SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONSOther Books on Electronics and Communications @ Basic Electronics by S. Ramabhadran ® Basic Telecommunications by S, Ramabadhran @ Computer Communication and ISDN System by Dr. D.C. Agarwal ® Digital Signal Processing éy N. Sarkar ® Electromagnetics —— Theory, Problems and Applications by Dr. dP. Tewari Electromagnetic Fields Waves and Antennas by D.V. Prasad Electronics Communications by Sanjeeva Gupta Electronics Devices and Circuits by G.K. Méthal Fiber Optics by S.D, Personich Field Theory by KA. Gangadhor Industrial Electronics by G.K. Mithal Industrial Electronics and Instrumentation by V.K.M. John Introduction to Communication Science and System by Pierce and Posner Integrated Circuits by KR, Botkar Microelectronics — Digital/Analog by KR. Botkar Microwave Engineering by 8. Gupta Modeling and Analysis of Computer Communication Networks by J. Hayes Monograph on Electronics Design Principles by Dr. N.C. Goyal and Khetan Network Analysis by G.K. Mithal Pulse and Digital Electronics by A.K Vanbasi and Mithal Radar Systems and Radio Aids to Navigation Technical Electronics by S. Ramabhadran Telecommunications by S. Ramabhadran Wave Shaping and Digital Circuits by Agarwal & Rai ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION SIMPLIFIED 6y 4.K. Maint CO 8 ENO HT WS Saetane Crytl Garyicoe [Pralim & Mam) HT ‘ ‘" ' Also available: HANDBOOK OF ELECTRONICS by AK. Mainé A Book of Special Interest SOLVED OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS IN ELECTRONICS {for all type of Competitions) by A.X. Maini (Features: Every topic starting with Important Terma, Definition and Concepts and Important Mathematical Expressions and Formulae In addition to large number of Multiple Questions in each exercise, other varieties of Otyective Type Questions such as Fill in the Blanks, True! F eStatements, Match the Two Parts, One Ward/Sentence Answers etc., a provided keeping view the latest examination trends. answers to exercises are given with Justification wherever necessary.SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS Dr. D.C. Agarwal M.Sc. Tech, Ph. DF. Inst. T-P, FIETE Revised by « ALK, Maini Scientist, DRDO, New Delhi KHANNA PUBLISHERS 2-B NATH MARKET, NAL SARAK, DELHI - 110006 Phones ; 291 23 80; 722.41 79- Published by: B.C. Khanna for Khanna Publishers 2-B Nath Market, Nai Sarak, DELHI-6 [This book or part thereof cannot be translated or reproduced in any form except for review or criticism) without the written per- mission of the Author and the Publishers] First Edition : 1991 Second Edition : 1992 Reprinted i 1994 Third Edition : 1995 Reprinted : 1995 Fourth Edition : 1996 Second Reprint : 1998 Third Reprint: 1999 Price ; Rs./90.00 - at: R.K. Printers, Delhi-6Dedicated to my parents for their inspirationPREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION The third edition of the book brought out in 1995 included two new chapters covering at length different areas in which satellites find application and detailed technical information on satellites and satellite launch vehicles. It is indeed a matter of great satisfaction to note that the third edition was very well received by the students of various levels. We have been regularly receiving letters containing suggestions. We are glad that the author has put in a great effort to implement the suggestions within the scope of the text. The fourth edition, again an enlarged one, is before you within an year of the release of the third edition. The present edition contains two new chapters. The first contams alarge number of solved numerical problemsrelated to different aspects of satellite communication engineering and the second basically anillustrated glossary of satellite relevant terms, definitions and concepts. To make the book more meaningful from examination viewpoint, a separate section titled Self Assessment Questions containing Multichoice Questions, Fill in the