Arab J Geosci
DOI 10.1007/s12517-012-0744-x
ORIGINAL PAPER
Hydrothermal evolution of Darrehzar porphyry copper
deposit, Iran: evidence from fluid inclusions
B. Alizadeh Sevari & A. Hezarkhani
Received: 20 December 2011 / Accepted: 31 October 2012
# Saudi Society for Geosciences 2012
Abstract The Darrehzar porphyry Cu-Mo deposit is located
in Southwestern Iran (∼70 km southwest of Kerman City). The
porphyries occur as Tertiary quartz-monzonite stocks and
dikes, ranging in composition from microdiorite to diorite
and granodiorite. The Darrehzar stock is highly altered, and
even in the outermost part of the intrusion, it is not possible to
find completely fresh rock. Surface weathering was develop-
ing ferrous Fe-rich lithologic units in leached zone and con-
centrated copper minerals in supergene zone. Unlike eastern
areas which do not account for deep faults, the supergene zone
is well developed in western areas with maximum of 118 m
thickness. Hydrothermal alteration and mineralization at
Darrehzar are centered on the stock and were broadly synchro-
nous with its emplacement. Early hydrothermal alteration was
dominantly potassic and propylitic, and was followed by later
phyllic and argillic alteration. The hydrothermal system in-
volved both magmatic and meteoric water and boiled exten-
sively. Copper mineralization was accompanied by both
potassic and phyllic alteration. Four main vein groups have
been identified: (I) quartz+pyrite±molybdenite±anhydrite±
K-feldspar±chalcopyrite±bornite±Cu and Fe oxidic miner-
als (peripheral); (II) quartz+chalcopyrite+pyrite+molybde-
nite; (III) quartz+pyrite±calcite±chalcopyrite±anhydrite
(gypsum); and (IV) quartz or calcite, gypsum or ± pyrite.
Based on abundance, nature, and phases number observed
at room temperature, three types of fluid inclusions are
B. Alizadeh Sevari (*)
Department of Mining Engineering, Science and Research Branch,
Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
e-mail: beh.alizadeh@gmail.com
A. Hezarkhani
Department of Mining and Metallurgy Engineering, Amirkabir
University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
email: ardehez@aut.ac.ir
typically observed in these veins: (1) vapor-rich, (2)
liquid-rich, and (3) multi-phase. Early hydrothermal alter-
ation was caused by high temperature, high salinity ortho-
magmatic fluid and produced a potassic assemblage.
Phyllitic alteration was caused by high salinity and lower
temperature orthomagmatic fluid. Magmatic and meteoric
water mixture was developed in the peripheral part of the
stock and caused propylitic alteration which is attributed to
a liquid-rich, lower temperature.
Keywords Fluid inclusion . Porphyry copper deposit .
Potassic alteration . Phyllic alteration . Microthermometry .
Darrehzar . Iran
Introduction
Due to their low metal grade and very large volume,
porphyry-type deposits are described as disseminated, and
mineralization is, to a great extent, controlled by fractures
and faults. Estimates showed that more than 90 % of the
mineralization occurs in or adjacent to fractures and veins
(Beane and Titley 1981).
Porphyry copper deposits are formed where magmatic-
hydrothermal fluids are expelled from a crystallizing magma
(Burnham 1979; Ulrich et al. 2001) and initiated by injection
of oxidized magma saturated with S and metal-rich, aqueous
fluids from cupolas on the tops of the subjacent parental
plutons. The sequence of alteration–mineralization is princi-
pally a consequence of progressive rock and fluid cooling,
from >700 °C to <250 °C (Sillitoe 2010). Cooling, depressur-
ization, and reaction between the fluids and the wall rocks
cause metals to precipitate in and around the fractures, form-
ing veins with alteration envelopes. Alteration assemblages
and associated mineralization in porphyry ore deposits devel-
op from huge hydrothermal systems dominated by magmatic

