection

The formation of zones of protection assigns an area of responsibility under a

particular protection system. The entire power system is covered by several
protective zones, neighboring zones allowed to overlap so that no part is left
unprotected. Usually, not more than two elements come under a certain zone, The
zone boundaries are defined by the circuit breakers. The zonal protection responds
only to the faults within its area of concern and does not identify through faults.
There are protections without exact zone boundary. The concept of protective zones
highlights effective system protection.

Back - up protection

The essential protection provided to any machine is the primary or main

protection. In the event of failure of primary protection, the , back-up protection takes
over the job of clearing the fault. Back-up protection is a precautionary protection to
act when any element of the primary protection fails. The extent of back-up
protection depends on economical and technical considerations. The system
protection is made more flexible by the back-up.

During the installation of electrical system, protection schemes are designed

based on the system model. Sufficient protection is provided to the system after
examining the economical and technical aspects, to avoid wastage of resources.

The system protection is accomplished by protective relaying and circuit

breaking. The fault clearing process begins with the relays sensing the situation as a
heavy current across the secondary of the CT to which they are connected. The
information is passed to the circuit breakers by closing the trip circuit. The fault is
isolated as the circuit breaker contacts are separated and the arc drawn between
them is extinguished.

Overvoltages

The voltage surges in the power system caused by lightning and switching
resonance is shielded by

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 Use of overhead ground wires

 Low tower footing resistance

 Use of lightning arresters

The over voltages caused in the system is diverted to the earth by reducing
the resistance of the earth path using the above devices. The elements of power
system should withstand the over voltages without insulation failure. The insulation
level and quality is graded, so that the damage due to overvoltage is minimum and
equipment insulation is economical.

Overvoltage caused during switching operations depend on the equivalent

inductance, capacitance, resistance of the system and other local conditions. The
surges on opening the circuit breakers are reduced using opening resistor across
circuit breaker interrupters. Pre-closing resistors are incorporated to prevent
switching surges on closing the circuit breakers.

Protection of Transformers

The transformer is major equipment at every levels of power system. Power

transformers are static devices, totally enclosed and usually oil immersed with rare
chances of fault occurrence. But the consequences of abnormalities are severe
unless the transformer is quickly disconnected from the system. Fast clearing of
faults reduces damage to the equipment and the interruption in the power service
caused by drop in voltages and instability.

The protective equipments for transformer protection are selected

based on the following factors:

1. Particulars of transformer

 KVA rating

 Voltage ratio

 Connections of windings

 Percentage reactance

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 Neutral point earthing resistance

 Value of system earthing resistance

 Whether indoor or outdoor, dry or oil filled with or without conservator

2. Length and cross section of connecting leads between CTs and relay panel

3. Fault level at the power transformer terminals

4. Position of transformer and load characteristics

The transformer protective scheme includes gas relays which give

alarm on incipient faults, differential system of protection which gives protection
against phase to phase faults and phase to ground faults, other protective relays and
surge arresters which gives protection to insulation from high voltage surges.

The faults in transformer can be caused by the failure of insulating material

due to dust, moisture, voids, weakening of winding due to external short circuits. A
through fault is one which is beyond the protected zone of the transformer, but fed
through the transformer. Internal faults are within the protected zone of the
transformer, phase to phase or phase to ground short circuits. Incipient faults are
initially minor and gradually become serious.

Power Transformer Protection

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Abnormal Condition
Incipient faults below
oil level resulting in
decomposition of oil,
faults between phases
and between phase and
ground.
Large internal faults phase-
to-phase, phase to- ground,
below oil level.
Faults in tap-changer.
Earth faults
Through faults
Overloads
High voltage surges
The faults in transformer can be caused by the failure of
insulating materials due to dust, moisture, voids, weakening of winding due to
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Protection
Buchholz relay sounds
alarm
(Gas actuated relay)
Sudden pressure relay
Pressure relief valve
1. Buchholz relay trips
the circuit-breaker.
2. Percentage differential
protection.
3. High speed high set
over current relay.
1. Differential protection.
2. Earth fault relay.
1.Graded time lag
over current relay.
2.HRC Fuses
1.Thermaloverload relay
2.Temperature relays
sound alarm
1. Surge arresters
2. R-C Surge suppressors
Remarks
Buchholz relay used for
transformers of rating
500 kVA and above.
Buchholz relay too slow
and less sensitive.
Buchholz relay for tap
changer
also.
Percentage differential
protection used for
transformers of and
Above 5 MVA.
For transformers of and
above 5 MVA.
(a) Instantaneous
R.E.F. Relay.
(b) Time lag E.F.Relay.
Protection of distribution
transformers.
Small distribution
transformers up to
500 kVA.
Generally temperature
indicators are provided
on the transformers.
Temp. increase is
indicated on control'
board also. Fans started
at certain temp.
In addition to arresters
for incoming lines.
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external short circuits. A through fault is one which is beyond the protected zone of
the transformer, but fed through the transformer. Internal faults are within the
protected zone of the transformer, phase to phase or phase to ground short circuits.
Incipient faults ,are initially minor and gradually become serious.