blanks and True/False statements, all with answers, has been included towards the end. This new material has also been written by Mr. A K. Maini We would continue to look forward tgany critical comments, etc. form our valued readers, KHANNA PUBLISHERS A WORD This Edition is result of valuable suggestions, criticism, comments from Teachers and Students. The Publishers and the Author welcome your valued comments and suggestions on any facet of this book and the related topics. These will be acknowledged gratefully. Please write at the following address: The Technical Editor KHANNA PUBLISHERS 2-B, Nath Market, NAISARAK Delhi-110006 INDIACONTENTS anpter 1: Principles of Satellite Communication 1-13 Li. Evolution and Growth of Communication Satellites a 1 12 Synchronous Satellites . 2 1.3 International Regulation and Frequency Coordination ™ 8 1.4. Satellite Frequency Allocations and Band Spectrum oe 4 1.5 General and Technical Characteristics of a Satellite Communication System we 6 16. Advantages of Satellite Communication os 8 1.7, Active and Passive Satellites on 10 1.8, Advent of Digital Satellite Communication ii L9, Modem and Codee WW 1.10, Review Questions 4. 2 aug - 12 1.11. References 13 Cc B (6) Be: Shapter 2: Communication Satellite Link Design 14-27 2.1, Introduction o- 14 2.2, General Link Design Equations oe 15 23. System Noise Temperature, C/N and G/T ratio oe 17 2.4, Atmospheric and lonospheric Effects on Link Design o 19 2.6, Uplink Design oa 21 2.6. Complete Link Design ‘ 2. 27, Interference Effects on Complete Link Design . 24 28. Earth Station Parameters ” 25 2.9. Review Questions 26 2.40. References . - 27 Se Chapter 3: Satellite Analog Communication 28-45 3.1 Introduction Sn 28 32. Baseband Analog (votce) signal ~ 28 33. Frequency Division Multiplexing Techniques ‘ we 29 34. Signal to Noise (S/N) Ratio and (C/N) ratio in Frequency Modulation in Satellite Link 30G) 3.5. (S/N) Ratio in Frequency Modulation with multiplexed Telephone Signals in Satellite Link (Noise Performance in Telephone Channel)... 33 3.6, Sizgle Channel Per Carrier (SCPC) Systems . 35 3.7. Companded Single Sideband (CSSB) Systems a 37 36 3.8. Analog FM/FDM TV Satellite Link 39 Intermodulation Products and their Effects in FM/FDM Systems 38 310, Energy Dispersal in FM/FDM Signal 43 3.11 Review Questions 44 3.12 References 44 Chapter 4; Digital Satellite Transmission 46-60 41, Advantages of Digital Communication oa 46 4.2, Byte - 46 4.3, Baud 47 44, Elements of Digital Satellite Communication Systems a 47 4.5. Digital Baseband Signals 48 4,6. Digital Modulation Techniques 50 47 Satellite Digtal Link Design 54 4.8, Time Division Multiplexing 57 49. UST, 24-Channel System 58 59 410 Review Questions “ 4,11, References 60 ———— 61-74 chapter 5: Multiple Access Techniques 51. Introduction - 61 5.2. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) ~ 62 5.3. TDMA Frame Structure o 63 5.4. TDMA Burst Structure “ 64 55. TDMA Frame Effiaency a 66 5.6. TDMA Superframe oo 67 5.7. TDMA Frame Acquisition and Synchronization —.. 68 5.8 TDMA Compared to FOMA 69 59 TDMA Burst Time Plan ~~ 70 Multiple Beam (Satellite Switched) 7 TDMA Satellite SystemsGi) 5.11, Beam Hopping (Transponder Hopping) TMDA . 13 5.12, Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) and Hybrid Access Techniques » 4 5.13, Suggested References 74 5.14, Review Questions we 74 Chapter 6: Demand Assignment Multiple Access Techniques 75-89 6.1, Introduction o 715 62. Erlang Call Congestion (Blocking or B) Formula . 7 6.3 Demand Assignment Control . 80 64. DA-FDMA (Spade) System os 81 6.5. Demand Assignment TDMA (DATDMA) os 84 6.6. Digital Speech Interpolation - 85 6.7, Review Questions “ 87 6.8. References “ 88 Chapter7: Spread Spectrum Technique and Code Division Multiple Access 30-100 71.1, Introduction “ 90 7.2. Process Gain and Jam Margin gl 7.3. J/S Ratio and Antijam Margin 92 7.4. