CHAPTER 3

 Cells – building block of all living things

Anatomy of generalized cell

 Generalized cell – nucleus, cytoplasm, plasma membrance

1. The Nucleus
 Contains genes
 Oval, spherical; conforms to the shape of the cell
 Nuclear envelope – double membrane barrier, selectively permeable, but substances pass through
it freely
 Nuclear pores
 Nucleoli – nucleus contains one smaller, dark-staining, essentially round bodies, sites where
ribosomes are assembled.
 Chromatin – loose network of bumpy threads, forms when DNA is combined with protein
 Chromosomes – dense, rodlike bodies

2. Plasma Membrance
 Fragile, transparent barrier that contains the cell contents and separates them from the surrounding
environment
 Consists of 2 lipids: phospholipids and cholesterol

SPECIALIZATIONS OF THE PLASMA MEMBRANCE

 Microvilli – tiny fingerlike projections that greatly increase the cell’s surface area
 Tight junctions – impermeable junctions that bind together into leakproof sheets that preven
substances from passing through the extracellular space between cells
 Desmosomes – anchoring junctions that prevent cells subjected to mechanical stress from being
pulled apart; Button-like thickenings of adjacent plasma membranes which are connected by fine
protein filaments
 Gap junctions – commonly seen in the heart between embryonic cells, allows communication
Connexons – hollow cylinders composed of proteins that span the entire width of the abutting
membranes

3. The Cytoplasm
 Cellular material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma membrane
 Cytosol – semitransparent fluid that suspends the other elements
 Organielles – metabolic machinery of the cell; specialized to carry out a specific function for the cell
as a whole
 Inclusions – chemical substances that may or may not be present, depending on the cell type (ex:
lipid droplets common in fat cells, glycogen granules abundant in liver and muscles cells, melanin in
skin and hair cells)

CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES

 Mitochondria – tiny thread-like or sausage-shaped organelles that squirm, lengthen, and change
shape in living cells
 Ribosomes – tiny, bilobed, dark bodies made of proteins and one variety of RNA; actual site of
protein synthesis
 Endoplasmic reticulum – system of fluid filled cisterns that coil and twist through the cytoplasm
 Rough ER – studded with ribosomes; Smooth ER – communicated with the rough variety, no role in
protein synthesis; lipid metabolism and detoxification of drugs and pesticides
Golgi apparatus – stack of flattened membranous sacs, traffic director for cellular proteins
Secretory vesicles
Lysosomes – membranous “bags” containing powerful digestive enzymes
Peroxisomes – membranous sacs containing powerful oxidase enzymes that use molecular oxygen
Free radicals – highly reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons
Cytoskeleton – cell’s bones and muscles
Intermediate filament – help form desosomes and provide internal guy wires to resist pulling forces
on the cell
Microfilaments – involved in cell motility abd ub oroducing changes in cell shape
Microtubules – deter the overall shape of a cell and the distribution of organelles
Centrioles – lie close to the nucleus, rod-shaped bodies that lie at right angles to each other, made
up of microtubules
Cilia – whiplike cellular extensions that move substances along the cell surface
Flagella – projections formed by the centrioles are substantially longer (ex: sperm)

4. Cell diversity
Cells that connect body parts
 Fibroblast – lies along the cable-like fibers that it secretes
 Erthroctye – carries oxygen and bloodstream, extra surface area for the uptake of oxygen and
streamlines the cell

Cells that covers and line body organs

 Epithilial cells – hexagonal shape, packed together in sheets, resist tearing when the epithelium is
rubbed or pulled

Cells that move organs and body part

 Skeletal muscles and smooth muscle cells – filled with abundant contractile filaments, move bones
Cell that stores nutrients

 Fat cells – produced by a large lipid droplet

Cell that gathers information and controls body functions

 Nerve cell – long processes for receiving messages and transmitting them to other structures in the
body

Cells of reproduction

 Oocyte – largest cell in the body, contains several copies of all organelles
 Sperm – long and stream-lined

Cell Physiology
1. Membrane Transport
 Intracellular fluids – solution containing small amounts of gases, nutrients, and salts dissolved in
water
 Interstitial fluids – continuously bathes the exterior of our cells
 Selective permeability – barriers allow some substances pass through it while excluding others
 Passive transport – no need for energy
 Active transport – cell provides ATP