PROTECTIVE RELAYING AND CIRCUIT BREAKING

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Being the functions of protection units, relaying and circuit

breaking efforts to avoid damages due to faults in the system. The protective
devices respond to the change in the circuit to prevent adverse effects. The system
protection is accomplished by a number of subsystems.

The subsystems are:-

 Relays

 Circuit breakers

 Transducers

The process of fault - clearing involves, operation of relay on fault, opening of the
Circuit breaker and disconnection of the faulty portion.

Protective relays sense the abnormality and sends tripping command

to the circuit breaker, to isolate the section from the healthy system. The normal and
abnormal situations are differentiated and the device responds to the fault
automatically. On sensing the fault, the relay closes its contacts, thereby completing
the trip circuit of the circuit-breaker. The circuit-breaker is a manual switch designed
to operate automatically on fault. When the trip coil is energized by protective
relaying, circuit breaker opens and disconnects the faulty part.
Relays are protective electrical devices initiating the action of fault
clearance. Interposed between the main circuit and the circuit breaker, they decide
to signal the tripping circuit. Different types of relays are available. The conventional
relays are electromechanical type having movable assemblies and operating on the
principles of

 electromagnetic induction ( inverse-time over current relays)

 Electromagnetic attraction (instantaneous over current relays)

 Thermal effect (bimetallic relay)

 Gas pressure effect (buchholz relay)

Static relays have stationary electronic circuits for measuring and are being
increasingly used for various applications. Recently, programmable relays have
been developed. Some relays of interest to this project are discussed below:

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Overcurrent Relays

Overcurrent relays are provided for overcurrent protection, where the relay
picks up when the current exceeds the pick up level. Overcurrents occur due to
short circuits caused by the phase faults, earth faults or winding faults. Depending
on the relay time, overcurrent relays are categorized as:

 Instantaneous overcurrent relay

 Inverse time overcurrent relay

The relays designed to act instantaneously without time delay, on faults are
the instantaneous overcurrent relays. These are simple and fast electromagnetic
attraction type relays. Instantaneous overcurrent relay functions to clear the sudden
excessive fault current. The contacts of the relay close immediately, the current
exceeds the set value. Each relay is set for a particular value of current.

The time delay relay, Inverse time overcurrent relay has definite time
delay set on requirements. The fault is cleared within the time set, such that it varies
inversely to the amount of fi:lUlt current. The characteristic of such relays varies
widely, depending on the point of core saturation in the electromagnetic induction
relays.

The major characteristics include:

0
definite characteristic, l t= k

1
Inverse characteristic, 1 t= k

n
More- inverse characteristic, ,I t= k

Inverse Define Minimum time (IDMT) Characteristic

Definite time overcurrent relays have constant time of operation

over the working range. The core saturates early and the relays act after the
specified time irrespectively of the value of fault current. Some relays, initially follow
the inverse characteristic near the pick up then follows the definite time curve slightly
above pick up; such relays are IOMT relays. The inverse time relays have an
inverse time current relationship. The more inverse relays may be of very inverse or
extremely inverse.
The Indian standards (IS: 3231-1965) specify only the IDMT curve. The

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extremely inverse relays are more elective than IOMT relays, since it's possible to
achieve accurate distinction between faults and surges after an outage.

Principles of operation

An induction type over current relay operates on the principles of

electromagnetic induction with a mechanism similar to that of the energy meter.

The relay consists of an Aluminum disc allowed to rotate between two

electromagnets energized from the secondary of the CT. The primary winding of the
upper electromagnet is tapped and connected to the plug setting bridge. The
number of turns in use can be adjusted by the plug setting, giving the desired current
setting. The pick up current, the current at which the disc commences to rotate is
the product of rated CT current and the current setting value.