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Techniques 1 98 75. PN Sequency 95 7.6 DS-CDMA oe 97 7.7 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum ut ‘ Communication System (FM-S8) ae 99 7.8. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum Code Diviston Multiple Access (FH-SS CDMA) tae 102 7.8. Synchronization as 102 7.10, Application of Spread Spectrum Techniques oon 108 7.41. Hybrid Systems ™ 108 7.12. Renew Questions one 109(ait) a A Chapter 8: Random Access Techniques and Packet Satellite Communication 111-128 81, Introduction 111 &2. Packet Switching 112 8.3. Packet Communication 113 84 Random Access Technique wee 114 8.5. Polling Techniques o 11g 86, Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) a 121 8.7, Queueing Systems oa 122 88 Packet Satellite Networks a 126 89 Review Questions 127 8.10 References 128 Chapter 9: Satellite Orbits and Inclination 129-151 91° Introduction : 129 9.2. Synchronous Orbit we 130 93 Orbital Parametera - 132 94. Satellite Location With Respect to the Earth ne 135 95 Look Angles ‘ 137 96. Earth Coverage and Slant Range “ 139 9.7, Echpse Effects ou 141 98. Satellite Placement in Geostationary Orbit . 144 99 Station Keeping on 147 9.10, Satellite Stabilzation a 148 911, Review Questions “e 150 os 150 9.12, References a 152-170 Chapter 10: Communication Satellite Subsystems 10.1 Introduction . 152 102. Electric Power Supply . 153 103. Attitude and Orbit Control soe 155 10.4 Propulsion Sub System ” 156 105. Repeaters oe 158 106 Antenna Systems o 163 107. Telemetry, Tracking and Command (LTC) Subsystem 168 166 Thermal Control] Systemiid 10.9. | Structure Subsystem 167 10.10. Relhability of Satellite Subsystems 167 10.11. Review Questions 169 10,12. References 170 thopter 11 ; Satellite Earth Station 171-190 1L1, Introduction 171 112. Earth Station Design Requirement 171 113. Earth Station Subsystems 173 11.4. Monitoring and Control 181 ALS.- Frequency Coordination 181 116. Small Eatth Station 188 11.7. Very Small Aperture Terminals (VSATs) 185 11.8. Mobile and ‘Transport Earth Stations 186 11.9. Earth Stations in Near Future . 188 11.10. TVRO Systems (Television Receive Only Systems) .. 189 11.11. Review Questions 189 11.12, References a 190 a Chapter 12: Special Purpose Communication Satellites 191-243 12.1, BDS (Direct Broadcasting Satellite) System 191 12.2. INMARSAT 196 12.3. ITELSAT 204 12.4. Data Broadcast Satellite (VSATs) 211 12.5. Mobile Satellite (MSAT) Communication System “217 12.6, Search and Rescue satellite (SARSAT) and Lower Earth Orbit (LEOs) Satellites 218 12.7, Satellite Communication with Respect to Fibre Optic Communication 221 128. LANDSAT 224 12.9. Defense Satellites 226 12 10. Teleports os 230 12.11. Geostationary Space Platforms on 234 1212 ¢ SR : “ . oe 4 . . os 236 12.13, Satellite Communications Towards Year . 2000 and 21st century on 249 12.14. Referencrec(iv) Chanter 18 : Indian Activities in Satellite Communication 244-274 13.1. Introduction 13.2. Operational Cetres 13.3. Satellite Instructional Television Experimental (SITE) Program 12.4. Satellite Telecommunications Experiments Project {STEP} 135. APPLE 13.6. The Indian National Satellite System (INSATs} 13.7, INSAT-1 Systems 13.8. INSAT-1 Utilization 13.9. INSAT-H 13 10. Small Earth Stations in India 13 11. Indian Remote Sensing Satellite and Data Utilization of LANDSAT 13.12. India’s Participation in Other International Communications Satellite Systems 13.13. Spin-offs to Industries 13.14. References 244 245 247 247 247 248 249 252 260 264 267 269 271 273 hapter 14: Laser Satellite Communication 141. Introduction 14.2. Link Analysis 14.3. Optical Satellite Link Transmitter 14.4. Optical Satellite Link Receiver 145. Satellite Beam Acquisition, Tracking and Pointing 14.6. Deep Space Optical Communication Link 147. Renew Questions 148 References 275-296 275 276 279 283 290 293 294 294 pa nnn apter 15: Satellite and Cable Transmission Systems 15.1. Introduction 152 Cable Channel Frequencies 15.3. Head-End Equipment ©“ 4. Distribution of the Signal ‘5 Important Cable Televieion Network Specifications . 