and meteoric fluids (Sillitoe 1997; Hedenquist and Richards
1998; Asghari and Hezarkhani 2010).
Porphyry Cu systems host some of the most widely
distributed mineralization types at convergent plate bound-
aries including porphyry deposits centered on intrusions.
The systems commonly define linear belts, some many
hundreds of kilometers long, as well as occurring less com-
monly in apparent isolation (Sillitoe 2010).
Sahand–Bazman volcanic belt in Iran is a part of the
collisional Alpine–Himalaya orogenic belt, which extends
northwestward from Sahand volcano in Azerbaijan province
to Bazman volcano in southeast Iran, covering a distance of
approximately 1,700 km. This belt was formed by subduc-
tion of the Arabian plate beneath central Iran during the
Alpine orogeny as first identified by Stocklin and Setudenia
(1972) and consists of alkaline and calc-alkaline volcanic
rocks and related intrusives (I-type) (Stocklin and Setudenia
1972; Berberian 1976, 1983; Stocklin 1977; Berberian and
King 1981; Pourhosseini 1981). Sahand–Bazman volcanic
belt hosts two major porphyry Cu porphyry systems. Sar-
Cheshmeh and Sungun deposits are the two ones of these
being mined.
Sar-Cheshmeh deposit is located in Southwestern Iran
and contains 450 million tons of sulfide ore with an average
grade of 1.13 % Cu and approximately 0.03 % Mo
(Waterman and Hamilton 1975). Darrehzar deposit is locat-
ed southeast of the Sar-Cheshmeh porphyry Cu deposit.
Proven reserve of Darrehzar deposit is >80 million tons of
disseminated sulfide ore, with an average grade of 0.55 %
Cu and approximately 0.005 % Mb (Derakhshani and
Abdolzadeh 2009).
First studies at Darrehzar were carried out in 1969 by the
Geological Survey of Iran and contained detailed geophys-
ical, geochemical, and geological surveys (GSI 1973;
Ranjbar et al. 2001).
Later studies were published by Grujicic and Volickovic
(1991) and Maanijou (1993).
Detailed studies including mass change calculation dur-
ing hydrothermal alteration have been done by Derakhshani
and Abdolzadeh (2009).
Fluid inclusion studies in porphyry copper deposits have
proven to be an important tool for constraining the hydro-
thermal fluids responsible for vast and pervasive alteration
and mineralization processes. Studies of fluid inclusions
trapped within hydrothermal veins were recognized to be
as a direct way of saying much more than had previously
been possible about the nature of these mineralizing fluids
and the processes by which mineral deposits were formed
(Wilkinson 2001).
Fluid inclusion studies have showed many features in
porphyry copper deposits of Sahand-Bazman belt (Etminan
1977 Mehrpartou 1993 Calagari 2004 Hezarkhani and
Williams-Jones 1998; Hezarkhani 2006, 2008, 2009).
Arab J Geosci
In this research, we have documented alteration and vein
mineral paragenesis petrographically and conducted a fluid
inclusion study to elucidate the hydrothermal history of the
Darrehzar porphyry deposit. By comparing the results from
this study with Sarcheshmeh, Sungun Miduk and data avail-
able from other porphyry copper deposits (Hezarkhani and
Williams-Jones 1998; Hezarkhani 2006, 2008), we have
been able to contribute a better understanding of the nature
of Sahand–Bazman porphyry copper province.
Geological setting
The Darrehzar porphyry copper deposit is located ∼70 km
southwest of Kerman City in the Kerman province of south-
western Iran (Fig. 1). The stock is part of the Sahand–Bazman
igneous and metallogenic, a deeply eroded Tertiary volcanic
field, roughly 100 by 1,700 km in extent, consisting mainly of
rhyolite and andesite, with numerous felsic intrusions.
Subduction and subsequent continental collision from
Paleocene to Oligocene caused extensive alkaline and calc-
alkaline volcanic and plutonic igneous activity (Etminan
1977; Shahabpour 1982; Berberian 1983; Hezarkhani 2006).
The Darrehzar porphyries occur as Tertiary quartz-
monzonite stocks and dikes, ranging in composition
from microdiorite to diorite and granodiorite, intruding
into volcanic, volcanic-clastic, and volcanic sedimentary
complexes. The volcanic sedimentary complex is the
oldest rock with Eocene age, covering a large area of
Darrehzar.
The Darrehzar stock is highly altered, and even in
the outermost part of the intrusion, it is not possible to
find completely fresh rock. Surface weathering has
developed Fe-rich lithological units in leached zone
and concentrated copper minerals in supergene zone
(Table 1).
Unlike western areas, eastern areas do not account for
deep faults. So, the supergene zone is well developed in
western areas with maximum of 118 m in thickness (Fig. 2).
The central part of Darrehzar is composed of intensively
hydrothermally altered rocks, covering the surface of about
1.8 km2. Altered zone is elongated in east–west direction,
2.2×1 km in size. These alterations are better developed in
the western part of the area, while to the south, the rocks are
less altered.
Hydrothermal alteration and mineralization
Alteration assemblages and related mineralization in the
Darrehzar porphyry copper deposit have been investigated
by geological mapping, and detailed mineralogical petro-
graphical and chemical studies of a large number of drill
Arab J Geosci

(A)

(B)
Geological map of Darrehzar
L e g e n d
393000 393500 394000 394500 395000
3306900

3306900
Qal Qal : Recent Alluvium
Ev
Qc Ev
Quaternary

Qtr Qtr : River Traces

Ev

Qc Qc:Clay and Silt with Debris Rock Ev

3306600

3306600
QZ-MZ MD&DI
Ev
QT1 QT1 : Recent Alluvium&Talus
Ev
MD&DI QZ-MZ
Oligo-Miocene

GD Gd : Granodiorite Qtr
Cenozoic

3306300

3306300
MD&DI Mi & Di : Microdiorite&Diorite Ev
DW
QZ-MZ GD
QZ-MZ Qz-Mz : Quartz Monzonite
GD
Et Qc

E vb E vb : Volcanic Breccia MD&DI

3306000

3306000

Qc

Ev Ev : Andesite & Andesite Basalt

QT1
Eocene

QT1
Ea-t : Andesite& Andesite Basalt &
Crystal Tuff & Vitric Tuff & Vitric Ev
Litic Tuff & Lapilli Tuff & Agglomerate
3305700

3305700

Ea-t Et
Ev Ev
Et : Crystal Tuff & Vitric Tuff & Vitric Ev
Ev
Litic Tuff & Lapilli Tuff & Agglomerate Ev

Et
Et Ea-t
DW DW : Dam Water Ev Et
Qc
Evb

Fault
393000 393500 394000 394500 395000

0 100 200 400 600 800

Meters

Fig. 1 A Geological map of Iran (modified from Stocklin 1977; intrusions, hosting Cu-Mo porphyry type mineralization. B Detailed
Shahabpour and Doorandish 2008) showing Sahand–Bazman belt: geological map of the Darrehzar area showing the distribution of
calc-alkaline volcanic and quartz monzonite and quartz diorite different suites (modified from NICC 2008)
 Arab J Geosci

Table 1 Average grade of Cu, Cuo, Mo, Pb, and Zn in the oxidation, Potassic alteration
supergene, and hypogene zones from Darrehzar area core samples

Average grade in zones The earliest alteration is represented by potassic mineral

assemblages developed pervasively and as halos around
Oxidation Supergene Hypogene All zones veins in the deep and central parts of the Darrehzar stock.
Potassic alteration is characterized by K-feldspar. This al-
Cu (%) 0.08 0.78 0.19 0.25
teration displays a close spatial association with mineraliza-
Cuo (%) 0.02 0.14 0.02 0.04
tion, and average grade of copper mineralization is 0.23 %
Mo (ppm) 55 31 47 46
from core samples. The potassic alteration in western bore-
Pb (ppm) 132 107 161 150
holes was reached at shallower depth than in eastern ones,
ZN (ppm) 32.04 62.7 90.34 79.98
suggesting north–south trending normal faults acting in this
area. Neoformed biotite crystals in potassic alteration were
cores and outcrop samples from various parts of the stock well formed and permitted to distinguish this alteration from
(GSI 1973; Ranjbar et al. 2001). Hydrothermal alteration phyllic alteration.
and mineralization at Darrehzar are centered on the stock
and were broadly synchronous with its emplacement. Phyllic alteration
Early hydrothermal alteration was dominantly potassic
and propylitic, and was followed by later phyllic and Phyllic alteration is characterized by the replacement of almost
argillic alteration. all rock-forming silicates by sericite and quartz and may

(A)

