Engineering Physics Lab Manual

EXPERIMENT NO. 1

ULTRASONIC INTERFEROMETER
Aim: To find (i) the velocity of sound in the given liquid
(ii) the characteristic acoustic impendence of the liquid

Apparatus: The main parts of the interferometer are the high frequency generator and the
measuring cell. The high frequency generator is designed to excite the quartz crystal fixed at the
bottom of the cell at its resonant frequency to generate ultrasonic waves in the experimental liquid
taken in the cell. The high frequency generator consists of an analog current meter which records
the change in the anode current. The deflection in this meter can be adjusted using the knobs
provided in the instrument. The measuring cell is a specially designed double walled cell for
maintaining the temperature of a liquid constant during the experiment. A fine micrometer screw
has been provided at the top which can lower or raise the reflector plate in the cell.

Principle: Mechanical, longitudinal waves of frequency more than 20 kHz are known as ultrasonic
waves. These waves can be generated either by piezo-electric method or by magnetostriction
method. A suitably cut quartz crystal when subjected to an alternating electric field undergoes
alternate compressions and expansions (by inverse piezoelectric effect) there by producing
longitudinal waves. If the applied frequency coincides with natural frequency of the crystal,
v 1 Y 1
f    5500 m/s resonance will occur and hence amplitude of the waves will be
 2t  2t
large. The waves so generated will travel in the liquid taken in a cylindrical column and is made to
reflect from a metallic plate. The ongoing waves and reflected wave superpose to form standing
wave. These standing waves are characterized by nodes and antinodes. The distance between two
consecutive nodes or antinodes is half and wavelength of the ultrasonic waves. If the liquid column
length between quartz crystal and the reflector is an integral multiple of /2, then the situation is
called resonance. In this condition, surfaces of both reflector and quartz crystal are positions of
nodes (considering the waves as displacement waves) or antinodes (considering the waves as
pressure waves). Under resonance condition the waves draw more power from the source and
accordingly the current meter show a maximum reading. In other words maximum reading of the
current meter indicates that the reflector surface is the position of node (considering the waves as
displacement waves ) and can be noted on the micrometer.

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Moving the reflector plate either up or down using the micrometer screw takes the reflector plate to
series of resonances indicated by maximum current meter readings. The peaks decrease in amplitude
as the distance from the source (quartz crystal) is increased. For low attenuation, the resonance
peaks are sharp and the decrease in amplitude with distance is small, but with high attenuation the
peaks are broad and die down rapidly. The non-parallelism of quartz crystal and the reflector plate
and also the diffraction effects may give rise to the appearance of unwanted additional peaks.

Acoustic Impedance: There is a similarity between the variations of sound wave characteristics and
those of certain quantities used in a.c.-electricity theory. Thus acoustic pressure (p) may be regarded
as being analogues to electrical voltage, particle velocity (u), to electric current and particle
displacement (y) to electrical charge using the acoustic equivalent of Ohm’s law a quantity known as
the specific acoustic impedance ZA, equivalent to electrical impedance may be defined as ZA=p/u.
Like electrical impedance, ZA is in general a complex quantity but for a plane progressive wave, the
imaginary component disappears leaving the real quantity. This real quantity is called the
characteristic impedance RA and is equal to the product of the density  and the velocity v of sound
for the material i.e, RA = v [ in kg m-2 s-1 ].

Procedure: The measuring cell is connected to the output terminal of the high frequency generator
through a shield cable. The cell is filled with the experimental liquid. When the high frequency
generator is switched on, the quartz crystal produces ultrasonic waves in the liquid. The waves
move normal to the crystal and are reflected back from the movable metal plate, producing
stationary waves in the liquid medium. The micrometer is moved slowly till the anode current meter
shows a maximum reading. At this instant, the micrometer reading (position of the reflector plate) is
noted down. In this way, the micrometer readings are obtained for a number of successive maxima
readings of the anode current. The wavelength of the ultrasonic waves produced by the high
frequency generator is noted down. The velocity of the ultrasonic waves in the liquid is calculated.

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2. To find the wavelength of ultrasonic waves in the given liquid:

Micrometer reading for Maximum Current

Order of PITCH SCALE
READING
COINCIDING
TR = PSR+(HSD  LC) 2 = (Xn+4 – Xn)
Maxima HSD
PSR [Xn] (mm) (mm)
(n) (div)
(mm)

Mean 2 = ………………………………. mm

3. Wavelength of the ultrasonic waves,  = ………………………………. mm

4. Frequency of ultrasonic waves , f = …………………… MHz

5. Density of the given liquid,  = ………………………………. kg/m3

6. Velocity of the ultrasonic waves in the liquid , v = f  = ………………………………. ……………………

v = …………………………… m/s

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7. Characteristic impedance of the liquid, RA =  v = ………………………………. …

Result: Velocity of sound in the given liquid = ……………………………………… m/s

Characteristic impedance of the liquid = ………………………………………… kg/m2/s

Reference Book: Fundamentals of Acoustics by Kinsler & Frey, 1962, John Wiley & Sons, NewYork.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 2