295-305 295 295 298 299 299(xv) 15.6. Network Architecture 300 15.7. Optical Fibre CATV Systems 302 15.8. Indian Perspective 302 15.9. Future of Cable TV Systems 304 15.10, References 308 Chapter 16; Echo-Cancellation 306-314 16.1, Introduction 306 16,2. Echo Control Techniques in Speech Transmission 307 163. CCITT Recommedations Regarding Echo Control 309 16.4, Echo Canceller for Digital/Data Communication 309 16.5. New Developments in Echo Cancellers Design sii 16.6. Acoustic Echo and its Cancellations ait 16.7, Echo Cancellation Requirement in other Communication Systems . 312 168 Future of Echo Cancellers 313 169. References 314 nT Chapter 17:Speech Coding Techniques 315-325 17.1. Introduction 315 17.2, Some Facts about Speech "315 17.3. Digital Speech Quality and International Digtal Telephony Standards 318 17.4. Basic Speech Coding Methods 320 17.5. Low Bit Rate Speech Codmg 320 17.6. Audio Coding 321 17.7. Hardware Technology in Speech Coding 322 17.8, Speech Coder Performance 324 Chapter 18: Satellite Applications 326-361 181. Introduction to Satellite Applicptions 326 182 Satellite Applications-Different Areas 327 18.3, Satellite Television 328 18.4, Telephone Services via Satellite 332 185 Data Communication Services 333 186. Satellites for Earth Observation 335 18.7, Satellites for Weather Forecast 445(xvi) 18.8. Satellites for Scientific Studies on 349 18.9. Satellites for Military Applications ~ 354 ——— $$$ Chapter 19: Satellites and Satellite Launch Vehicles 362-474 19.1. Communication Satellites - 370 19.2, Satellites for Earth Observation - 402 19.3. Weather Satellites 409 19.4, Science and Technology Satellites ~ 416 19.5. Military Satellites ~ 428 19.6. Satellite Launch Vehicles a 436 Chapter 20: Solved Problems 475-531 Chapter 21: Illustrated Glossary 632-551 Self Assessment Questions 552-573 574-576 Subject IndexONE Principles Of Satellite Communication 1.1, Evolution and Growth of Communication Satellites The idea of communication through a satellite, in particular with a synchronous satellite was conceived by Arthur C. Clarke, a famous British $Rlamna finting eottne te INAGO) Atnapa had alenndermnintnd mest that a anegl lta Whe wee ee Lett Ta eet eee ot 14 satellites and thus reliable communication between any two. pointsin the world cae OD Sek in neeeed okay toca ne “ PT Den etan beak AQ eee Tata eee PIO 4k Re ene soe aap . - . AT and T, POI ARIA Linnune tha ape ned acta ee May 4, 1900 esuivusned a TEN, catallite Th. T damn ene ine basts of modern tec. fey ae2 SATELLITE COMMUNICATION ATT COMMUNICATION ranging from instruments with a small capacity (240 voice circuits or one television channel) to those with a huge capacily (12500 voice circuits and two television channels) and covering three regions-the Avantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Thus a new era of Communication via satellite (satellite Communication) had begun and now over hundreds of, ‘geostationary satellites of different countries of the world are in the service, This is expected to grow in a very large number in near future”, 1.2. Synchronous Satellites As already mentioned the. synchronous Satellites, also called the afford to its own terminal, and the rf spectrum required tor the system can be readily shared with other services. There are a few problems with these synchronous communication satellites, namely the time delay, in connection with telephony and the establishment of the synchronous orbit. The synchronous satellites used for communication are widely called the communication satellites. These satellites are classified in terms ot their urs Croeteoemec-S =" in terms . tical, ete Cuba. There are over 2 dozen COUNINES INCUUINY ANU Wii Mase wea domestic satellite systems either operational or in advanced planning s stages. These. ‘satellites have special shaped antenna beams to provide domesticPRINCIPLES OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATION 