MLS12101: Foundations of Chemistry

1. Matter and energy

MATTER – anything that occupies space and has mass

CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
According to Physical State
• Based upon particle arrangement, energy of particles and distance between particles
• Anchored on the Kinetic Theory of Matter
The Kinetic Theory of Matter
1. All matter is composed of small particles (atoms,
molecules, or ions).
2. They are in constant random motion.
3. They constantly collide with each other and with
the walls of their container.

Phase definitions
1. Solids – particles of solids are tightly packed, vibrating about a fixed position
2. Liquids – particles of liquids are tightly packed, but are far enough apart to slide over one another
3. Gases – particles of gases are very far apart and move freely
4. Plasma – ionized gas; a very good conductor of electricity and is affected by magnetic fields; common state of
matter

Phase properties

Particle Properties
Phase Proximity Energy Motion Volume Shape
Solid Close Low Vibrational Definite Definite
Liquid Close Moderate Rotational Definite Indefinite
Gas Far apart High Translational Indefinite Indefinite
Plasma Far apart Very high translational indefinite Indefinite

Phase relationship with energy

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 According to Composition
A. Pure substances – substances with fixed composition and properties
1. Elements – made up of only one type of atom; cannot be broken down into simpler forms by ordinary
chemical and physical means or change
i. Metals – conductors of electricity and heat; they have luster, malleable, ductile, tend to donate
electrons in forming compounds, crystalline in form
ii. Non-metals – non-conductors of electricity and heat; not shiny, they tend to accept electrons in
forming compounds
iii. Metalloids or amphoteric elements – exhibit properties that are intermediate between metals
and non-metals
iv. Inert/Noble/Rare gases – most chemically inactive/unreactive/stable elements; neither donate
nor accept electrons
2. Compounds – made up of two or more elements that are chemically combined; could be decomposed
by simple chemical means; individual elemental components do not retain their properties
i. Acids – sour in taste; yield hydrogen ion in water solution
ii. Bases – bitter taste; yield hydroxide in water solution
iii. Salts – made up of a positive ion other than hydrogen ion and negative ion other than hydroxide
ion
B. Mixtures – made up of two or more substances that are not chemically combined; could be separated by
physical means and upon separation the individual components will retain their properties
1. Homogeneous mixture – also known as true solution; composition is the same throughout a given
sample, will exhibit only one phase
2. Colloid – intermediate in particle size
3. Heterogeneous mixture – also known as suspensions; not uniform in appearance; distinct appearance

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ENERGY – the ability or capacity to do work

TYPES/STATES OF ENERGY

A. Potential energy
• Energy possessed by matter by virtue of its position; stored energy
• Stored chemically in fuel, the nucleus of an atom, or in food
• Stored because of the work done on it
o Stretching s rubber band
o Winding a watch
o Pulling back on a bow’s arrow
o Lifting a brick high in air
• Gravitational potential energy – dependent on height
• Elastic potential energy – stored due to being stretched or compressed
B. Kinetic energy
• Energy possessed by matter by virtue of its motion; energy of motion
• Depends on both mass and velocity
o The faster an object moves, the more kinetic energy it has
o The greater the mass of a moving object, the more kinetic energy it has

INTERCONVERSION OF THE TWO TYPES/STATES OF ENERGY

Example: a ball thrown upward

FORMS OF ENERGY

1. Heat energy
• Internal motion of atoms because moving particles produce heat
• Can be produced by friction
• Causes changes in temperature and phase of any matter
2. Chemical energy
• Energy required to bond atoms together
• Released when bonds are broken
3. Electromagnetic energy
• Energy associated with the passage of electrons
4. Nuclear/Atomic energy
• Associated with the manner in which atoms are constructed
• Released when the nucleus splits (fission) or when nuclei collide at high speeds and join (fusion)

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5. Mechanical energy
• Energy acquired by an object when work is done on it
6. Radiant energy
• Associated with light, x-rays, radio waves

TYPES OF ENERGY CHANGES

1. Exothermic change – when energy is given off by a body to its surrounding

2. Endothermic change – when energy is absorbed by a body from its surrounding

LAWS GOVERNING MATTER AND ENERGY

Law of Conservation of Mass

o Mass can neither be created nor destroyed in any transformation of matter

Law of Conservation of Energy

o Energy can neither be created nor destroyed in any transformation of matter

Law of Definite Composition

o A pure compound is composed of the same elements combine in a definite proportion by weight