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The secondary winding is connected in series with the winding of the lower
magnet. This winding is energized by induction from the primary, and together they
set up the rotational torque on the suspended aluminum disc. The torque is
controlled by a spiral spring and a brake magnet on the disc. The rotating disc
spindle carries a moving contact that bridges the fixed contact. The angle of rotation
of the disc can be set by the time setting multiplier. The time multiplier is not the
operating time but is a multiplier to obtain the actual time from the name plate curve
of the relay.

The induction disc type relays are crafted with plug setting and time-setting
multiplier to obtain wide operating range. Each relay has associated time-current
characteristic; refer figure (5) the abscissa and ordinate being the plug setting
multiplier and operating time. The time-PSM curve corresponding to the time
multiplier setting equal to one is always provided on the relay name plate.

Attracted Armature relays are commonly used overcurrent relays, based on the
electromagnetic attraction. These relays are simplest in construction and operation. The relay
consists of an electromagnet energised by the actuating quantity. The plunger coupled to the
electromagnet is subjected to the magnetic attraction when the coil is energised. The action
of the plunger closes the contacts of the relay. These are fast relays and the operating time
does not depend of the value of the actuating quantity.

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Differential Protection Relay

The differential protection relay responds to the phasor difference

between two electrical quantities. Most differential relays are current differential,
based on the Merz-price circulating current principle. The relay senses the
unbalance in the current entering and leaving the protected zone. The differential
protection is generally employed for the transformer, generators large motors and
transmission lines.

In power transformers, differential protection is provided against the

internal faults. The faults disturb the balancing of the primary and secondary
currents. When the actuating current exceeds certain limit. The differential
protection relay must be set up along with provisions to overcome, difficulties caused
by different CT characteristics, tap-changing and inrush of magnetsing current.
Biased differential relay is the most common type of the relay.

The currents on the two sides of the power transformer are unequal.
To equalize them interposing CTs are used between the transformer and the relay.
Interposing CTs have different turns ratio but the currents flowing from them to the
relay will be equal. The phase-correction of the two currents is achieved by the
appropriate CT connection. As a general rule, CTs on any star winding are delta
connected and CTs on ay delta winding are connected in star. The different CT
ratios result in circulating currents under through fault conditions. The undesirable
operation of the relay is likely to occur during tap-changing and energising of the
transformer.

The biased differential relay has two coils operating coil and the restraining
coil. The relay operates whenever the torque produced by the operating coil is
greater than that produced by the restraining coil. Under normal conditions the
restraining coil produces the higher torque and the operating coil carries no current.
The mal operation during through load conditions, tap-changing and inrush of
magnetizing current is prevented by the restraining component in the percentage
differential relay

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Buchholz Relay

Buchholz Relay exclusively protects the transformer from internal

faults. It is universally used on all oil-immersed transformers and is located between
the main tank and the conservator tank. The gas - actuated relay is constructed
with two mercury switches attached to hinged floats in a metallic chamber. The pipe
connection between the conservator tank and main tank passes through the main
chamber as indicated in the figure . The upper float is connected to the alarm
circuit and the lower float is connected to the trip circuit.

The Buchholz Relay indicates incipient faults so that the

transformer can be disconnected before the severe fault. The gas accumulated is
released by the cock provided on the top of device. The testing of the oil gives
information about the type of the insulation failure. The relay is ignorant to faults
above the oil level. Also, these relays are slow with minimum operating time of 0.1
second, average time 0.2 second. The mercury switch may operate falsely due to
high sensitivity.

Earth fault relay

Faults involving flow of current on the earth return path are earth
faults. Normal current in the earthed neutral wire is zero. On earth faults currents
pass through the neutral wire to the ground. Over current relays engaged in earth
fault protection are earth fault relays. The setting is done independent of the load
current since earth fault currents are low compared to phase fault currents.

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Over current earth fault relay may be connected in the residual CT

circuit. The three CTs on each line are paralleled and the relay is provided across
them. Currents flow to the relays only when fault involving earth occurs. The earth
fault protection may also be provided using a single CT on the neutral wire attached
to the relay. The neutral CT carries a current only when the fault current escapes to
the earth through neutral to earth connection. These methods have indefinite zones,
sensing the earth faults anywhere in the system. Such arrangements are
unrestricted earth fault protection.

The restricted earth fault protection employs 3 line CTs and a neutral CT
to achieve the purpose. The secondary of the line CTs and neutral CT are paralleled
with the relay. Ideally the output of the CTs is proportional to the sum of 4zero
sequence currents in the line and neutral earth connection if the latter is within the
protected zone. The relay current for external faults is either absent or summed to
zero. For internal faults, the relay current is equal to twice the total fault current as
the sum of zero sequence currents in the CTs is greater than zero. Thus the
protection is restricted to the particular zone.