HALL EFFECT

Aim: To determine Hall coefficient of a given semiconductor and hence its charge carrier density.
Apparatus: Electromagnet, Hall probe, variable DC power supply, milliammeter, millivoltmeter.
Principle: Consider a semiconductor (assumed to be n-type) in the form of a rectangular strip of width w,
thickness t and electron density n. Let a current  flow along its length in X direction and a transverse
magnetic field B be applied across its thickness t along the Y direction. The moving electrons experience
a force FM due to the magnetic field. Due to Fm, the electrons tend to move in the Z direction leaving
behind the + ve charges.
FM = e vD B
where, vD is the drift speed of the electrons and e is the charge on the electron.
This separation of charges results in an electric field EH across the width of the specimen (in Z direction).
EH exerts a force on the electrons given by
FE = - e EH

Under equilibrium conditions e EH = e vD B  EH = vD B

VH I
We have EH  and vD 
w newt
Substituting these values, we get

B RH  B
VH  or VH 
net t

1
Where, the quantity  RH is called the Hall coefficient of the specimen.
ne

 VH  t 
 RH    
 B   

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Hall Effect in n type semiconductor

GRAPH OF VH VS B

ΔVH
VH

ΔB

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Procedure:
 Initially the millivoltmeter is adjusted to read zero hall voltage when the hall probe is not in the
magnetic field.
 The distance between the pole pieces of the electromagnet is adjusted to a prescribed value of 10
mm.
 A current I ( < 80 mA ) is passed through the hall probe.
 The probe is introduced midway between the pole pieces and oriented to have the hall voltage
maximum.
 The current through the electromagnet is varied (in the given range 100-500mA) and
corresponding values of the Hall voltage VH are noted.
 The values of the magnetic induction B corresponding to these magnet currents are read from the
chart provided.
 A graph of VH versus B is drawn.
 The slope of the straight line obtained is found. RH and n are calculated.

Observations and Calculations:

Material of the Hall specimen : Indium Arsenide
Thickness of the Specimen : t = 0.14 x 10-3 m
Current in the Probe : I = …50………… mA
Charge on the electron : e = 16  10–19 C

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Magnet Current Magnetic Induction, B Hall Voltage, VH

(mA) (Gauss) (mV)

VH
From the graph, slope of the straight line = = = ……….……….……….
B
Hall coefficient of the specimen,

t  
RH   slope =    
  

RH = ………………………………………. m3 / C
Number of charge carriers per unit volume of the specimen
 1  1
n    = = ……………………………………… /m3
 e RH  ( )( )

Result: Hall coefficient of the given semiconductor, RH = ………………………………….. m3/c

Charge carrier density of the given semiconductor, n = ………………………………….. /m3

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EXPERIMENT NO. 3

NEWTON’S RINGS

Aim: To determine the radius of curvature of the given the lens by Newton’s rings method.

Apparatus: Traveling microscope, sodium vapour lamp, plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature,
optically flat glass plate, reflecting glass plate etc.,

Principle: Newton’s rings are circular interference fringes formed at a thin air film between a plane and
curved surface or two curved surface of large radii of curvature. In fig.1, curved surface DOC of air film
has been completed into a circle of radius R. Let there be nth dark ring at point C, then its radius, rn =
DB = BC. Now, from the geometry of the circle DB x BC = AB x BO
………
rn2 = (AO – OB) OB = (2R – t) t ≈ 2 R t, (1) neglecting t2 ( << 2 R t )
The condition for destructive interference is 2 µ t = n λ ……… (2)
Where µ is refractive index,  is wavelength of monochromatic light
Substituting value of 2t from equation (1) , µ rn2 / R = n λ
………
on rearranging the terms rn2 = R n λ / µ (3)
4Rn  …………………

2
or the diameter of nth order dark ring is related as Dn (4)

4 (n  m)  R ………
The diameter of (n+m)th dark ring is related as D2 ( n  m )  (5)

4mR
By subtracting equation (4) from equation (5), we have, D2 n  m  D2 n 


 (D2n  m  D2n )
On rearranging, R 
4m
The radius of curvature of the lens can be calculated using the above relation.

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Engineering Physics Lab Manual

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Engineering Physics Lab Manual

Procedure: The least count of the Vernier of the traveling microscope is found out. The given plano-
convex lens of large radius of curvature is placed on a plane glass plate to get an air film of circular
symmetry. This set up is placed below a traveling microscope. The air film is illuminated normally by
reflecting the horizontal beam of sodium light using an inclined glass plate. The traveling microscope is
focused and the Newton’s rings (bright and dark circular interference fringes) are observed. The
crosswire is made tangential to various dark rings on the left side, and then on the right side, noting the
microscope readings each time. The diameters Dn of these dark rings are calculated. Mean value of
(D2 n m - D2 n ) is found out. Knowing the wavelength () of the monochromatic light, the radius of
curvature (R) of the convex surface of the lens is calculated.

Observations and Calculations:

1. To calculate the least count of the traveling microscope:

Distances travelled along pitch scale
Pitch of the screw  
No of rotations given to the screw head

Pitch = …………………………………….. cm

Number of divisions on the head scale (HSD) = ………………….. div

Pitch
Least count (LC)   = ………………………….. cm
Total no of HSD
(TOTAL READING) TR = PSR + (HSD  LC)
(PITCH SCALE READING) (COINCIDING HEAD SCALE DIVISION)

2. Wavelength of the sodium light λ = 5.893 x 10–5 cm

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3. To find the diameter of the dark rings:

(n + m) – n = 8

Dn+m2
–
2
LHS reading in cm RHS reading in cm Diameter D2 Dn
Sr. No. No. of D=(L~R) in cm2
the ring MSR VSR TR MSR VSR TR In (cm
2
)
1. 18
2. 16
3. 14
4. 12
5. 10
6. 8
7. 6
8. 4
2
m – Dn2] = ……………..……… cm2

(4) Radius of curvature of the Plano convex lens:

( Dn  m  Dn )
2 2

R   = …………………………… cm
4m

Result: Radius of curvature of the lens = ……………………………. cm.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 4

ZENER DIODE

Aim : To draw the V-I characteristic curve of a zener diode and to determine the forward knee voltage,
breakdown voltage and the zener resistance.
Apparatus: A zener diode, variable D.C. power supply, voltmeter, ammeter, resistor, etc.

