CHAPTER 1

An Overview of Anatomy & Physiology

 Anatomy – study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts and their relationships to one
another
o Gross anatomy – large body structures
o Microscopic anatomy – small body structures
 Physiology – study of how the body and its parts work or function
o Neurophysiology – workings of nervous system
o Cardiac physiology – function of heart

1. Relationship between anatomy and physiology

 The parts of your body form a well-organized unit, and each of those parts has a job to do to make
the body operate as a whole
 Atoms – tiny building blocks of matter; combine to form molecules such as water, sugar, and
proteins
 Cells – Smallest units of all living things
 Tissues – Groups of similar cells that have a common function
 Organ – Structure composed of two or more tissue types that performs a specific function for the
body
 Organ system – Group of organs that work together to accomplish a common purpose
 Organism – Highest level of structural organization; 11 organ systems

2. Organ System Overview

 Integumentary System
-External covering of the body
-Waterproofs the body and cushions and protects the deeper tissues
-Excretes salts and urea in perspiration
-Regulates body temperature

 Skeletal System
-Consists of bones, cartilages, ligaments, and joints
-Supports body, provides framework to cause movement
-Hematopoiesis: formation of blood cells

 Muscular System
-Muscles contract or shorten
-movement occurs
 Nervous System
-Body’s fast acting control system
-Brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory receptors
-Respond to irritants/stimuli
-Responds by activating the appropriate body effectors

 Endocrine System
-Controls body activities; acts slowly
-Produce hormones and release them in the blood to travel to organs
-Pituitary, thyroids, parathyroids, adrenals, thymus, pancreas, pineal, ovaries, testes
-Growth, reproduction, and food use by cells are all controlled by hormones

 Cardiovascular System
-Heart and blood vessels
-Blood is the transporting fluid (carries oxygen, nutrients, and hormones) to cells
-WBC protect the body from foreign invaders (bacteria, toxins, tumor cells)
-Heart acts as the blood pump

 Lymphatic System
-Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils
-Lymphatic vessels return fluid leaked from the blood back to the vessels
-Lymph nodes help to cleanse the blood and house cells

 Respiratory System
-Keep the body constantly supplied with oxygen to remove carbon dioxide
-Nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs
-Lungs have tiny air sacs; gases are transported to and from the blood through thin walls of air sacs

 Digestive System
-Tube running through the body from mouth to anus
-Oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small & large intestines, rectum
-Break down food; deliver products to blood
-Undigested food leaves through anus as feces
-Breakdown activities begin in the mouth and end in the small intestine
-Reclaim water
-Liver: the bile it produces helps to break down fats
-Pancreas: delivers digestive enzymes to small intestines

 Urinary System
-Body produces wastes as by-products; wastes must be disposed
-Body cells break down proteins and nucleic acids
 -Removes the nitrogen-containing wastes from the blood and flushes them from the body in urine
-Kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra
-Maintains body’s water and salt (electrolyte) balance and regulating the acid-base balance of blood

 Reproductive System
-Produce offspring
-Testes produce sperm (Scrotum, penis, accessory glands, duct system)
-Ovaries produce eggs (uterine tubes, uterus, vagina)

Maintaining Life
1. Necessary Life Functions
 Maintaining boundaries
-“inside” remains distinct from its “outside”
-Every cell is surrounded by an external membrane
-Enclosed by the Integumentary system (protects internal organs from drying out, from bacteria,
from the damaging effects of heat, sunlight, and chemical substances from the external
environment

 Movement
-Activities promoted by the muscular system
-The skeletal system provides the bones that the muscles pull
-Substances (blood, foodstuffs, urine) are propelled through the internal organs

 Responsiveness
-Ability to sense changes in the environment and how to react to them
-You do not need to think about it, it just happens!
-Nervous system bears the major responsibility for responsiveness

 Digestion
-Process of breaking down ingested food into simple molecules that can then be absorbed in blood

 Metabolism
- refers to all chemical reactions that occur within the body cells
-breaking down complex substances into simpler building blocks
-Using nutrients and oxygen to produce molecules of ATP
-Depends on digestive and respiratory systems to make nutrients and oxygen available; and
cardiovascular system to distribute needed substances
-Metabolism is regulated by hormones secreted by the endocrine system

 Excretion
-Process of removing wastes from the body
 -get rid of nonuseful substances produced during digestion and metabolism

 Reproduction
-production of offspring; cellular/organismal level
-Original cell divides producing 2 identical daughter cells that may be used for body growth or repair
-Sperm unites with egg, then becomes fertilized egg, then develops into a baby

 Growth
-Increase in size, increase in number of cells
-Cell-constructing activities must occur at a faster rate than cell-destroying ones