Motor protection Relays

The Motor Protection relays take care of complete protection of motors. The
faults likely to occur in motors may be summed under the five heads:-

 Stalling

 Unbalancing

 Over current

 Over Voltage

 Earth fault

The motor protection relays comprehend the entire motor protection. These
relays are exclusively used in motor protection and are of different types. The choice
depends on the size and capacity of the motors.

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Static Motor Protection Relays

The response in a static relay is developed by static circuits - electronic /

magnetic I optical without mechanical motion of components. However, the output
stage is compared of electromechanical relay units to operate the breaker. The
static motor protection relay provides accurate protection under all operating
conditions. The relay is designed to operate for both balanced and unbalance
conditions.

The type CTMM relay has five independent units to sense the various
faults.

Thermal unit: Acts when the current exceeds 105% of the relay settings current. The
unit is provided against auxiliary supply failures.

Instantaneous 3 phase over current unit: To sense the balanced over current to the
motor. The unit is adjustable and time delay of operation is provided to allow transient starting
current.

Time delayed 3-phase over current unit: Provides protection during starting and
prolonged starting conditions.

Instantaneous unbalance and single phasing element: Set up to trip instantly against
Unbalancing against single phasing.

Instantaneous earth fault element: Prevents the motor from earth fault adversities.

Microprocessor based Motor Protection relay (type MM30)

With technological advancements, static programmable relays OT microprocessor

based relays developed. The digital technique combines supervision control and protection
into a single unit. The microprocessor based relays are preferred for complex protection and
control systems. These relays can be used to protect both HT and LT motors.
In addition to providing protection the relay performs data acquisition, data
processing and data monitoring. The display unit of the relay monitors the current
values of the various system parameters. To indicate a faulty condition and the type
of fault, LEOs are mounted on the front panel. A bright LED indicates a particular
fault. Five buttons are provided to program the relay, i.e., to enter the settings of the
relay.

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Circuit Breakers
Circuit Breakers are mechanical devices employed in closing or opening of
an electrical circuit. The functioning circuit breaker carries full load current
continuously with provision of making or breaking the operating current. In
fault clearing, circuit breaker interprets information from the relay by isolating the
faulty part.

To receive the signal from the fault sensor the circuit breaker is equipped
with trip coils. The switching and current interruption is performed by the fixed and
moving contacts. When the breaker is closed these contacts touch each other and
carry the current, under normal conditions. The contacts, called electrodes engage
each other under the pressure of a spring. Whenever fault occurs on any part of the
system the trip coils get energized and the moving contacts are pulled apart
by some mechanism, opening the circuit. During normal operation, station operator
opens or closes the breaker for the purpose of maintenance and switching.

The operation of circuit breaker is initiated by exciting the trip coils and
involves separation of the current carrying contacts. This action leads to arcing
between the contacts. The circuit is opened only when the discharge, ceases, i.e
current interrupted. The arcing continuous for a brief period after the contacts are
parted, allowing gradual transition from current carrying to isolating states of the
breaker. In case of fault isolation, the circuit needs to be opened quickly. The
phenomenon of arcing delays the current interruption, also generates huge amounts
of heat, damaging the system or / and breaker itself. Therefore circuit breaker must
be able to extinguish the arc within the shortest possible time.

Usually, circuit breakers are constructed with the contacts in an insulating

fluid. The insulating fluid functions to extinguish the arc drawn between the contacts,
when the breaker opens and provides insulation between the contacts and from
each contact to earth. The circuit breaking medium must have high dielectric
strength, non-inflammability, thermal stability, arc extinguishing ability, chemical
stability and commercial availability at moderate cost.

Circuit breakers are classified on the basis of the insulating or arc-quenching

medium. The several types are:

 Air circuit Breaker (ACB)

 Oil Circuit Breaker (OCB)

 Minimum Circuit Breaker (GCB)

 Vacuum Circuit Breaker (VCB)

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ACB

In the ACB the contact separation and arc extinction takes place in air.
The arc is extinguished by cooling, lengthening and splitting the arc. The high
resistance principle increases the voltage drop across the arc above the system
voltage and the arc is extinguished at current zero of the ac wave. This is the
principle of operation of Air break type breaker in which the arc is split by the
arc-chute. In Air-blast breakers, compressed air in admitted into the arc extinction
chamber and the air blast removes the ionized gases extinguishing the arc.