Supergene Thickness in Bore Holes

393600 393900 394200 394500 394800

3306600
3306600

Legend DA-65
DA-03
DA-66
Drilling Point PI5
DA-15
Drilling Point DA-44 PI7

3306400
DA-24
3306400

DA-18 DA-17PC17 DA-16

Thickness(m) DA-56PC56 PV9
DA-28 DA-34
PV5 PV6 DA-30 DA-38 DA-08
DA-27 DA-43 DA-23 DA-22 DA-35 DA-49
0 - 25 DA-47 DA-52 PV11
DA-50
PI2 DA-25 DA-51 DA-53 DA-54 DA-29 DA-32 PC6 DA-36
26 - 50 DA-48 DA-33 DA-06
DA-26 DA-61

3306200
DA-21PC21
3306200

DA-62
51 - 75 DA-09 DA-45 DA-07 PV10
PV8 DA-31 DA-68
PI1 DA-42 DA-55 PV7 DA-40
PV1 PV2 PV4 DA-12
DA-10
76 - 100 DA-59 DA-41
DA-39 DA-37 DA-20 DA-67 DA-02 DA-04
DA-46 PI6
101 - 118 PV3 DA-60 PC58
DA-58 PI4

3306000
3306000

DA-14
SECTION A-A DA-11 DA-13

Fault
Probably One Fault
DA-64
3305800

3305800

One Class Fault DA-63 DA-19

Two Class Fault

200 00 393600 393900 394200 394500 394800

Meters

(B)
Cross Section of Mineralization Zone (Section A-A)
393400 393500 393600 393700 393800 393900 394000 394100 394200 394300 394400

Legend DA-07
DA-26
2650

DA-45
Point DA-09
DA-61
2600

DRILLHOLE
DA-21
OXID
2550

DA-62 DA-62
DA-31 DA-68 DA-40

SUPERGENE
2500

HYPOGENE
2450
2400

0 25 50 100 150 200

2350

Meters

Fig. 2 A Thicknesses supergene zone as deduced from boreholes. B Cross-section (A-A) of mineralization zone at Darrehzar area
Arab J Geosci
overprint the earlier formed potassic alteration and the transi-
tion zones. Surface samples of phyllic alteration contain quartz
in both bulk rock and veins and are gray in color. Quartz veins
are surrounded by weak sericitic halos. Vein-hosted pyrite is
partially replaced by chalcopyrite. Silicification was synchro-
nous with phyllic alteration and variably affected a large part of
the stock and most dikes. This observation is supported by
whole-rock chemical analyses, indication that Si was added in
accordingly (Hezarkhani and Williams-Jones 1998). In con-
trast to the transition zone, appreciable Cu was added to the
rock during phyllic alteration. According to core samples,
average grade of copper mineralization in phyllic alteration is
0.26 % (NICC 2008).
Propylitic alteration
Because of erosion, propylitic alteration zone at Darrehzar
area was rarely detected in borehole samples and only ob-
served at the contact area of porphyry stock with Eocene
volcanic and volcano-clastic rocks.
Propylitic alteration is represented mainly by chloritiza-
tion of primary and secondary biotite and groundmass ma-
terial in rocks peripheral to the central potassic zone.
Epidote replaced plagioclase, but this alteration is less per-
vasive and intense than chloritization. Minor minerals asso-
ciated with propylitic alteration are albite, calcite, sericite,
anhydrite (gypsum), and pyrite.
Argillitic alteration
The shallow alteration is interpreted to represent a super-
gene blanket over the deposit. Rocks in argillic alteration
were intensely flimsy and disjointed with a little brunt.
Some samples have aggregation of chlorite and clay miner-
als showing argillic and propylitic alteration overlap.
Feldspar is locally altered to clays down to a depth of
300 m, and within 80 m from the erosional surface, the entire
rock has been altered to an assemblage of clay minerals.
This alteration is manifested also by the advanced re-
placement of plagioclase and mafic phases by clay minerals.
Mineralization
Hypogene copper mineralization was introduced during po-
tassic and phyllic alteration, and exists as disseminations
and veinlets. During potassic alteration, the copper mineral-
ization consisted of chalcopyrite and minor bornite; later,
hypogene copper mineralization consisted mainly of
chalcopyrite.
Copper mineralization increases towards the margins of
the central potassic zone, from less than 0.10 to 0.9 wt.%.
There is also a positive correlation between silicification and
copper mineralization.
Alteration of feldspars and biotite (from potassically al-
tered rocks) was accompanied by an increase in sulfide
content going outwards from the central part of the stock.
At the exposed surface of the deposit, rocks are highly
altered, and the only mineral that has survived supergene
argillization is quartz. Most of the sulfide minerals have
been leached, and copper was concentrated in an underlying
supergene zone by downward percolating groundwaters.
Cu average grade of oxide, supergene, and hypogene
zones at Darrehzar area are 0.08 %, 0.78 %, and 0.19 %,
respectively, showing higher concentration of Cu minerals
in supergene zone. On the contrary, Mo average grade of
oxide, supergene, and hypogene zones are 55, 31, and
47 ppm, respectively, showing a major concentration of
Mo minerals in oxide and hypogene zones than in the
supergene zone (Table 1 and Fig. 3).
Vein and veinlet classification
The veinlet sequence in porphyry Cu deposits, first detailed by
Gustafson and Hunt (1975) and widely studied since (e.g.,
Hunt et al. 1983; Dilles and Einaudi 1992; Gustafson and
Quiroga 1995; Redmond et al. 2004; Pollard and Taylor
2002; Cannell et al. 2005; Masterman et al. 2005; Hezarkhani
2006), is highly distinctive. Based on mineralogy and cross-
cutting relationships at Darrehzar area, it is possible to distin-
guish four main groups of veins representing four episodes of
vein formation: (I) quartz+pyrite±molybdenite±anhydrite±K-
feldspar±chalcopyrite±bornite±Cu and Fe oxidic minerals
(peripheral); (II) quartz+chalcopyrite+pyrite+molybdenite;
(III) quartz + pyrite ± calcite ± chalcopyrite ± anhydrite
(gypsum); and (IV) quartz or calcite, gypsum or ± pyrite
(Fig. 4).
In order to determine the volume percent of each vein type
in the different alteration zones, two-dimensional method of
Haynes (1984) has been applied, and the density of all veins in
a given core was measured by the sum of the vein lengths
Fig. 3 Graph of average Cu and Mo variation in three mineralization
zones according to core samples at Darrehzar area
 Arab J Geosci

exposed in the considered core cut area divided by the same

area. The stockwork system is dominated volumetrically by
Group IV and Group I veins (1.2 % to 4.2 % volume of the
rock, respectively). Group II and Group III veins occupy up to
1.5 and 3.9 vol.% of the rock, respectively. Group I and Group
II veins are volumetrically the most important in the potassic
alteration zone. Group III and Group IV veins are dominant in
the phyllic and argillic alteration zones, respectively.