Passive transport processes: Diffusion and Filtration

 Diffusion – molecules from a region where they are more concentrated to a region where they are
less concentrated
 Simple diffusion – unassisted diffusion of solutes through plasma membrane
 Osmosis – diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane
 Facilitated diffusion – provides passage for certain needed substances
 Filtration – water and solutes are forced through a membrane
 Pressure gradient – pushes solute containing fluid from higher pressure are to lower pressure area

Active transport processes

 Require protein carriers that reversibly with substances to be transported across the membrane
 Vesicular transport – involves help from ATP
 Exocytosis – moves substances out of cells
 Endocytosis – includes ATP-requiring processes that take up extracellular substances
 Phagocytosis – cell eating
 Pinocytosis – cell drinking
 Receptor mediated endocytosis – main cellular mechanism for taking up specific target molecules
2. Cell Division
 Mitosis – division of nucleus
 Cytokinesos – division of sytoplasm; cleavage furrow

Stages of Mitosis
 Prophase
-chromatin threads coil and shorten so that chromosomes appear
-chromosomes made up of 2 strands of chromatid
-chromatid is held together by a small button like body called centromere
-Mitotic splindle – composed of microtubules
 Metaphase
-Chromosomes cluster and become aligned at the metaphase plate
 Anaphase
-centromeres split
-chromatids are now called chromosomes, begin to move slowly apart; opposite sides
 Telophase
-Prophase in reverse; chromosomes at opposite ends uncoil to become threadlike chromatin again

3. Protein Synthesis
 Gene – DNA segment that carries the information for building one protein or polypeptide chain
 Fibrous proteins – major building blocks of cells
 Enzymes – biological catalysts that regulate chemical reactions in the cells; functional proteins
ROLE OF RNA
 Ribonucleic (RNA) – second type of nucleic acid
 Single stranded and having ribose sugar
 Transfer RNA molecules (tRNA) – small cloverleaf-shaped molecules
 Ribosomal RNA molecules (rRNA) – helps form the ribosomes, where proteins are built
 Messenger RNA molecules (mRNA) – long, single nucleotide strands that resemble hald of a DNA
molecule and carry the message containing instructions for protein synthesis from the DNA gene in
the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm

TRANSCRIPTION
 Involves the transfer of information from DNA’s base sequence into the complementary base
sequence of mRNA (only DNA and mRNA are involved)
 Triplet – 3-base sequence specifying a particular amino acid on the DNA gene
 Codons – corresponding 30base sequences on mRNA

TRANSLATION
 Language of nucleic acids (base sequence) is translated into the language of proteins (amino acid
sequence)
 Anticodon – enables recognition of mRNA codons “calling for” the amino acid they are toting
Epithelial tissue
 Epithelium – lining, covering, glandular tissue of the body
 Functions: protection, absorption, filtration, secretion

1. Special characteristics of Epithelium

 Fit closely together to form continuous sheets (except glandular epithelium)
 Membranes always have one free surface
Apical surface – exposed to body’s exterior or to the cavity of internal organ
 Lower surface of an epithelium rests on basement membrane, a structureless material secreted by
both epithelial cells and the connective tissue cells
 No blood supply for their own (avascular)
 Regenerate themselves easily

2. Classification of Epithelium
 cell arrangement: simple epithelium (one layer), stratified epithelium (more than one cell layer)
 Shape: squamous cells (flattened), cuboidal cells (cube-shaped), columnar cells (shaped like
columns)

SIMPLE EPITHELIA
 Simple Squamous epithelium
-single layer of thing squamous cells resting on a basement membrane; cells fit closely together (Ex:
air sacs)
-Serous membranes – slick membranes that line the ventral body cavity and cover the organs in that
cavity

 Simple cuboidal Epithelium

-One layer of cuboidal cells resting on a basement membrane (Ex. Glands, pancreas, ducts)
-forms the walls of the kidney tubes

 Simple columnar Epithelium

-made up of a single layer of tall cells fit closely together
-Goblet cells – produce lubricating mucus
-mucosae – epithelial membranes that line body cavities to the body exterior

 Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

-rest on a basement membrane
-some of the cells are shorter than others (Ex: respiratory tract)