MOCB

The circuit breaking contacts are placed in insulting oil medium. The heat
generated by the arc struck between the contacts evaporates the surrounding oil and
dissociates it into hydrogen gas at high pressure. The hydrogen gas cools the arc
due to its high heat conductivity and forces the oil into the space between the
contacts after arc interruption at current zero.

The MOCB is so called as it uses minimum oil for the purpose,

GCB

The gas circuit Breakers use sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) gas with good arcquenching
properties and high dielectric strength as the insulating fluid. SF6 is
superior to oil and air chemically and physically.

Unlike in ACB and MOCB, the arc is reduced diametrically in SF6breakers.

SF6gas is blown axially along the arc and heat is removed by axial convection and
radial dissipation. Consequently, the arc diameter becomes small during current
zero, when turbulent flow of the gas is introduced for extinguishing the arc. The SF6
regains it dielectric strength immediately after arc extinction.

VCB

The make-break contacts of the VCB are placed in vacuum. Ideal vacuum
is a perfect dielectric medium in which arc cannot persist. However, the separation
of contacts give rise to plasma, the vapor released from the contact surfaces, the
vapor is of positive ions released from the metallic contacts. After current zero the
rate of release of vapor falls and the medium regains dielectric strength.

The successful operation of the circuit breaker is essential for the

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stable and reliable operation of the power system; protection of the system. The
circuit breaker must operate under varying situation. The making breaking capacities
are to be maintained always.

The transducers are current and potential transforms. They reduce the
current or voltage of the system to a level acceptable to the relays. The lower level
input to the relays ensure that the physical hardware of the relays will be quite small
and less expensive. Also, the personnel working with the relays will be in a safe
environment.

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PROTECTION SCHEME FOR 110KV SUBSTATION

The scenario of protection in a substation depends on its essential

equipments an,d operating voltage. Adequate protection is provided to every
equipment based on their importance, location, type rating, cost, probability and
status of errors etc. Consequently the strategy for the 110kV substation of KMML
involves the protection of power transformers and HT motors. The scheme is
depicted in figure.

The primary side of the power transformer is provided with an SF6

breaker (GCB) to open the incoming 110kV lines when signaled by a relay or
manually operated by the personnel. The breaker is followed by 3 phase current
transformer. The 3 cores of the CT serve the purposes of metering, overcurrent
protection and differential protection. Similarly, the low voltage side of the
transformer has an MOCB and a 3-phase current transformer

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On the 11OkV side, the core 1 is connected to an ammeter (0-100A)

via an ammeter selector switch (ASS) for monitoring the current through the lines.
The other cores carry the relays to protect the transformer and equipments on line
from the adverse effects of faults. The relays placed on the 110kV side are
discussed below.

Core 2 Relays

The core 2 relays alias 50, 51 and 51-G detect the overcurrent resulting from
short circuits. They act through the master trip relay 86-2 to open the GCB. The
faults resulting in overcurrent on the lines are cleared by the action of these relays.

50

Name : Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay

Type : CDG

Set point : 850%

Design . Primary current = 67.5A

Allowable current = 900% of 67.5A

So the safe operating point is arbitrarily chosen at 850% of the normal primary
current.

When huge currents result from faults instant tripping must be ensured, for
which the instantaneous relay is best suited. The operating point is set at a high
value to allow the flow of heavy starting currents. The relay features with flag
indication for each phase and 3 x 2 NO contacts. One of the 2 NO is connected to
the master relay coil and the other goes for flag indication.

51

Name : Inverse time Overcurrent Relay

Type : CDG 31

Time multiplier setting = 0.2

Plug setting . = 0.75

Design . Relay current = 0.675A

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Allowable current = 9 x 0.675 = 6.08A

Plug setting range = 50 - 200%

Select Plug setting . 75% = 0.75

When plug setting multiplier (PSM) = 2

The relay operating time = 10 seconds from the graph in figure (2)

For the relay to operate in 2 seconds keep the time multiplier at 0.2

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The CDG 31 relay is an inverse time overcurrent relay with definite

minimum time. The non-directional, disc type current relay has two normally open
(NO) contacts. Whenever the relay energies due to overcurrent these contacts close;
one giving flag indication and the other completes the circuit to the master trip relay.

51- G

Name : Earth Fault relay (very INV.)