Group I veins

Group I veins vary in thickness between 0.5 and 3 mm.

They are discontinuous and formed during the early fractur-
ing of the porphyry system. The most important sulfide
mineral is molybdenite and occurs mainly along the vein
margins. Conversely, K-feldspar, anhydrite, chalcopyrite,
bornite, and pyrite are minerals that occur in the central part
of the vein, and less commonly at the margins. Pyrite and
chalcopyrite partially replace the molybdenite. Quartz com-
prises from 60 % to 95 % of the volume of the veins (Figs. 4
and 5A).

Group II veins

Group II veins generally cross-cut and in places off-set

Group I veins. Their thickness varies from 3 to 30 mm,
and they are generally more continuous than Group I veins.
Sericitic alteration haloes are well developed, and K-
feldspar is lacking in these veins. The volume ratio of
chalcopyrite to pyrite is 2:1. The molybdenite content varies
from trivial value to less than 5 vol.% of the vein. The
alteration haloes are most obvious in the potassic alteration
zone, where hydrothermal biotite in the halo was destroyed.
The sericitic alteration haloes have thicknesses varying be-
tween 1 and 5 mm. Vein quartz crystals are relatively coarse
and tend to be oriented perpendicular to the walls of the
vein. Sulfide minerals are located mainly in a narrow
Fig. 5 A Vein Groups I, II, and III and cross-cutting relationships
between them and sericitic alteration: Sr sericite, Plg plagioclase, Chl
chlorite. B Polish section photograph showing mineralization: Ccp
chalcopyrite, Py pyrite
discontinuous layer in the vein centers, but locally, the
sulfides are disseminated through the quartz. Group II veins
occur in all alteration zones, but are concentrated mainly in
the potassic zone (Figs. 4 and 5A).

Group III veins

Group III veins crosscut Groups I and II veins and are

Fig. 4 Histogram showing the volume proportions of the different
vein groups in each of the alteration zones
most abundant in the phyllic alteration zone. They are
relatively continuous, layered veins, and their thickness
varies from 3 to 50 mm. Quartz occurs mainly near the
vein margins together with anhydrite, calcite, and sulfide
minerals co-precipitated in the vein centers. The only
copper mineral is chalcopyrite, which is observed as
blebs and inclusions in pyrite. Early formed anhedral to
subhedral grains of pyrite are replaced by anhedral grains
of chalcopyrite (Fig. 5B). The lower content of chalco-
pyrite in Group III veins relative to Group II veins may
indicate that the fluid which circulated in the reopened
Group II veins leached this mineral (Figs. 4 and 5A).
Arab J Geosci

Group IV veins

Group IV veins crosscut all the other vein groups and repre-
sent the youngest vein-forming event in the Darrehzar stock.
Their thicknesses may reach 14 cm. The mineral assemblage
is given by quartz, and/or calcite, and/or gypsum. Group IV
veins are found mainly in the propylitic zone, but also occur
locally in the phyllic and potassic alteration zones.

Fluid inclusions study

Fluid inclusions are abundant in quartz of all vein types and

range in diameter from 1 up to 15 μm. The majority of
inclusions examined during this study had diameters of 4–
12 μm. Only fluid inclusions within the quartz crystals in
quartz-sulfide and quartz-molybdenite veinlets were chosen
for microthermometric analysis. Most of the observations
were restricted to fluid inclusions in coarse-crystalline
quartz of early mineralized veins. Therefore, most of the
measurements were conducted on fluid inclusions in Groups
I and II veins, with a few from Group III veins.
Fluid inclusions were classified into three main types
based on the number, nature, and proportion of phases at
room temperature (Fig. 6). The following types of fluid
inclusions have been identified:
1. LV inclusions consist of liquid+vapor±solid phases with
the liquid phase being volumetrically dominant. These
fluid inclusions are common in all mineralized quartz
veins and are abundant in Groups II and III veins (Fig. 7).
2. VL inclusions also contain vapor+liquid±solid phases.
Vapor bubbles are variable in size, but in all cases consist
of >60 % of the inclusion volume. These inclusions
mainly homogenize in the vapor phase, and only rarely
in the liquid phase, or by critical behavior (Fig. 7).
3. LVHS inclusions are multiphase and consist of liquid+
vapor+halite+other solids. Based on the number and type
of the solid phases, the LVHS inclusions were further
classified into three subtypes. Subtype S1 inclusions are
Fig. 6 Photomicrographs of different inclusion types within mineral-
characterized by the presence of halite+chalcopyrite± ized quartz veins
anhydrite±K-Fe-Cl phase. Halite, anhydrite, and chalco-
pyrite have consistent phase ratios and are interpreted to
be daughter minerals. Vapor bubbles occupy less than Microthermometric analysis
25 % of the inclusion by volume. Subtype S2 inclusions
contain sylvite in addition to the phases in S1 inclusions. Microthermometric studies were carried out on 76 samples
The solid phases and the vapor bubbles occupy 60 % and of quartz from Groups I, II, and III veins. The Linkam
20 % of inclusion volumes, and 20 % of the inclusion operating unit was applied to measure the temperatures of
volumes, respectively. Subtype S3 inclusions contain ha- phase changes in fluid inclusions, which operates by heating
lite, which is commonly accompanied by hematite, but do and freezing the samples under a polarized microscope
not contain chalcopyrite, sylvite, and K-Fe-Cl phase. The (Were et al. 1979; Bodnar 1994, 2003). Stage calibration
volume of the solid phases is typically less than 40 % of was performed using synthetic and/or fluid inclusions of
the inclusions, whereas bubble volumes range between well-known microthermometric behavior. Accuracy at the
20 % and 60 % of inclusions (Fig. 7). standard reference temperatures was ±0.2 °C at −56.6 °C