2. Survival Needs
 Nutrients, oxygen, water, appropriate temperature and atmospheric pressure
 Nutrients – contain the chemical used for energy and cell-building
 Carbohydrates are the major-energy providing fuel for body cells
 Proteins and fats are essential for building cell structures
 Fats cushion body organs and provide reserve fuel
 Minerals and vitamins are required for the chemical reactions and for transport of blood
 Oxygen – 20% of the air we breathe; made available to the blood and body cells by the respiratory
and cardiovascular systems
 Water – 60-80% of body weight; single most abundant chemical substance in the body and provides
the fluid base for body secretions and excretions
 Body temperature – maintained at 37°C (98°F)
 As body temp drops below this point, metabolic reactions become slower and stop
 When body temp is high, chemical reactions proceed to rapidly, and body proteins break down
 Atmospheric pressure – The force exerted on the surface of the body by the weight of air
 Breathing and the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide depend on the atmospheric pressure
 When AP is low, gas exchange may be too low to support cellular metabolism

3. Homeostasis
 Body’s ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside world is
continuously changing
 Dynamic state of equilibrium
 Adequate blood levels of vital nutrients must be present; heart activity and blood pressure must be
monitored
 Boyd temp must be controlled

4. Homeostatic Control Mechanisms

 Electrical signals are delivered by nerve or bloodborne hormones as information carriers
 Must have 3 components: Receptor, control center, effector
 Receptor – responds to the changes in the environment
 Control center – determines the level at which a variable is to be maintained, analyzed information,
determines appropriate response
 Effector – provides means for the control center’s response to the stimulus.
 Most homeostatic control mechanisms are negative feedback mechanisms. The net effect of the
response to the stimulus is to shut off the original stimulus or reduce its intensity
 Positive feedback mechanisms are rare in the body because they tend to increase the original
disturbance and to push the disturbance father from its original value (ex: blood clotting and birth of
baby)
 Homeostatic imbalance – As we age, our body organs become less efficient, and our internal
conditions become less stable (increase risk for illness and produce changes we associate with aging)

Language of Anatomy
1. Anatomical Position
 “Standing at attention”, palms are held unnaturally forward, thumbs pointing away from body

2. Directional Terms
 Superior – toward the head
 Inferior – away from head
 Ventral (anterior) – toward/at the front of the body
 Dorsal (posterior) – toward/at the backside of the body
 Medial – toward/at the midline of the body
 Lateral – Away from the midline
 Proximal – Close to the origin of the body part or point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
 Distal – Farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
 Superficial (external) – Toward/at the body surface
 Deep (internal) – Away from the body surface

3. Regional Terms
ANTERIOR
 Abdominal  Coxal  Oral
 Acromial  Crural  Orbital
 Antebrachial  Deltoid  Patellar
 Antecubital  Digital  Pelvic
 Axillary  Femoral  Pubic
 Brachial  Fibular  Sterna
 Buccal  Frontal  Tarsal
 Carpal  Inguinal  Thoracic
 Cervical  Nasal  Umbilical
POSTERIOR
 Calcaneal
 Cephalic
 Femoral
 Gluteal
 Lumbar
 Occipital
 Olecranal
 Popliteal
 Sacral
 Scapular
 Sural
 Vertebral

4. Body Planes and Sections

 Section – cut
 Plane – imaginary line
 Sagittal section – cut along the lengthwise, longitudinal plane of the body (right and left parts)
 Frontal section – cut along a lengthwise plan that divides the body into anterior and posterior parts
 Transverse section – cut along horizontal plane, dividing the body into superior and inferior parts

5. Body Cavtities
DORSAL BODY CAVITY
 2 subdivisions: cranial cavity and spinal cavity
 Cranial cavity – space inside the bony skull
 Spinal cavity – extends from the cranial cavity nearly to the end of the vertebral column

VENTRAL BODY CAVITY

 Larger than dorsal cavity
 Contains structures within the chest and abdomen
 Thoracic cavity – separated from the rest of the ventral cavity by a dome-shaped muscle,
diaphragm; protected by a rib cage
 Mediastinum separates the lungs into right and left cavities; houses the heart, trachea, etc.
 Abdominopelvic cavity – cavity inferior to the diaphragm (superior abdominal cavity: stomach, liver,
intestines / inferior pelvic cavity: reproductive organs, bladder, rectum)
 Quadrants: RUQ, RLQ, LUQ, LLQ
 Regions:
-Umbilical region: centermost region, deep to and surrounding the umbilicus
-Epigastric region: superior to the umbilical region
-Hypogastric region: inferior to the umbilical region
-Right/left iliac or inguinal regions: lateral to the hypogastric regions
 -Right/left lumbar regions: lie lateral to the umbilical region
-Right/left hypochondriac regions: flank the epigastic region and contain the lower ribs

 Open body cavities:

-Oral and digestive cavities: contains teeth and tongue
-Nasal activity: located within posterior to the nose. Nasal cavity is part of the respiratory system
passageways
-Orbital cavities: in the skull, house the eyes and presents them in an anterior position
-Middle ear cavities: carved into the skull, lie just medial to the eardrums, contain tiny bones that
transmit sound vibrations to the hearing receptors