Type : CDG13
Plug setting : 0.8
Time multiplier : 0.1

The CDG13 is an overcurrent relay with very inverse characteristics. The

high selectivity of the relay made it to be used for the earth fault protection. The
relay is placed on the neutral-earth point of the CT.These relays are current
activated relays set up to detect the short circuit faults; line - line (L-L) fault, lineline-
line (L-L-L) fault, line-line-earth (L-L-G) fault, line-earth (L-G) fault. All the relays
are of CDG type, non-directional disc type relays. The actuating quantity, current is
converted to voltage and then used to energise the electromagnet. The induced
current in the suspended disc rotates it to make a contact that is connected to the
NO contacts related to the indication and trip circuit.

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Core 3 Relay (87)

The core 3 is exclusively for differential protection. The differential protection

relay is numbered 87. Two interposing CTs from the primary and secondary sides
connect the main CT to the differential relay. Any unbalance between the currents
on the two sides is detected and the relay energises.

Name : Differential Protection Relay

Type : DTH 31
Bias setting : 30%

The DTH 31 is a high speed biased differential relay designed to protect

three- phase power transformers against internal faults. Type DTH 31 is applicable
for two - winding transformers. The relay uses second harmonic restraint to prevent
operation by magnetising inrush currents during transformer energising.Maloperation
under over excited condition is prevented by the fifth harmonic by pass circuit.
The high-set circuit instantly clears heavy internal faults. The transactors provide low
burden to the relay. Static circuitry is employed throughout with output from a single
attracted armature unit.

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Referring to the block diagram, the currents 11and b from the 2 sides
of the power transformer are vectorialy added in the centre tapped bias transactor
T1. The bias setting of 15%, 30% and 45% can be obtained by 3 taps in each half of
the transactor primary. The output of T1 is rectified and smoothed to obtain the
restraint bias voltage VB. The centre tap is connected to the differential circuit T2, T3
and T4 in series. The difference between 11and 12flows through the primaries of T2
the harmonic restraint transactor, T3the operating transactor and T4 high-set current
transformer.

The tuned circuit in the secondary of T3 is arranged to resonate at the second

harmonic frequency whose output is rectified to obtain harmonic restraint voltage Vh.
The outputs of T3 and T4 are rectified and smoothed to obtain differential voltage VD
and high-set voltage Va respectively. The greater of the restraining voltage levels VB
and VH is compared with the differential operating voltage level Vp. When the
operating voltage level exceeds the restraining voltage by more than a preset
amount, the second comparator produces an output to drive the common relay. The
high-set voltage Va operates the relay if differential current exceeds 10 times the
rated current.

The attracted armature output unit has 3 NO contacts, one for each phase
and a flag indication. When the differential fault is sensed on any phase the
corresponding NO contact closes and the relay is flagged. The closed contact
completes the circuit to the master trip relay 86-1, which is then energised to open
the GCB on 110kV side and the MOCB on the 6.6 kV incomer.

Miscellaneous Relays

Various other relays are provided to sense the faults that are not the concern
of above mentioned relays. Also, supervisor relays are employed to handle tripping
of breakers.

63-x

Name : Buchholz Alarm Relay

Type : VAA 12

The relay 63-X is attached to the mercury switch, associated with the alarm of
the Buchholz relay mounted on the power transformer. The incipient faults within the
transformer are sensed by the Buchholz relay and the alarm is initiated by the
63 - X. Voltage activated, attracted armature type auxiliary unit is used.

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49-X

Name : Oil temperature Alarm Relay

Type : VAA 12

The relay is connected to the temperature sensor of the transformer oil.

Whenever the oil temperature exceeds 6SoCthe relay energises and rings the alarm.
Auxiliary relay type VAA is used. The relay is to be reset manually after cooling.

63.Y

Name : Buchholz Oil temperature flow oil trip relay

Type : VAA 12

As the name indicates the relay senses major faults in the power transformer,
high oil temperatures and low oil levels. The relay is reset manually after clearing
the fault. The 63-Y is the trip relay for the faults indicated by the alarms of 49 - X
and 63 - X. The relay is connected to the breaker through 86 -1.

86 -1

Name : Tripping Relay

Type : VAJ

The tripping relay 86-1 is the Master trip relay for 63Y, 8F and 50 R. The NO
contact of the relay closes whenever the 63Y, 87 and 50R is energized. The
peculiarity of 86-1 is that it opens both the GCB and MOCB. The MOCB is the
breaker on the secondary side of the transformer. Thus the transformer is isolated
from either side. The fault sensed by these relays calls for the tripping of the primary
and secondary sides. The relay supervises the clearing of serious faults.