Working: A zener diode is a semiconductor junction device formed between heavily doped p and n type
semiconductors. When a junction is formed between a p and a n type material, electrons diffuse from n
to p side and the holes diffuse from p to n side across the line of contact due to carrier concentration
gradient (fig.1). This charge diffusion results in an electric field and hence a potential called contact or
barrier potential is developed, which at equilibrium will oppose further diffusion of charges. The charge
diffusion will also neutralize the charge carriers in the neighbourhood of the junction. This region around
the junction which is depleted of free charges is called depletion region. Its width decreases with
increasing doping concentration. The depletion region sandwiched between the p and the n side is
equivalent to a capacitor. Since a zener diode is heavily doped, the depletion width is very small. The net
forward current I flowing from p to n side of the junction diode is given by
 eV   ………………
Ι  Ι R exp    1 (1)
 kT  
Where, IR is the reverse saturation current
V is the applied voltage and VB is the barrier potential
k is Boltzmann constant =1.38x10–23J/K
T is temperature in Kelvin and e is the electron charge = 1.6 x10–19 C
The diode equation (1) predicts the slope of V-I characteristics under both forward and reverse bias
conditions. When a zener diode is forward biased, the applied voltage V opposes the contact potential VB.
Hence for V = 0 the net potential across the junction is VB and no current flows across the junction. As
V is increased slowly, the effective barrier potential decreases. This enables those charges with energy >
effective barrier energy, to cross the junction and contribute to a current flow from p to n side.
When V = VB the effective barrier potential across the junction becomes zero and the charge carriers
freely move across the junction resulting in a sharp increase in current. This value of the applied voltage

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V is called the knee voltage or cut-in voltage and it is a measure of contact potential. For V > VB the
forward current increases exponentially as per the equation (1

Circuit Diagrams

Forward Bias
Reverse Bias
mA
mA Rs
Rs

V V

I I
When the zener diode is reverse biased, the applied voltage reinforces the contact potential and effectively
stops the flow of charges. However, aided by the reverse potential some of the thermally generated
carriers on n and p side will flow across the junction leading to a small reverse current from n to p side.
The reverse current is independent of the applied voltage but function of temperature. However, on
increasing this negative potential, a stage will be reached when the vacant energy levels in the conduction
band of the n-side appear at the same level as filled levels in the valence band of p-side (fig-2). According
to a quantum mechanical principles, under such conditions, there is a finite probability of electrons on the
p side crossing over to the n side of the junction without change in their energy. This phenomenon called
tunneling, is characteristic of very small width of the depletion region like in zener diodes. Due to
tunneling, a large current flows under reverse bias conditions. The voltage at which the current shoots up
is called the breakdown voltage. In the break down region even a small increase in the voltage will result
in a large increase current. This property helps in using zener diodes in voltage regulating devices.

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Procedure: The zener diode is connected under forward bias as shown. A suitable series resistance R is
chosen to limit the current through the zener diode well below the maximum power rating. The voltage V
across the diode is increased in small steps and the corresponding values of the current I are noted till the
current reaches (say) around 30 mA. A graph of the voltage on X-axis and the current on Y-axis is drawn

in the first quadrant of the graph sheet. The linear region of the curve is extrapolated to meet the X-axis at
a point that gives the forward knee voltage.
Next the zener diode is connected under reverse bias as shown. The voltage V across the diode is
increased in small steps and the corresponding values of current I noted till the highest voltage. A graph of
the voltage on X-axis and the current on Y-axis is drawn in the third quadrant of the graph sheet. The
linear region of the curve is extrapolated to meet the X-axis at a point that gives the break down voltage.
The reciprocal of the slope of the linear region of the curve gives the zener resistance Rz.

Observations and Calculations:

Forward Bias Reverse Bias
Voltage (v) Current (mA) Voltage (v) Current (mA)

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Calculations from the graph:

Forward knee voltage , = ………………………………….. Volt

Break down voltage of the zener diode Vz = ………………………………….. Volt

Change in the zener voltage in the break down region V = ………………………………….. Volt

Change in the zener current in the break down region I = ………………………………….. A

V
Zener resistance, RZ   = ………………………….. Ω


Result: Forward knee voltage = …………………………. Volt

Break down voltage = …………………………. Volt

Zener Resistance = …………………………. Ω

Reference Book: Electronic Devices and Circuits by Mottershead,

2005, Printice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 5

ENERGY GAP OF A SEMICONDUCTOR

Aim: To determine the forbidden energy gap of semi-conductor.

Apparatus: A semiconductor diode, constant current source, current meter, voltmeter, heater, water bath,
thermometer, etc.