Fig. 7 Sketches of typical fluid
inclusions observed in
Darrehzar porphyry copper
deposit. L liquid, V vapor
LVHS1
Chalcopyrite
Anhydrite
K-Fe-Cl phase
(triple point of CO2), ±0.1 °C at 0 °C (melting point of ice),
±2 °C at 374.1 °C (critical homogenization of H2O), and
±9 °C at 573 °C (alpha to beta quartz transition). The
heating rate was approximately 1 °C/min near the temper-
atures of phase transitions. Descriptive statistics of micro-
thermometric data in vein groups were shown in Table 2.
Salinity calculations were accomplished in the NaCl+H2O
system according to the equation of Bodnar (1993).
Low-temperature phase changes
One of the most commonly used techniques for determin-
ing the composition of aqueous fluid inclusions is based
on the phase behavior at low temperatures. The first
melting temperature, or eutectic temperature, is character-
istic of the chemical system within the inclusion, and the
final melting temperature is related to the salinity of the
aqueous solution.
The eutectic melting temperature of fluid inclusions
could not specifically be measured; however, an approxi-
mation of this temperature was measured in inclusions in
order r to estimate the overall chemical system. The reported
first melting temperatures (Te) represent therefore apparent
eutectic temperatures (i.e., the upper constraints to real
eutectic temperatures).
The temperatures of initial (Te) and final melting of ice
(Tm ice) were measured on types LV, VL, and LVHS fluid
inclusions. The temperatures of first melting (Te) of most LV
fluid inclusions were between −16 °C and −25 °C, suggest-
ing that NaCl±KCL are the principal salts in solution. The
Te value of VL fluid inclusions ranges from −56.5 °C to
−17 °C, suggesting that together with Na and K, there may
be cations in solution like Mg and Ca which could not be
detected by using microthermometry only. The low Te
(−31 °C to −46 °C) for some of the VL inclusions and their
Arab J Geosci
LV VL
L L
V
V
LVHS2 LVHS3
L L L
V V V
Chalcopyrite
H Anhydrite H
H
Hematite
K-Fe-Cl phase
similarity with Te from the LVHS inclusions could indicate
that VL inclusions were the result of necking down of LVHS
inclusion type or heterogeneous entrapment (Fig. 8 and
Table 2).
The eutectic temperatures that could be measured in
LVHS inclusions (Group I and Group II veins) range from
−30.4 °C to −67.4 °C, suggesting important concentra-
tions of Fe, Mg, Ca, and/or other components in addition
to Na and K, while eutectic temperatures of LVHS inclu-
sions in Group III vary from −26 °C to −43 °C (Fig. 8
and Table 2).
Because of the small volume of liquid in LVHS fluid
inclusions, it is difficult to observe the final melting state
and measure the melting temperature of hydrohalite in most
inclusions exactly. The Tm ice values for LV inclusions of
Group I veins range from −1.3 °C to −8.1 °C, corresponding
to salinities of 2.3 to 9.6 wt.% NaCl equivalent, respectively.
In Group II veins, the Tm ice values for LV inclusions range
from −1.2 °C to −10.5 °C, corresponding to salinities of 2.1
to 14.5 wt.% NaCl equivalent, respectively, and finally, in
Group III veins, Tm values for LV inclusions vary from
−2.1 °C to −12.3 °C, corresponding to salinities of 3.5 to
16.3 wt.% NaCl equivalent, respectively (Sterner et al.
1988).
In Group I veins, Tm ice value for VL inclusions varies
from −1.1 °C to −13.4 °C, which corresponds to a salinity
between 1.9 and 17.3 wt.% NaCl equivalent. Group II veins
(VL inclusions) have Tm ice from −0.5 °C to −14.9 °C,
which corresponds to a salinity between 0.9 and 18.6 wt.%
NaCl equivalent, and in Group III quartz veins, Tm ice range
from −0.9 °C to −13.2 °C, corresponding to a salinity from
1.6 to 17.1 wt.% NaCl equivalent. The Tm ice values for
LVHS inclusions are −3.5 °C to −33 °C and are consistent
with salinities of 5.7 to 30.6 wt.% NaCl equivalent, respec-
tively (Fig. 9 and Table 2).
Arab J Geosci

Table 2 Descriptive statistics of

microthermometric data from FI type Statistical parameter Te (°C) Tm (°C) Th Ts NaCl L/V Salinity
different inclusion types of
Groups I, II, and III veins at LV Minimum −57 −12.3 215 – 1.2 2.01
Darrehzar area Maximum −15 −1.2 514 – 19 16.32
Mean −23.7 −5.1 297 – 4.38 8.02
Standard deviation 7.51 2.73 56.64 – 2.96 3.8
VL Minimum −56.5 −14.9 287 – 0.11 0.87
Maximum −17 −0.5 575 – 1 18.55
Mean −28.9 −6.5 421 – 0.49 9.36
Standard deviation 9.39 4.1 67.83 – 0.3 5.2
LVHS Minimum −67.4 −33 211 211 0.47 31.44
Maximum −26 −3.5 487 510 9 59.86
No distinction is made between Mean −47.8 −12.5 330 351 3.66 43.21
inclusions from the different Standard deviation 9.25 6.34 65.98 72.19 2 6.74
quartz vein groups