Law of Multiple Proportions

o When two elements combine to form more than one compound, the different weights of one that
combine with a fixed weight of the other are in the ratio of small whole numbers

2. Subatomic and atomic composition of matter

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

400 BC Democritus Matter could not be divided indefinitely

Smallest piece of matter – “atomos” (not to be cut)
350 BC Aristotle Matter was made up of four “elements” – earth, fire, water, and
air
1800 John Dalton Atomic theory
1. All matter is made of atoms.
2. Atoms of an element are identical.
3. Each element has different atoms.
4. Atoms of different elements combine in constant ratios
to form compounds.
5. Atoms are rearranged in reactions.

Dalton’s ideas account for the

• Law of Conservation of Mass
• Law of Constant Composition
1886 Eugene Goldstein Credited for the discovery of the proton
1897 J.J. Thomson Provided the first hint that an atom is made of even smaller
particles
Credited for the discovery of the electron
1908 Ernest Rutherford Concluded that an atom has a small, dense, positively charged
center
1932 James Chadwick Credited for the discovery of the neutron
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COMPOSITION OF THE ATOM

MODELS OF THE ATOM

1. Billiard ball model; Dalton (1800 – 1900): atoms are solid and indivisible

2. Plum pudding model; Thomson (1900): negative electrons in a positive framework

3. Rutherford’s model (around 1910): atoms are mostly empty space, negative electrons orbit a positive nucleus

4. Bohr’s model: electrons orbit the nucleus in “shells”, electron can be bumped up to a higher shell if hit by an
electron or a photon of light

5. Quantum mechanical model – electrons do not move in well-defined circular orbits

• Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle – it is inherently impossible for us to know simultaneously both the exact
momentum of the electron and its exact location in space

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• Orbital – wave function which describes a specific distribution of electron density in space, has a characteristic
energy and shape

ATOMIC SYMBOL

Elements
A
ZX

A → mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons

Z → atomic number = number of protons in the nucleus

Examples:
16 31 65
8O 15P 30Zn
+
p 8 15 30
n0 8 16 35
e- 8 15 30

Ions – charged particles due to loss or gain of electrons

Isotopes – atoms with the same atomic number but different mass numbers
Isobars – atoms of different elements with the same mass number but different atomic numbers
Isotones – atoms of different elements with the same number of neutrons but different mass numbers
Isodiaphers – atoms of different elements which have the same value of n - p

3. Quantum-mechanical model of the atom

QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF THE ATOM

• Developed by Louie de Broglie, Erwin Schrodinger, and Werner Karl Heisenberg
• Explains the manner of existence of electrons and their behavior in atoms
• Helps us understand and predict the properties of atoms that are directly related to the behavior of the
electrons
o Why some elements are metals while others are non-metals
o Why some elements gain 1 electron when forming an anion while others gain 2
o Why some elements are very reactive while others are practically inert
o And other periodic patterns we see in the properties of the elements

ORBITAL
• According to the Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle, it is not possible to give the exact position of an electron
and its energy at the same time
• For an electron with a given energy, the best we can do is describe a region in the atom of high probability of
finding it – called an orbital
• The size, shape, orientation and spin of an orbital are determined by a set of integers called quantum numbers
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QUANTUM NUMBERS

Principal quantum number, n

• Integral values of 1, 2, 3 and so forth
• Higher n, larger orbital, e- has higher energy and thus farther from the nucleus

Azimuthal quantum number, l

• Integral values from 0 to n-1 for each value of n
• Defines the shape of the orbital or the type of subshell of an electron
• Generally designated by the letters s, p, d and f

l=0 s (sharp) Spherical

l=1 p (principal) Dumbbell
l=2 d (diffuse) Clover
l=3 f (fundamental) Complex

s orbital

p orbital

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d orbital

f orbital

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 Magnetic quantum number, ml
• Integral numbers between l and –l including 0
• Describes the orientation of the orbital in space (spatial arrangement)
• Examples:
n=1 n=2
l=0 l = 0, 1
ml = 0 ml = 0 / 1, 0, -1
subshell designation = 1s subshell designation = 2s, 2p