STRATIFIED EPITHELIA
 Stratified squamous epithelium (esophagus)
 Stratified cuboidal and stratified columnar epithelium
 Transitional epithelium (bladders)

GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM
 Gland – consists of one or more cells
 Endocrine gland – lose their connection to the surface; ductless glands; secretions diffuse directly to
the blood vessels (Ex: thyroid, adrenals, pituitary)
 Exocrine glands – retain their ducts, and their secretions empty through the ducts to the epithelial
surface(sweat and oil glands, liver, pancreas)

Connective Tissue
 Connects body parts
 Functions: protecting, supporting, binding together

1. Common characteristics of Connective Tissue

 Variation in blood supply – most connective tissues are vascularized (good blood supply); tendons
and ligaments have a poor blood supply
 Extracellular matrix – made up of different types of cells plus various amounts of nonliving
substance found outside the cells

2. Extracellular Matrix
 Ground substance – composed largely of water plus some adhesion proteins and large charged
polysaccharide molecules
 Fibers
Collagen fibers (white)– high tensile strength
Elastic fibers (yellow) – ability to be stretched and then recoil
Reticular fibers – fine collagen fibers that form the internal skeleton of soft organs such as the
spleen

3. Types of connective tissues

 Bone
 Hyaline cartilage – more flexible; has abundant collagen fibers hidden by a rubbery matrix
 Fibrocartilage – forms cushionlike disks between vertebrae of the spinal column
 Elastic cartilage – found where a structure of elasticity is desired

DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

 has collagen fibers
 fibroblasts
 forms strong ropelike structures such as tendons and ligaments
 tendons – attach skeletal muscles to bones
 ligaments – connect bones to bones at joints; more stretchy and elastic fibers

LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

 Areolar Tissue
-most widely distributed connective tissue
-soft, pliable, “cobwebby” tissue that cushions and protects body organs it wraps
-lamina propria: soft layer, underlies all mucous membranes
-edema: when a body region is inflamed, the areolar tissue in the area soaks up the excess fluid like
a sponge

 Adipose Tissue
-commonly called fat
-signet ring cells
-forms subcutaneous tissue beneath the skin, where it insulates the body and protects it from
bumps and extremes of both heat and cold
-protects organs individuals (cushions eyeballs in eye sockets)

 Reticular connective tissue

-consists of delicate network of interwoven reticular fibers associated with reticular cells
-stroma: internal framework which can suppoer many free blood cells

4. Blood
 Vascular tissue
 Consists of blood cells surrounded by nonliving fluid matrix called blood plasma
 The fibers of blood are soluble protein molecules that become visible only during blood clotting
 Carries nutrient, wastes, respiratory gases

Muscular Tissue
 Specialized to contract, shorten, produce movement

1. Types of Muscle Tissue

 Skeletal Muscle
-packaged by connective tissue sheets into organs called skeletal muscles; voluntary
-Muscle fibers – skeletal muscle cells are elongated to provide long axis for contraction

 Cardiac Muscle
-found only in the heart
-heart acts as a pump and propels blood through the blood vessels
-Intercalated disks – contain gap junctions that allow ions to pass feely from cell to cell
 Smooth Muscle
-no striations are visible
-found in the walls of hollow organs such as stomachs, uterus, blood vessels
-peristalsis – wavelike motion that keeps food moving through small intestine

Nervous Tissue
 Neurons – receive and conduct electrochemical impulses from one part of the body to another
 Irritability, conductivity
 Allows a single neuron to conduct an impulse over long distances in the body

Tissue Repair (Wound healing)

 Regeneration – replacement of destroyed tissue by the same kind of cells
 Fibrosis – repair by dense connective tissue; by the formation of scar tissue
 The capillaries become very permeable (allows fluid rich in clotting proteins to seep into the injured
area)
 Granulation tissue forms – delicate pink tissue composed largely of new capillaries that grow into
damaged area from undamaged blood vessels
 The surface epithelium regenerates – surface epithelium makes its way across the granulation tissue
just beneath the scab; scab detaches

 Neoplasm – cells fail to honor normal controls on cell division and multiply wildly
 Hyperplasia – certain body tissues enlarge because there is some local irritant or condition that
stimulates the cells
 Antrophy – decrease in size