High-temperature phase changes
LV fluid inclusions homogenize to liquid Th (L+V→L) at
temperatures between 215 °C and 514 °C, with an average
of 297 °C. Most of VL inclusions homogenize to vapor Th
(V+L→V) between 287 °C and 575 °C.
In the halite-bearing inclusions, Ts NaCl (the temperature
at which halite dissolves) and Th (L–V) (temperature of
vapor and liquid homogenization) were recorded.
The liquid and vapor phases in LVHS inclusions from
Group I veins homogenize to liquid at temperatures between
211 °C and 487 °C (Fig. 10) and between 244 °C and ∼485 °C
in Group II veins. The liquid–vapor homogenization temper-
ature for LVHS inclusions is from 215 °C to 350 °C in Group
III veins. The halite dissolution temperatures (Ts NaCl) for
LVHS inclusions are between 236 °C and 457 °C in Group I,
and 223 to 510 °C in Group II quartz veins. The halite
dissolution temperatures for LVHS inclusions of group III
quartz veins are 211 °C to 381 °C. Anhydrite and chalcopyrite
did not dissolve on heating to temperatures in excess of
600 °C. Chalcopyrite was identified on the basis of its optical
characteristics (opacity and triangular cross-section) and com-
position in opened inclusions (SEM-EDAX analyses yielded
peaks for Cu, Fe, and S). Anhydrite forms transparent aniso-
tropic prisms and was revealed by SEM-EDAX analyses to
consist only of Ca and S (elements lighter than F could not be
analyzed) (Hezarkhani and Williams-Jones 1998).
Salinity in the fluid inclusions
Halite-bearing and non-halite-bearing liquid-rich inclusions
at Darrehzar exhibit a wide variation in salinity, ranging
from 0.9 to 59.9 wt.% NaCl (Fig. 11).
LVHS fluid inclusions (high salinity population) have
higher salinities than LV and VL inclusions (low saline
population) and clearly separated each other by a salinity
gap within the range of 19–31 wt.% (Fig. 12). Low salinity
inclusions have salinity from 0.9 to 18.6 wt.% NaCl, and
their correlation coefficient between the salinity and their
homogenization temperature is weak (R2 00.07). High salin-
ity inclusions have salinity between 31.4 and 59.9 wt.%
NaCl and have good correlation coefficient (R2 00.7) be-
tween the salinity and their homogenization temperature
(Fig. 13).
Discussion
Pressure–temperature conditions based on LVHS inclusions
Most of the halite-bearing fluid inclusions displayed total ho-
mogenization by halite dissolution, and their data points lay
above the halite saturation curve (Fig. 14). In some of the
inclusions, dissolution of halite occurred well above (over
50 °C) the temperature of vapor bubble disappearance
(Fig. 15). As various pressure–temperature data indicated for
similar porphyry copper deposit of Sahand–Bazman belt
(Hezarkhani 2006, 2008, 2009; Habibi and Hezarkhani 2012),
the pressures corresponding to these types of fluids (>800 bars)
are much greater than any reasonable lithostatic load. On the
other hand, the existence of LVHS fluid inclusions with Ts
NaCl≫Th (L–V) (over 50 °C) may imply that pressure was
locally or temporarily much higher (Hezarkhani 2008, 2009).
Another potential mechanism that produced the Ts
NaCl≫Th (L–V) inclusions is entrapment of halite crystals
from a heterogeneous fluid that is saturated with respect to
halite (Calagari 2004). Therefore, these inclusions trapped
mixed fluid and halite crystals at temperatures between
220 °C and 400 °C. Halite-bearing inclusions with varying
salinity, halite dissolution, and liquid–vapor homogeniza-
tion temperature could indicate a necking down process of
the trapped saturated fluid during the cooling process.
Comparison of the homogenization temperature (the
higher temperature between Th and Ts) ranges and of

Fig. 8 Histograms of eutectic temperatures for LV, VL, and LVHS
fluid inclusions from mineralized quartz veins (p primary, ps pseudo-
secondary, s secondary). (A) Group I, (B) Group II, and (C) Group III
Darrehzar area obtained from LVHS fluid inclusions
with those from other economic porphyry systems
occurring within the Cenozoic Sahand–Bazman belt
Arab J Geosci
Fig. 9 Histograms of final ice melting and hydrohalite dissolution
temperatures for LV, VL, and LVHS fluid inclusions from mineralized
quartz vein (p primary, ps pseudosecondary, s secondary). (A) Group I,
(B) Group II, and (C) Group III
such as Sungun, Miduk, and Sarcheshmeh indicate sim-
ilar range values.
Arab J Geosci
Fig. 10 Histograms of homogenization temperatures for LV, VL, and
LVHS fluid inclusions from mineralized quartz veins (p primary, ps pseu-
dosecondary, s secondary). (A) Group I, (B) Group II, and (C) Group III
Boiling event
As presented in the previous sections, three different types of
fluid inclusions occur in the Darrehzar deposit, containing
Fig. 11 Histograms of salinities (weight percent NaCl equivalent)
from microthermometric data for LV, VL, and LVHS fluid inclusions
in mineralized quartz veins (p primary, ps pseudosecondary, s second-
ary). (A) Group I, (B) Group II, and (C) Group III
vapor-rich (LV), liquid-rich (VL), and halite-bearing (LVHS)
inclusions. Such a fluid inclusion occurrence is characteristic
of many porphyry systems (Calagari 2004 Hezarkhani 2008,
2009), and hence, a boiling mechanism may saturate in halite-
bearing inclusions with respect to halite. The coexistence of
vapor-rich and halite-bearing inclusions which homogenize
over the same temperature and the wide variation in phase
ratio within fluid inclusions suggests that there could have