Principle: Forbidden energy gap EG of a material is the energy difference between the upper limit of its
valance band and the lower limit of its conduction band. The semiconductor used is in the form of a p-n
junction diode. For a small forward current (I < 0.1mA), the voltage V across the diode varies
approximately with the absolute temperature T as
eV = EG –kT
Where, EG is the energy gap of the semiconductor
 is a constant that depends on the type of the semiconductor
e is the electronic charge =1.6 ×10 19 C
k is the Boltzmann constant= 1.38 × 1023 J / K
EG
A graph of V versus T is a straight line with a V-intercept = at T = 0 K. Thus the energy gap
e
of the semiconductor can be determined by calculating the V-intercept.

Circuit Diagram THERMOMETER Graph of V versus T

DIODE
A WATER
BATH (T1, V1)

V
(T2, V2)
CONSTANT V
CURRENT
SOURCE
T

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Procedure: The circuit is built up as shown. The diode is connected under forward bias. A constant
current (IF < 100 A) is passed through the diode. At the room temperature the junction voltage is
noted down. The diode is then suspended along with a thermometer in a hot water bath at about 90 C
taking care to see that the bulb of the thermometer is at the same level as the diode. As the water bath
cools down, the voltage across the diode is noted for different temperatures. A graph is drawn with the
temperature in Kelvin on the x axis and voltage across the diode along the Y-axis. The V-intercept of the
line at zero Kelvin is found using the slope of the straight line obtained and the energy gap of the
semiconductor calculated.

Observations and Calculations:

Semiconductor used: …………………………………………………………

Constant forward current through the diode, IF = ………………………………

To find the voltage across the junction at various temperatures:

Temperature in °C Temperature ( K ) Junction Voltage (V)

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V–intercept of the straight line

EG  dV 
 V1    T1 =…………………………………………………………
e  dT 
EG
= ………………………………… Volt
e

 Energy gap of the given semiconductor, EG = ……………………………………………… ev

Result: The energy gap of the given semiconductor, EG = ……………………………

Si Standard Value EG = …1.10ev…………

Percentage Error: …………………..

Reference Book: Solid State Physics by Dekker, 1957, Macmillan India Ltd.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 6 & 7

RECTIFIERS AND FILTERS

Aim: To find the ripple factor in (A) Half wave rectifier, (B) Full wave rectifier, (C) Full wave rectifier
with capacitance input filter (C filter), (D) Full wave rectifier with inductance and capacitance input filter
(LC filter), (E) Full wave rectifier with  - section filter (CLC filter)

Apparatus: A suitable step down transformer, diodes, capacitors, inductors, resistors, milliammeter, ac
and dc voltmeters etc.

Theory: A rectifier is a device which converts an alternating current into unidirectional pulsating current.
To get a steady output, the output from a rectifier has to be passed through a filter circuit. A filter circuit
may consist of a capacitor or a suitable combination of capacitors and an inductor. An inductor in series
offers impedance for the flow of ac but does not resist dc. A capacitor in parallel blocks dc but bypasses
ac component of the current.
The pulsating nature of the output of the rectifier is due to an ac component superposed over the rectified
dc output. A measure of the purity of the dc output is the ripple factor r which is defined as the ratio of
the two voltage components (or current components)
ΙR RMS VR RMS
r  
I DC VDC
Where IR and VR are the ripple current and voltage of the output respectively
We have, IRMS2 = IDC2 + (IR) 2RMS
Where IRMS is the rms value of the total output current

ΙR RMS 2
I RMS  I DC
2
 I RMS 
2

 ΙR RMS  I 2
RMS I 2
DC and r      1
I DC I DC  I DC 
IM IM
It can be shown that, I RMS  (half wave) I RMS  (full wave) and
2 2
IM 2 IM
I DC  (full wave) I DC  (full wave)
π π

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2
 IM 
 2 π2
with these substitutions, r   I  1   1  1.21
 M  4
 π

π2
Similarly the ripple factor due to full wave rectifier r   1  0.48
8
and for C-fitler it can be shown to be r = 1/ [ (4√3) f C R ] where, f is frequency of ac source.

Procedure:

Half-wave rectifier:
The circuit for half wave rectifier is built up as shown. When the alternating current in the secondary of
the transformer is passed through the diode the negative half cycle of the ac is cut off and the positive
cycle passes out as pulsating direct current. The pulsating dc is passed through a load resistor R L and the
current I is measured by a milli-ammeter. The direct voltage Vdc across RL is measured using a dc
voltmeter and the ac component Vac of this pulsating voltage across RL is measured using an ac voltmeter.
The ripple factor (r = Vac / Vdc) is calculated. The experiment is repeated for different load resistors RL
and the ripple factor is calculated in each case
Full-wave rectifier:
The circuit for full wave rectifier is built up as shown. When the alternating current in the secondary of the
transformer is passed through, both the half cycles of the alternating current in the secondary of the
transformer get converted into pulsating direct current. The ripple factor for the pulsating dc through each
of the load resistors RL is found out as explained above.
Full wave rectifier with filters:
The circuit for full wave rectifier with capacitance input filter is built up as shown. A portion of the ac
component of the pulsating dc is filtered through the capacitor. The ripple factor for the filtered current
through each of the load resistors RL is found out. The circuits for full wave rectifier with LC filter and 
section filter (CLC filter) are built up as shown. The ripple factor for the filtered current through each of
the load resistors RL is found out in each case as explained above.
A graph of ripple factor versus load resistance is drawn for half wave, full wave rectifiers and full wave
rectifiers with filters preferably on the same scale to compare the result