Electron spin number, ms

• Either + ½ or – ½
• Denotes the direction of the spin of an e- that affects the direction of the magnetic field generated

A – counterclockwise
SUMMARY B – clockwise
Maximum
Total
Number of number of
n l Subshells ml number of
orbitals (n2) electrons
orbitals
(2n2)

1 0 1s 0 1 1 2

0 2s 0 1 2
2 4
1 2p 1, 0, -1 3 6

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 0 3s 0 1 2

3 1 3p 1, 0, -1 3 9 6

2 3d 2, 1, 0, -1, -2 5 10

0 4s 0 1 2

1 4d 1, 0, -1 3 6
4 16
2 4p 2, 1, 0, -1, -2 5 10

3 4f 3, 2, 1, 0, -1, -2, -3 7 14

Why are atoms spherical?

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ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
• The manner in which the electrons are distributed among the various orbitals of an atom
• nl# where n = n value (1,2,3,...)
l = l value (s, p, d ,f)
# = number of electrons
• Example: 3Li = it has two electrons in the 1s subshell and one electron in the 2s subshell → 1s22s1

Guidelines
1. Aufbau principle – filling up energy sublevels with electrons starts with the lowest energy level available

2. Pauli’s exclusion principle – no two electrons can have the same four quantum numbers; an orbital can hold at
most two electrons only is the electrons have opposite spins
3. Hund’s rule – the lowest energy arrangement (the ground state) of electrons in a subshell is obtained by putting
electrons into separate orbitals of the subshell with the same spin before pairing electrons

Orbital Diagram
• Used to show how the orbitals of a subshell are occupied by electrons
• Each orbital is represented by a circle/box/line
o Each group of orbitals is labelled by its subshell notation
o Electrons are represented by arrows
▪ Up for ms = + ½
▪ Down for ms = - ½
• Example: 5B = 1s22s22p1

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4. Properties of matter
General properties – properties that exist in all
materials
1. Inertia – the resistance to change in
motion
2. Mass – the amount of matter in an object
3. Weight – a measure of the pull of gravity
on an object
4. Volume – the amount of space an object
takes up
5. Impenetrability – the inability of two
objects to occupy the same space at the
same time
6. Density – mass per unit volume
Specific - properties that exist only in particular
materials
1. Hardness – the ability to oppose change in
shape
2. Brittleness – the ability to crumble when
subjected to blow
3. Luster – ability to shine
4. Malleability – ability to be hammered into
thin sheets
5. Ductility – ability to be drawn into thin
wires
6. Elasticity – ability to be stretched and
regain its original form
7. Flexibility – the ability to bend without
breaking
8. Solubility – the ability to be dissolved in
another material
9. Miscibility – measure of dissolution of
liquids in each other
10. Viscosity – measure of the resistance of a
fluid to flow
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5. Changes that matter undergo

Physical Change Chemical Change Nuclear Change

• Only the physical condition or
property is altered
• Chemical composition is not
altered
• No formation of a new
substance
• Chemical composition is altered • Involves change in the
• Involves disappearance of the identity of the atom
original substance and itself
formation of a new one • Involves great amount of
• Evidence of formation of a new energy
substance:
o Evolution of gas
o Evolution of heat
o Formation of moisture
o Formation of an insoluble
solid or precipitate

6. Chemical symbols, notations, and nomenclature

Atomic symbols and notations: elemental symbol, mass number, atomic number, and charge (if any)

Oxidation state (oxidation number): related to the number of electrons that an atom loses, gains, or otherwise appears
to use in joining with other atoms in compounds

Rules for assigning oxidation states

*The principal exceptions to rule 5 occur when H is bonded to metals, as in LiH, NaH, and CaH 2; exceptions to rule 6
occur in compounds with O-F bonds, such as OF2, and in compounds when O atoms are bonded to one another, as in
H2O2, and KO2.
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Names and formulas of inorganic compounds
Simple ions

Polyatomic ions

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Binary compounds of metals and nonmetals

Binary compounds of two nonmetals

Binary acids

Oxoacids and their salts

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