Fig. 12 Scatter plot of salinity
versus homogenization
temperature showing two
different populations (low
salinity population from LV and
VL inclusions and high salinity
population from LVHS
inclusions)
been some boiling event during the fluid evolution responsible
for Group I and Group II quartz veins (Fig. 14 and Table 2).
In Group I veins, after each boiling event, at temperatures
from 400 °C to 500 °C, the residual boiled fluid remained
undersaturated. Boiling event in Group II veins at temperatures
between 300 °C and 400 °C saturated the residual boiled fluid
with respect to halite, as suggested by the data points that lie on
and adjacent to the halite saturation curve. In Group III veins,
no evidence of boiling was observed (Fig. 14).
Fluid evolution
Based on mineralogical and fluid inclusion analyses from the
deposit, three distinct hydrothermal fluids have been recog-
nized. The LVHS and VL fluid inclusions in Group I quartz
veins (Fig. 14) record a later stage (Fluid I) in the Darrehzar
hydrothermal system evolution which could be exsolved from
high density phase magma (high salinity) and progressively
boiled but never become saturated with respect to halite. It is
also proposed that LVHS and VL fluid inclusions in Group II
quartz veins (Fig. 14) represent the next stage of fluid evolu-
tion. This could be originated from a definite magmatic-
derived fluid and subsequently saturated with respect to halite
Fig. 13 (A) Weak correlation coefficient between the salinity and their homogenization temperature in low salinity population (R2 00.071).
(B) Good correlation coefficient (R2 00.71) between the salinity and their homogenization temperature in high salinity inclusions (LVHS)
Arab J Geosci
and boiled, but circulated at lower temperature than Fluid I
and also mixed with an external fluid. Fluid III (L–V inclu-
sions) was mainly meteoric water (low salinity and low tem-
perature) that mixed with magmatic fluids. This fluid
circulated mainly in Group II and Group III veins. This fluid
also may have caused some of the argillic alteration, in which
almost all the feldspars were altered to kaolinite and other clay
minerals. This conclusion is based on the decrease in salinity
from 18 down to 1 wt.% NaCl equivalent (Fig. 14).
The role of fluid inclusions in mineral exploration
Porphyry copper deposits are closely associated with intrusive
calc-alkaline granitic bodies which were emplaced at shallow
crustal levels (Gustafson and Hunt 1975). The relationship
between granitic plutons and the copper deposits hosted by
them has long been an issue of debate. Such a tool that can be
used to directly access the origin of minerals, the evolution of
the orthomagmatic fluids, and the involvement of non-
magmatic waters is the study of fluid inclusions in ore-
forming processes that are being isolated from the fluid source.
Although porphyry copper mineralization has several
typical features such as alteration zones, low grade, and
Arab J Geosci
Fig. 14 Liquid–vapor homogenization temperature vs. salinity plotted
on a section from the NaCl–H2O system (halite saturation and critical
curves from Bodnar 2003 and Roedder 1984)
large span, which can be assessed by indirect exploration
methods (geophysics, geochemistry, etc.), all of the eviden-
ces are not causes of economic mineralization. So, a careful
comparison of fluid-inclusion parameters and deposit char-
acteristics enables one to distinguish between economically
significant and insignificant zones.
Data obtained from fluid inclusions of potassic and phyl-
lic alteration zones such as salinity, homogenization temper-
ature, pressure, and degree of filling can be used to
determine the potential, type, and severity of mineralization
obtained in different alteration zones and the state of fluid
circulation in the Earth's crust.
550
500
450
400
Ts(NaCl)
350
300
250
200
150
150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550
Th(L-V)
Fig. 15 Th (L–V) vs. Ts (NaCl) diagram. Inclusions above the diago-
nal line homogenized by halite dissolution. Those below the diagonal
line homogenized by vapor disappearance. Those inclusions above the
50 °C isotherm have a Ts NaCl≫Th (L–V) and are most likely a
representation of inclusions that have trapped halite
Porphyry copper mineralization in Iran has been located
on the Sahand–Bazman belt and caused considerable eco-
nomic resources, and for the first time, Etminan (1977) has
indicated porphyry copper mineralization at Sungun area by
fluid inclusions studies.
Conclusions
The multiple intrusions of microdiorite to diorite and granodi-
orite rocks at Darrehzar indicate a long-lived intrusive episode
associated with repeated fracturing, mineralization, and hydro-
thermal activity. The presence of molybdenite and anhydrite in
Group I veins, chalcopyrite and anhydrite in Group II veins,
and chalcopyrite and anhydrite in LVHS inclusions from vein
of Groups I and II suggest that Fluids I and II were responsible
for the transport and, eventually, deposition of Fe, Cu, Mo, and
S. Molybdenite was rarely deposited at the margins of Group I
veins, where deposition was controlled by decreasing temper-
ature from 520 °C to ∼450 °C. This cooling also stabilized K-
feldspar (potassic alteration) in the central part of the Darrehzar
stock. The rarity of chalcopyrite in Group I veins and abun-
dance in Group II veins indicate that physicochemical condi-
tions only became appropriate for bulk Cu deposition during
formation of Group II veins. A fluid of mainly mixed meteoric
and magmatic origin (Fluid II) circulated later in the central
part of the stock, at temperatures up to 420 °C. Late fractures,
or reopened veins, provided the pathways for this fluid to
circulate in the system. The low K/Na ratio (lower than 0.2)
and high temperature of this fluid were unstable potassium
feldspar of potassic alteration and replaced with albite. Also,
this fluid dissolves sulfide mineral (before produced) and trans-
mits Cu to upper level. In the upper levels of the intrusion, the