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Observations and Calculations:
Half wave rectifier Diode mA
+  +  +
Primary RL  VAC / VDC
230V AC
Mains

Output Voltage Ripple Factor

Resistance Current Observed
VAC VDC
R V
r  AC Theoretical
() (mA)
(V) (V) VDC

1.21

Full wave rectifier

Diode mA
+  +  +
Primary RL VAC / VDC
230V AC 
Mains
Diode

Output Voltage Ripple Factor

Resistance Current
VAC VDC Observed
R
V Theoretical
() (mA) r  AC
(V) (V) VDC

0.48

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Full wave rectifier with capacitance filter
Diode mA
+  +  +
Primary C1 RL VAC / VDC
230V AC 
Mains
+ 
Diode

Output voltage Ripple factor

Resistance Current Observed
R VAC VDC
VAC Theoretical r = 1/
() (mA) r (4√3fCR)
(V) (V) VDC

Full wave rectifier with capacitance and Inductance (LC) filter

Diode L mA
+  +  +
Primary C1 RL VAC / VDC
230V AC 
Mains

Diode

Resistance Current Output voltage VAC

R VAC VDC Ripple Factor r
(mA) VDC
() (V) (V)

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Full wave Rectifier with C-L-C input filter:

Diode L mA
+  +  +
Primary C2 C1 RL VAC / VDC
230V AC 
Mains
+ 
Diode

Resistance Current Output voltage Observed

R V
() (mA)
VAC VDC r  AC
(V) (V) VDC

The ripple factors of the output current in the various cases are comparing;

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Inference:
1. a) It is observed that the ripple factor in case of half wave and full wave rectifiers
is independent of resistance.
b) Mangnitude-wise ripple in case of full wave rectifier is much less compared to
that of half wave rectifier.
2. a) In case of filter circuits ripple decreases with increase of load resistance.
b) For a given load resistance ripple is least for CLC filter followed by LC and C
filters.

Reference Book: Electronic Devices and Circuits by Mottershead,

2005, Printice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 8

TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS

Aim: To draw the input characteristics of the given n p n transistor in the common emitter mode and to
determine its knee voltage, input resistance, output resistance and current gain

Apparatus: An npn-transistor (SL-100) variable DC power supply for input power (0-5 V), variable DC
power supply for output power (0-20 V), DC microammeter for input current (0-1000 A), DC
milliammeter for output current (0-100 mA), two DC voltmeters (0-20 V), connecting wires.

Theory: A transistor is a three-terminal two-junction semiconductor device. It consists of either a thin

layer of p-type semiconductor sandwiched between two n-type semiconductors or thin layer of n-type
semiconductor sandwiched between two p-type semiconductors. The former is npn-transistor and the
latter is pnp-transistor. The middle layer is called the base. The two outer layers are called the emitter and
collector. The three possible modes of configuration are common base (CB), common emitter (CE) and
common collector (CC).
In common emitter configuration (CE) emitter terminal is made common to both input and out junction.
Input junction is base and emitter, which is forward biased and output junction in collector and emitter
which is reverse biased so that the input junction is having low resistance (since it is forward bias ) and
output junction is having high resistance (it is reverse bias) to flow of current. Behavior of a transistor can
be studied with the help of curves that relates transistor current and voltage. These curves are known as
static characteristic curves.
Applications: It is used for amplification of voltage or current in the circuit. It can also be used as an
oscillator. They are widely used in radios and TV receivers.

Procedure: The circuit is built with the given transistor in the common emitter mode, as shown in the
circuit diagram.
Input characteristics: Keeping the output voltage, VCE = constant (say, 1 volt), sets of reading of input
voltage (VBE) and input current (IB) are taken, and the points are plotted on a graph sheet. The input curve
is drawn. The straight line portion of the curve is extrapolated to the voltage axis to find the knee voltage
VBE
(Vo). The input resistance [RI = is calculated from the straight line portion of the curve.
(IB )

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Circuit diagram for common emitter mode of an npn-transistor

E – emitter IB - input current

B – base IC – output current
C – collector VBE - input voltage
LT – input power supply VCE – output voltage
HT – output power supply

IB Ic
INPUT CURVE OUTPUT CURVES
VCE = 1 VOLT
IB2 = 80 μA
IC
IC2
IB VCE
IC1 IB1 = 40 μA

VBE
0 VBE 0 VCE

Output Characteristics: Keeping the input current IB constant, (say, IB1 = 40 A), sets of readings of
output voltage (VCE) and output current (IC) are taken, and the points are plotted on a graph sheet. The
output curve is drawn for this constant value of the input current. The sets of readings (VCE, IC) are also
taken for another constant value of the input current (say, IB2 = 80 A). The output curve is also drawn for
 V 
this constant value of the input current. The output resistance  CE  is calculated from the straight line
 I C 
portion of one of the output curves (say of 80 A input current).

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Values of output current (IC1 and IC2) are found form the graph of the output curves corresponding to the
values of input current (IB1 and IB2) at a constant value of the output voltage (usually, VCE = 1 volt).