86 -2

Name : Tripping relay

Type : VAJ

The relays 50,51 and 51-G opens the GCB through the master trip relay, also
called as the lock out relay, 86-2.lnstead of connecting each of the three relays
directly to the GCB, a single relay, 86-2 connects them to the GCB.

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97

Name : Trip circuit supervision relay

Type : VAX

The entire relay circuit is under the supervision of the 97. The relay indicates
the failure of the ?c supply to the relays. The relay is set up to act when the primary
protection fails.

The relays on the primary sides are discussed above. On the secondary side the
similar scheme is followed. The incomer on the 6.6 kV side of the transformer is
operated by the MOCB. The breaker is released manually by operating personnel
under normal conditions of switching. Upon fault the relay sense the fault and pass
the information to the trip circuit of the circuit breaker.

The control panel for the HT motors is located in the MSDS. Every motor has
associated MOCB and the motor protection relays- The CTMM or the MM-30. The
MM-30 is the programmable relay, set up with the LCD display. CTMM relays
employ static circuitry in discriminating the faults and electromagnetic operation for
tripping.

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SEQUENCE COMPONENTS
Fortesque theorem states that any unbalanced three phase system of sinusoidal
quantities can be resolved into three balanced systems of phasors called symmetrical
components of the unbalanced system. The balanced systems are the

 Positive sequence system

 negative sequence system

 zero sequence system

The symmetrical components differ in their phase sequence. The positive

phase sequence system is that system in which the voltages or currents attain
the maximum in the cyclic order as in normal supply system. Assuming
counter - clockwise rotation the positive sequence components take the order
RBY as in figure below

The negative phase sequence components attain maximum in the reverse

order while the zero phase sequence components are in phase with each other. The
3 sets of sequence components have their magnitudes same but differ in the phase
angle between the elements of each set.

The positive sequence currents are the normal current in the 3 lines of the
supply system. The flow of only the positive sequence currents occurs for normal
operation and during a 3 - phase fault. For a 3- phase fault, the magnitude of the
current increases to a high value, their phase sequence remaining the same as
under normal conditions. Such faulty situations are due to balance 3 - phase faults.

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The negative sequence components arise during an unbalanced state of the

system, i.e., short circuiting and phase failures. These faults disturb the balance of
the system and the currents experience change in magnitude and phase. The zero
sequence currents emerge when faults involving earth occurs. When only negative
sequence or positive sequence currents flow their sum will be equal to zero.

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BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION

Current Transformer

The three phase current transformer reduces the current level in the lines
according to the ratio 100:1. The trip circuit is connected in the secondary of the
current transformer. The rating of the CT is selected in association with the
continuous current possible through the circuit. The primary of the CT has a single
turn while the secondary is multi-turn winding. It is a step up transformer, stepping
down the current to a suitable value.

Sequence Filter

Any unbalanced current in the system is resolved into 3 sequence components - negative
sequence, positive sequence and zero sequence. The sequence filtering is accomplished
by the connection of the transducers across the CT secondary. The transducer 1 is between
the B-phase and R-phase such that the current through it is the differential B-R current. When
only positive sequence current flows the upper have of the centre-tapped transducer 1 is
effective. The current in any phase at that time is equal to all others and only a pair of lines
needs to be used. During unbalanced conditions both negative and positive sequence
current flows for which the additional transducer is provided between the remaining
lines.

Transducer

Transducers are devices that convert one form of energy into another
form of energy .The current to voltage transducer, used here, are a transformer with
more number of turns on the secondary. The step up transformer is designed with
high voltage and, very low current on the secondary. The reduction in current is
achieved by using high resistance copper wire. So secondary winding is made out of
thinner wires than the primary winding. The two centre tapped transducers are rated
8 mVJ2V,7.5VAThe primary winding has the same number of turns as the secondary
of the CT so that the CT secondary current is same as the primary current of the
transducer.

Squaring circuit

The squaring circuit comprises of two capacitors and a choke. The

function of the circuit is to provide the output as a boosted input voltage. The choke
doubles the voltage superimposed over it by one of the capacitor. The choke voltage
together with the voltage across the other capacitor gives the boosted output. The
boosting is provided only to the negative sequence element for quick action of the
relay. The negative sequence element thus acts for a lower value of current than the
positive sequence element.

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Bridge Rectifier

The bridge rectifier uses four diodes for the rectification of the ac
voltage in the circuit. The coil chosen operates on dc voltage, but the entire circuit is
set up on ac. The rectifier forms an interface between the dc coil and the circuit.
Since a differential quantity is the actuator, the direction of power flow cannot be
predicted. Therefore bridge rectifier is essential at this stage.