fluid boiled and produced widespread lower temperature ser-
icitization and silicification zone, and copper sulfide minerals
(chalcopyrite) were reprecipitated in the fracture. During the
formation of potassic alteration at the main stage of minerali-
zation, (380 °C to 520 °C), the peripheral part of the stock was
altered propylitically at lower temperatures (240 °C to 420 °C).
The circulation of Fluid III, which did not penetrate into the
hotter and most central part of the intrusion, caused this alter-
ation zone. This fluid also caused some distribution of argillic
alteration, in which almost all the feldspars were altered to
kaolinite and other clay minerals.
References
Asghari O, Hezarkhani A (2010) Investigations of alteration
zones based on fluid inclusion microthermometry at Sungun
porphyry copper deposit NW Iran. Mineral Res Expl Bull
140:19–34
Beane RE, Titley SR (1981) Porphyry copper deposits, Part II, Hydro-
thermal alteration and mineralization. Econ Geol 75th anniversary
volume:235–269
Berberian M (1976) An explanatory note on the first seismotectonic
map of Iran; a seismotectonic review of the country. In: Geolog-
ical survey of Iran, Report No. 39, pp 7–142
Berberian M (1983) The southern Caspian: a compressional depression
floored by a trapped, modified oceanic crust. Can J Earth Sci
20:163–183
Berberian M, King GC (1981) Towards a paleogeography and tectonic
evolution of Iran. Can J Earth Sci 18:210–265
Bodnar RJ (1993) Revised equation and table for determining the
freezing point depression of H2O–NaCl solutions. Geochim Cos-
mochim Acta 57:683–684
Bodnar RJ (1994) Synthetic fluid inclusions. XII. Experimental deter-
mination of the liquidus and isochores for a 40 wt.% H2O–NaCl
solution. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 58:1053–1063
Bodnar RJ (2003) Introduction to aqueous fluid systems. In: Samson I,
Anderson A, Marshall D (eds) Fluid inclusions: analysis and
interpretation. Short Course 32. Mineralogical Association of
Canada, Quebec, pp 81–99
Burnham CW (1979) Magmas and hydrothermal fluids. In: Barnes HL
(ed) Geochemistry of hydrothermal ore deposits. Wiley, New
York, pp 71–136
Calagari AA (2004) Fluid inclusion studies in quartz veinlets in the
porphyry copper deposit at Sungun, East-Azarbaidjan, Iran. J
Asian Earth Sci 23:179–189
Cannell J, Cooke DR, Walshe JL, Stein H (2005) Geology, minerali-
zation, alteration, and structural evolution of the El Teniente
porphyry Cu-Mo deposit. Econ Geol 100:979–1003
Derakhshani R, Abdolzadeh M (2009) Geochemistry, mineralization
and alteration zones of Darrehzar porphyry copper deposit, Ker-
man, Iran. J Appl Sci 9:1628–1646
Dilles JH, Einaudi MT (1992) Wall-rock alteration and hydrothermal
flow paths about the Ann-Mason porphyry copper deposits,
Nevada—a 6-km vertical reconstruction. Econ Geol 87:1963–2001
Etminan H (1977) The discovery of porphyry copper–molybdenum
mineralization adjacent to Sungun village in the northwest of Ahar
and a proposed program for its detailed exploration. Confidential
Report, Geological Report. Geological Survey of Iran, p 26
Arab J Geosci
Geological Survey of Iran (GSI) (1973) Exploration for ore deposit in
Kerman Region. Report Yu/53. Geological Survey of Iran, 220 p
Grujicic B, Volickovic S (1991) Copper deposit Darrehzar mineral
inventories computation. Internal Report. National Iranian Copper
Industries, Exploration Department, 27 p
Gustafson LB, Hunt JP (1975) The porphyry copper deposit at El
Salvador, Chile. Econ Geol 70:857–912
Gustafson LB, Quiroga J (1995) Patterns of mineralization and alter-
ation below the porphyry copper orebody at El Salvador, Chile.
Econ Geol 90:2–16
Habibi T, Hezarkhani (2012) Hydrothermal evolution of Daraloo por-
phyry copper deposit, Iran: evidence from fluid inclusions. Arab J
Geosci, 1-11
Haynes FM (1984) Vein densities in drill core, Sierrita porphyry
copper deposit, Pima County, Arizona. Econ Geol 79:755–758
Hedenquist JW, Richards JP (1998) The influence of geochemical
techniques on the development of genetic models for porphy-
ry copper deposits. In: Richards JP, Larson PB (eds) Techni-
ques in hydrothermal ore deposits geology. Rev Econ Geol
10:235–256
Hezarkhani A (2006) Hydrothermal evolutions at the Sar-Cheshmeh
porphyry Cu–Mo deposit, Iran: evidence from fluid inclusions. J
Asian Earth Sci Engl 28:408–422
Hezarkhani A (2008) Hydrothermal evolution of the Miduk porphyry
copper system, Kerman, Iran: a fluid inclusion investigation. Int
Geol Rev 50:1–20
Hezarkhani A (2009) Hydrothermal fluid geochemistry at the Chah-
Firuzeh porphyry copper deposit, Iran: evidence from fluid inclu-
sions. J Geochem Explor 101:254–264
Hezarkhani A, Williams-Jones AE (1998) Controls of alteration and
mineralization in the Sungun porphyry copper deposit, Iran: evi-
dence from fluid inclusions and stable isotopes. Econ Geol
93:651–670
Hunt JP, Bratt JA, Marquardt JC (1983) An enriched porphyry copper
deposit, Quebrada Blanca, Chile. Min Eng 35:636–644
Maanijou M (1993) Alteration halos and their connection to mineral-
ization of Darrehzar porphyry Cu deposit and its geochemical
zoning, Pariz area, Kerman, Iran. M.Sc. Thesis (in Farsi), Shahid
Beheshti University, Tehran, 254 p
Masterman GJ, Cooke DR, Berry RF, Walshe JL, Lee AW, Clark
AH (2005) Fluid chemistry, structural setting, and emplace-
ment history of the Rosario Cu-Mo porphyry and Cu-Ag-Au
epithermal veins, Collahuasi district, northern Chile. Econ
Geol 100:835–862
Mehrpartou M (1993) Contributions to the geology, geochemistry, ore
genesis and fluid inclusion investigations on Sungun Cu-Mo
porphyry deposit, northwest of Iran. Ph.D. Thesis. University of
Hamburg, Germany, 245 p
National Industry Copper Company (2008) Darrehzar porphyry copper
deposit (internal report for National Industry Copper Company in
Persian)
Pollard PJ, Taylor RG (2002) Paragenesis of the Grasberg Cu-Au
deposit, Irian Jaya, Indonesia: results from logging section 13.
Miner Deposita 37:117–136
Pourhosseini F (1981) Petrogenesis of Iranian plutons: a study of the
Natanz and Bazman intrusive complexes. Ph.D. Thesis. Univer-
sity of Cambridge, Cambridge, 315 p
Ranjbar H, Hassanzadeh H, Torabi M, Ilaghi O (2001) Integration and
analysis of airborne geophysical data of the Darrehzar area, Ker-
man Province, Iran, using principal component analysis. J Appl
Geophys 48:33–41
Redmond PB, Einaudi MT, Inan EE, Landtwing MR, Heinrich CA
(2004) Copper deposition by fluid cooling in intrusion centered
Arab J Geosci
systems: new insights from the Bingham porphyry ore deposit,
Utah. Geology 32:217–220
Roedder E (1984) Fluid Inclusions: Mineralogical Society of America.
Reviews in Mineralogy v.12 644 p
Shahabpour J (1982) Aspects of alteration and mineralization at the
Sar-Cheshmeh copper–molybdenum deposit, Kerman, Iran. Ph.D.
thesis. Leeds University, Leeds, 342 p
Shahabpour J, Doorandish M (2008) Mine drainage water from the Sar
Cheshmeh porphyry copper mine, Kerman, IR Iran. Environ
Monit Assess 141:105–120
Sillitoe RH (1997) Characteristics and controls of the largest porphyry
copper-gold and epithermal gold deposits in the circum-Pacific
region. Aust J Earth Sci 44:373–388
Sillitoe RH (2010) Porphyry copper systems. Econ Geol 105:3–41
Sterner SM, Hall DL, Bodnar RJ (1988) Synthetic fluid inclusions. V.
Solubility of the system NaCl–KCl–H2O under vapor-saturated
conditions. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 52:989–1005
Stocklin JO (1977) Structural correlation of the Alpine ranges
between Iran and Central Asia. Mem H Aser Soc Geol
France 8:333–353
Stocklin J, Setudenia A (1972) Lexique Stratigraphique International
Volume III ASIE. Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.
15, quai Anatole-France 75 p (Paris-VII)
Ulrich T, Günther D, Heinrich CA (2001) The evolution of a
porphyry Cu-Au deposit, based on LA-ICP-MS analysis of
fluid inclusions: Bajo de la Alumbrera, Argentina. Econ Geol
96:1743–1774
Waterman GC, Hamilton RL (1975) The Sar-Cheshmeh porphyry
copper deposit. Econ Geol 70:568–576
Were RW Jr, Bodnar RJ, Bethke PM, Barton PB (1979) A novel gas-
flow fluid inclusion heating-freezing stage (Abstract). Geol Soc
Am Abstracts and Programs 11:539
Wilkinson JJ (2001) Fluid inclusions in hydrothermal ore deposits.
Lithos 55:229–272