I C I  I C1
The current gain:    C2
I B I B2  I B1

Observations and Calculations:

Input Characteristics Output Characteristics

Input Current
(Output Voltage) VCE  1 volt
Output Voltage IB1 = 40 A IB2 = 80 A
Input Voltage Input Current VCE Output Current
VBE IB (Volt) IC IC
(Volt) (A) (mA) (mA)

0.00 0.0

0.1
0.20
0.2
0.40 0.3

0.5
0.45
0.7
0.50
1.0

0.55 2.0

4.0
0.60
6.0
0..65 8.0

10.0
0.70

0.75

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Calculation of the input resistance from the input curve at the output voltage of
1 volt:
VBE
RI    ……………………………. 
IB

Calculation of the output resistance from the output curve at the input current of 80 A

VCE
RO    ……………………………. 
I C

Calculation of the current gain from the output curves

I C I  I C1
  C2   …………………………….
IB IB2  IB1
.

Result: Knee Voltage = …………………………… V

Input resistance = ……………………………. 

Output resistance = ……………………………. 

Current gain = …………………………….

Reference Book: Electronic Devices and Circuits by Mottershead,

2005, Printice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 9

Diffraction Grating

Aim: To determine the wavelength of prominent spectral lines of mercury by plane diffraction grating in
first and second order spectrum.

APPARATUS
Spectrometer, mercury lamp, plane diffraction grating, readings lens, sprit level et.

THEORY AND FORMULA

The grating spectrum formed in the direction is given by
(e + b) sin = 
(e  b)sin 
 
n
where (e + b) = grating element (cm)
 = angle of diffraction
n = order of the spectrum

PROCEDURE
Before performing the experiment, the following adjustments are made.
1. Setting the Grating for Normal Incidence
(a) The spectrometer is well adjusted for parallel beam using the usual procedure of seeing a far object.
(b) The position of the telescope is adjusted in such a way that the image of the slit is focussed on the
vertical crosswire of the telescope. In this position, the collimator and the telescope are in the same line.
The reading is noted on the circular scale.
(c) The telescope is now turned through 90 and clamped.
(d) Prism table is now rotated through an angle of 45 or 135 as the case may be, so that it becomes
normal to the incident light. The slit of the collimator is also adjusted, so that sharp spectral lines parallel
to the rulings of the grating are formed. The prism table is clamped in this position.
2. Determination of Diffracting Element ( )
On every grating, number of rulings (lines) per inch are marked by the manufacturer.
Thus grating element will be ( )=
N = number of lines on the grating, 2.54 cm = 1 inch.
3. Determination of diffracting Angle ( )
(a) When the source of light emits radiations of different wavelengths, the beam gets dispersed by gating
and in each order, a spectrum of constituent wavelengths is observer.

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(b) The telescope is now turned to get the first order spectrum. The cross wire is adjusted on the line for
which wavelength is to be determined (say red). The position of the telescope is fixed and the readings of
the vernier are recorded.
(c) The telescope is then turned on the side and the crosswire is adjusted on the same coloured line of the
first order spectrum. The reading of the two verniers are again recorded.
(d) The differences of the readings of the same vernier gives twice the angle of diffraction for that lines in
the first order. The average of two vernier is taken.
(e) Procedure (b) to (d) is repeated for other lines and for other orders. The arrangement is shown in figure
14.1. Thus knowing grating element ( ), diffraction angle and order of spectrum , one can
compute the wavelength of desired spectral line.

OBSERVATION
(i) Grating element:
Number of lines on grating = 15,000 per inch
Grating element ( )=
(ii) Angle of diffraction :
Least count of main scale = …………….
Number of divisions on the vernier scale = ……………….
Least count of vernier scale = = ………….

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Colour Spectrum to the left of the Spectrum of the right of

Order of
of the Vernier direct image the direct image Mean
the
spectral TR TR
spectrum MSR VSR MSR VSR
line ( ) ( )
First Violet
Order
(n = 1) Green

Yellow

CALCULATIONS
1. For first order

(a) Wavelength of violet colour

(e  b)sin v
v   ........ A (b) Wavelength of green colour
1

(e  b)sin  y
y   ........ A
1
(c) Wavelength of Yellow colour

(e  b)sin  g
g   ........ A
1

RESULT
For mercury light the mean length of different colours are:
S. No. Observed Standard Percentage Error
1. v  ........ A v = 4078 A


2. g  ........ A 
g = 4960 A
3. y  ........ A 
 y = 5893 A

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EXPERIMENT NO. 10

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EXPERIMENT NO. 11

He – Ne Laser
Aim: To determine the width of narrow slit using the He-Ne laser light.

APPARATUS: He-Ne gas laser source, Single Slit, optical bench, screen.

THEORYAND FORMULA:

slope of graph between sin n and n

Wavelength of laser beam
N
where n = order of maxima
n = angle of diffraction
N = Number of lines per cm on grating
LASER

The name Laser is an acronym of “Light Amplification by Stimulated. Emission of Radiation.” A laser is
a device that produces an intense, concentrated and highly parallel beam of coherent light.

The transition of energy (atom) in a system can occur in two ways. In one way, the atom can absorb
energy and go to higher energy level (or become excited). In another way, it can also come back to the
lower energy level by liberating energy (emission or dexcitation). Thus the transfer of energy can take
place by either absorption or emission. Emission or dexcitation of atom can occur by spontaneous or
stimulated emission.

The rate of transition of atoms by absorption of radiation is equal to the rate of transition by emission of
radiation. In the presence of incident radiations (photons) the equilibrium is disturbed and the ratio of
emission and absorption rates is given by following equation:

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For laser action, two conditions should be satisfied

(i) The probability of spontaneous emission which produces incoherent radiations should be much
smaller than the probability of stimulated radiation i.e. A21 B21u v or stimulated emission.

Thus, with this condition equation becomes

(ii) The emission rate should be larger than the absorption rate.