Relay

Separate relay units are provided for the positive sequence and negative
sequence elements. The positive sequence element is slower, neglecting the
transients. The reactance of the coil is 140 ohms, operating voltage 10V. The
negative sequence relay coil is 945 ohms, 10V. The negative sequence element has
a higher impedance to handle the huge voltage due to boosting.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION

The circuit consists of two relay units, one for positive sequence tripping
(1+)and the other for negative sequence tripping (I-). The positive sequence element
is directly connected to the secondary of the transducer (TR1). When a three phase
fault occurs, which is a rare event, the voltage across the transducer rises to a high
value and energizes the 1+element directly. The coil operates at 10V but the
resistors R1, R2 and R3 causes the relay to catch only at 24V.

The negative sequence is activated through the boosting network

(squaring circuit) comprising capacitors C1, C2 and chokes C. Under normal
conditions the capacitors remain charged and resistors R4, R5 and R6 prevent the
operation of the relay. On fault the voltage rises and the capacitor C1 charges the
inductor. The choke coil doubles the voltage and feeds it to the capacitor C2. The
boosted voltage from the C2 energizes the relay coil of element 1-closing the
contacts. The unit is designed to operate at 8V.

DESIGN

The circuit is designed to operate the relay when the input current exceeds
12A and 4A for the positive sequence and negative sequence elements respectively.
The values are referred to the secondary of the CT.
CT ratio = 100: 1

Voltage rating of the transducer = 8mV/2V

The transducer is chosen to have its primary characteristics as that of CT

secondary.

Voltage on the transducer secondary equivalent to 1A CT current = 2V

Turns ratio of the transducer = V2N1 = 250

Secondary current I2 = I1.V1N2 = 4mA

Positive sequence element (I+)

The I+ must operate at V2 = 24V. Select R1 = 1.5k, R2 = 3k , R3 = 8000 .

Voltage drop across 1.5k = 1500*.004 = 6V

Voltage drop across 800ohm = 800*0.004 = 3V

Voltage drop across 3k = 3000*0.004=12V

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Total voltage = 6 + 3 + 12 = 21V

The 1+operates at an early stage V2 = 21V, i.e. I1 = 10.5A

Negative sequence element (I-)

The 1-must operate at V2 = 8 V.

For a resonating network , XL = XC.

Select the time period of the faulty pulse t = 11 ms.

Resonating frequency fr = 1/0.011 = 91 HZ.

Fr = 1/2*3.14 * (L C)^.5

Let C = 1*10  Then L = 3.2 H

The choke is tapped at an inductance of 3.2 H.

The reactance offered XL =2 * 3 14 * f * L = 1000 Q

Voltage drop = 1000* 0.004 =4 V

Boosted voltage level at 1A input = 4+2 =6V

Boosted voltage level at 4A input = 8 + (1000 * 0.016) = 24 V

Select R4 = 1 k, R5 = 3k, R6 = 470 Ω

Voltage drop across 1k = 1000 * 0.004 = 4V

Voltage drop across 3k= 3000 * 0.004 = 12V

Voltage drop across 470 ohm = 470 * O.OO4 = 2V

Total voltage = 4 + 12 + 2 = 18V.

The 1-operates at an early stage V2 = 6V.

The 1+operates at a later stage for allowing transients.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. A Course in Electrical Power - J.B.Gupta

2. Elements of Power system Analysis - WilliamD. Stevenson, Jr.

3. Switchgear Protection and Power Systems - Sunil S. Rao

4. Principles of Power System - V.K.Mehta , Rohit Mehta

5. A Basic Course in Electrical Engineering - Francis M.Fernandez

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REFERENCES
1 , J,B. Gupta, "A Course in Electrical Power ", NGR, pg.482, 12thedition

2 Dr, P.S. Bimbhra, " Electrical Machinery", On load tap changer,pg.102, 7thedition

3 Sunil. S, Rao, "Switchgear Protection and Power Systems", Stalling,

pg.779, 11th edition

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CONCLUSION
The system protection is an important concern of a power engineer. The
expansion of power system has ensued in and is ensuing from the rapid industrial
progress leading to improvement of standard of living of people. The relevance of
operation of power system, without intervention of faults, is thus realized with no
doubt. Interruption of supply services by faults is prevented by protective systems.
We have designed a protective scheme covering all the basic protection requirements of a
substation that assists in the infallible service of the supply system. Objectionable situations,
faults are to be screened under any circumstances. Different protective schemes prevail, we
add ours to them.

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