HELIUM-NEON LASER

An early from of He-Ne laser is shown in figure 16.1. The He-Ne laser uses’ a mixture of Helium and
Neon in the ratio of 10:1, kept in a narrow Pyrex glass tube with an internal diameter of 2mm and length
of about 40 cm.

He-Ne Gas Laser

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The Helium gas is filled at a pressure of 1 torr and Neon at a pressure of about 0.1 torr. The gas
system is enclosed between the pair of mirrors. The window WW’ cemented at Brewster angle at the end
of discharge tube, are of borosilicate glass and optically flat (to about one tenth of Wavelength). The
reflectors M 1M2 are two dielectric coated spherical mirrors having a high reflectivity at 6328Ă. One
mirror acts a perfect reflector and the other is partly transparent for the emergence of laser light. Thus, a
cavity resonator system is formed. The spacing between the mirrors is equal to an integral number of half
wavelength of laser light. Pumping is achieved by an electrical discharge produced in the gas by means of
electrodes placed outside the tube connected to a source of high frequency alternating current.

TO DETERMINE THE WAVELENGTH OF LASER BEAM

Monochromatic radiations of wavelength λ are diffracted by a diffraction grating. The formation of

maxima takes place on the screen. The nth order principal maxima (figure 16.2) formed at an angle
n given by

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Diffraction pattern is obtained on the screen usually, on – graph paper. From figure (16.2)

PROCEDURE
(a) To determine the wavelength of LASER light:

1. Place different graphs in front of laser so as to get the diffraction pattern on the graph paper.

2. Central maxima (the brightest one) are due to undeviated rays. Measure distances of first order
diffraction spot from central spot. Also measure the distance from grating to screen.

Hence, wavelength of Laser Beam

is

3. Repeat step 2th for second and third order diffraction spot to find sin θ2 sin θ3 hence plot the graph
between sin n vs n and calculate λ as per as equation

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Observation table for determination of wavelength:

S. No. Order of Position of Screen Distance of sin

=
Diffraction n x (cm) Diffraction Spot yn/(x2+yn2)1/2
from Central Spot
y (cm)

1 0
2 1
3 2
4 3

Distance of screen from Single slit (D) = … cm.

CALCULATION

a sin θn = (m+1/2) λ

RESULTss

The wavelength of He-Ne Laser = 6328… Ă

Width of single slit = ………………..mm

Standard value of width of single slit = 0.25 mm

Percentage error = ………

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EXPERIMENT NO. 12

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Aim: To determine the Planck’s constant and the work function of the material of the photo cathode in
the given photo-emissive cell.

Appauratus: Photo-emissive cell,light source, optical filters, a micro-ammeter, a

voltmeter,connecting wires.

Prinicple: When light of a particuler frequency falls on a photo-cathode, photo electrons are ejected.
The kinetic energy (Kmax) of the most energetic photo electron depends on the frequency (f) of the
incident light. These electron can be retarded by the application of a retadring potential and the
electroens can be stopped completely by incresing the retarding pontetial to a value called the stopping
potential (V0). Then no current (Ip) flows in the external circuit. In the experiment the stooping
potential are measured for light of different frequencies. Light source and optical filters are used to
get the light of a particular frequency. Einsten’s photo electric equation is Kmax = hf – hf0, where h is
the Planck’s constant and f0, is thr threshold frequency. In the experiment Kmax = eV0, where e is the
electronic charge. Hence the equation takes the form eV0 = hf – hf0.

A plot of V0 verses f gives a straight line graph with a slope equal to h/e and f- intrcept f0. The work
function of the photo-cathode given by ϕ= hf0 .

Procedure : The circuit is built up as shown in the circuit diagram. An optical filter is placed in the
pacth of the light from a light source. The wavelength of the light is noted down from the filter and the
frequency is calculated.

The photo cathode is illuminated using this light. A retarding potential is applied and its value is
increased so as to make the photo-electric current zero. This stopping potential is noted down.
Similarly the stopping potential are found for lights of different frequencies using other filters. A
straight line graph of stopping potential versus frequency of the light is drawn. The slope is found and
the Planck’s constant is calculated. Also the threshold frequency is found and the work function of the
photo cathode is calculated.

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Observation and calculation:

To find the stopping potential for lights of different frequencies:

Optical Filter Frequency Stopping

Potential
f = 3x108 m/s V0
Wavelength λ
Colour λ
(m) (Hz) (volt)

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From the graph, slope = h / e =

Planck’s constant, h = (slope) (e)

h=( ) (1.602 x 10-19 C)

h = ………………… Js

Threshold frequency, f0 = ……………………….. Hz

Work function, ϕ = hf0 =( 6.62 x 10-34 Js) ( Hz )

( 1.6 x 10-19 J/ ev)

Φ = ………………….. ev

..

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EXPERIMENT NO. 13

Dispersive power

Aim: To determine the dispersive power of material of prism with the help of spectrometer.

Apparatus: A spectrometer, spirit level, prism, an-eye-piece and mercury lamp.

Principle: When a ray of white light passes through a prism, it splits into its constituent colours. “The
phenomenon of splitting of white light into its constituent colours, is called dispersion.
The angle through which a ray deviates on passing through a thin prism of small refracting angle A is
given by

 1 ) A ....(2.1)

This angle of deviation depends upon angle of prism, angle of incidence and material of prism.
Variation of angle of deviation  with angle of incidence (i) is as shown is following
Fig. 2.1(b)

Fig. (a) Deviation of light ray after passing through prism, (b) Variation of angle of deviation
with angle of incidence

When i increased,  decreases, reaches a minimum and increases again. For one value of , there are
two angles of incidence i1 and I2 . However, at minimum deviation m , i1  i2 i.e. the
Incident ray and the emergent ray are symmetrical w.r.t. the refracting faces. The refracted ray in this case
will be parallel to the base.

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If  the refractive index of the material of the prism,

 A m 
sin  

  2 
Then A
sin  
 2

This is called prism formula

DISPERSION OF LIGHT

Since, each colour has its own characteristic wavelength  and according to Cauchy’s
formula, refractive index of a material depends on wavelength
   as

A B  C  ....
2 4
Where A, B and C are constant
i.e.  of a prism is different for different colours and so, from equation (2.1), its is clear that different
colours deviate through different angles on passing through the prism. This is the cause of dispersion.
 
violet red

   
violet red
  
violet red

i.e. maximum deviation is of violet colour and minimum deviation is of red colour.

Fig Dispersion of light on passing through prism

Another dispersion produced by a prism is the difference in the angles of deviation of two extreme
colours, i.e. violet and red colours. Actually, this is angle in which all colours of which light are contained.

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If v and r are deviation of violet and red colour,,

then angular dispersion  v r 

 v r   v r  A ....(2.4)

Using equation (2.1)
Dispersion Power of a prism is defined as the ratio of angular dispersion to the mean deviation produced
by the prism.
In the dispersed beam, yellow colour is taken as the mean colour, so mean deviation

  vr y

and so, mean deviation y  y 1A
Thus, dispersive power

This is expression for dispersive power of prism. It depends only on nature of material of prism.

PROCEDURE

To obtain pure spectrum by spectrometer the following adjustments must be made-

1. Adjustment of Collimator :
(i) It consists of a tube mounted horizontally on the arm of spectrometer. The purpose of collimator
is to produce a parallel beam of light. The type has converging achromatic terms at one end. The focal
length of lens is equal to the length of collimator tube.
(ii) The vertical slit consists of two sharp edges, which of them one is fixed and other can be moved
parallel to it with the help of a screw.
(iii) Finally keep the collimator slit near the window of source.

2. Adjustment of Prism Table :

(i) The prism table has three levelling screws attached to its base. The prism table is made
horizontal with the help of spirit level and leveling screws
(ii) The height of prism table can be adjusted by a clamping screw.
(iii) Now the position of table can be read by verniers moving on the circular scales.

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3. Adjustment of Telescope :
(i) The telephone is turned towards an illuminated source of light.
(ii) Now see through the eye piece and then adjust the distance between object and eye piece and
get a well-defined image of object at the cross wires. The cross wire should be kept horizontal
vertical.
(iii) Thus in first arrangement, the telescope is focused for parallel rays while in second, the
collimator produces a beam of parallel rays.
4. Determination of the Angle of Prism
(i) Place the prism on prism table with its refracting edge at the centre and ground face perpendicular
to the collimator axis as shown in fig. 2.3

(ii) The reflected light from each face of prism gives on image of the slit let for this see the reflected
light from face on the right side. Fix the cross wire on this image and note the both readings.

(iii)Similarly get an image of slit on the left side formed by reflection of light from the order face of
the prism and note the both readings.

(iv) The difference of these two angles will double (i.e. 2A) of prism angle.

(v) Hence repeat the process several times and find mean value of A.

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5. Measurement of Angle of Minimum Deviation

(i) Place the prism symmetrically at the centre of prism table with it ground face away form
collimator.

(ii) Set the telescope at about 45o to axis of collimator. Now rotate prism table towards left or right
through a very small angle to make a small angle to normal. Hence on turning the telescope the spectrum
will seen.

(iii) Now, rotating the prism table, spectrum will also rotate. Move the telescope also to keep the
spectrum in the field of view. A stage comes when the spectrum just starts returning back. This position is
minimum deviation position. At this stage clamp the prism table. In spectrum different colours are in the
orders VIBGYOR.

(iv) Now turn the telescope and set its cross wire on red line of spectrum. Now set the cross wire on this
line and note the reading of both the verniers. Similarly set the cross wire on different colurs line i.e.
yellow, violet respectively and note the readings.

6. Direct Image

To obtain the direct image, remove the prism from the prism table and turn telescope to obtain direct
image. Set the telescope infront of collimator as the cross wire coincide with image of slit. Note the
readings of both verniers.

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OBSERVATION
One division of main scale reading x =.........
No. of division of Vernier scale reading n =.........
x
Least count of V.S. .......
n
(a) Table for angle of Prism (A)

S.No. Vernier
Reflection from face
Reflection from face AB AC Difference Mean
MSR VSR TR MSR VSR TR 2A = (P - value
(P) (Q) Q) 2A
1. V1
V2
2. V1
V2

Angle of prism A = ......degree

(b) Table for angle of Minimum Deviation

Readings in Minimum Reading for Direct

Deviation
Image Image Mean
S.No. Colours Scale MSR VSR TR MSR VSR TR
(a) (b)
1. Red V1
V2
2. Yellow V1
V2
3. Violet V1
V2

(i) Angle of Prism =............Degree.

(ii) The refractive index for different colours is given by

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RESULT
The dispersive power of prism’s material is......and % error Percentage error =.......

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