3 Military satellites are principally those of super powers. -A Typical example is that of US's Defence Satellite Communications system Bee} which constitues a series of satellites to provide worldwide military communications. The circuit capacitics of military satellites are modest aaa apacit : Ing Tha heandanct qntalli 1 . * data relay satellite . : ' sof special purpose ' ‘ technology satellite 4 . ". incoln Laboratories (LES), the European Space Agency Orbital test satellite (OTS) and the Japanese (ECS) etc. A variety of experiments concerning with communication technology and space propagation/communicationat various frequency bands have been carried out by these experimental satellites. 4.3. International Regulation and Frequency Coordination 5 Penne international Frequency Registration Board (IERB), International Radio Consultative Committee (CCIR) and the International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT), The General Secretariat is located in Geneva, Itisresponsible for the executive management and technical cooperation, The IFRB is responsible for recording frequencies and orbital positions and for advising member countries on operation of the maximum practical number of: radio channels in portions of the spectrum where harmfu Fonte e nm me ony ate ebate dad . ' * . to telegraphy and telephony and for adopting reports and recommendations. The intamatinnal anata ma Eames aa MANE Baa ttn ate APT Sonen broadcasting, earth exploration, space research, meteorological, space Downe neki nda Pataeioct ee oe aaeee4 SATELLITE COMMUNICATION 1,4, Satellite Frequency Allocations and Band Spectrum ‘There are six frequency bands that have been allocated for the use with satellite communications. Table 1.1 ai these bands. 1 may be ndted that in addition to these bands given in Table 1.1, millimetre waves in the frequency ranges 40 ~ 300 GHz are also allocated for satellite communication purposes, PEE Den een ate Fale dante te neta med ban tenet MHz, 7450 — 7550 MHz. Table 1.1 Frequency Bands for Satellite Communication Band Downward Bands Mitz Uplink Bands MHz Une ~ Mitiiary 250 ~210 (Approx) 292 -312 (Approx) C Rand ~Commercis! 37004200 5925 ~ 6425 XBand~ Miltary 7250~7750 7900~8400 Ku Band Commercial 11700 ~ 12200 14000-14500 Ka Band ~ Commercial 17,700 ~ 22200 27500 - 30,006 Ka Band ~ Military 20200 ~ 21200 43500 - 45500 Tabie 1.2. Frequency Allocations for Fixed Sateltite Service and Broadcasting Satellites Frequency Fixed Satellite Service Broadcasting Satellites 2500. ~2535 MHz | Down Region II and It Down 2535 ~ 2655 Down Region If Down 2655 - 2690 Up Region If end UT Down 3400-3700 Down 3700 - 4200 Down 4500 = 4800 Down 5725-5850 ‘Up Region! 5850-5925 Up 5925 - 1015 Up 7250 - 7450 Down 7450~ 7550 Down 7900 ~- 8025 8025 ~ 8400 10.7 - 11.7 GHz Up Region I 17-121 Down Region if Down Region I and TIL 1227122 Down Region II Down Table Cont'dPRINCIPLES OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATION 5 a Frequency Fixed Satellite Service Broadcasting Satellites 122-123 Down Region It Down Region I & It 123125 Down Region I & 11 12,5--12 75. UP/Down Down Region II 12.75-~13.28 Up 0-145 Up 145—148 Up 32107 Up 177—18.1 Up. 18 1186 186-188 18 8~202 202212 225~23.0 Down Region I & II 21.0~275 Up Region I & 1 21S~WS 295—31.0 Up 31.5—~39 5 Down 395405 Down 40 S—A25 ' Down 425-435 Up Down 41.2492 Up 49.2502 “Up 504—51.4 Up T0755 Up 81—84 Down 54-86 Doom 92-95 Up 102-105 Down 149—let Down 202217 2241 2652756 SATELLITE COMMUNICATION Table 1.3. Frequency Allocations for Mobile Satellite Service Aeronautical Mobile | _Maruime Mobie General Mobile Frequency 806-890 Mhz Region 1 & I 1530-1535 Down, Shared (muted use) 1535-1544 Down, Exclusive 1544-1545 Down 1345-1559 Down, Exclusive Down 1626.5-1645.5 Up, Exclusive 16455-16465 Up 14465-1660 5 Up, Exclusive 1660-16605 Up, Shared 19.7-21 2 GHz Down 29 5-31.0 Up 39 5-405 Down 43 5-47 Up 66.71 UpMown m-74 Up/Down 81-84 UpMown 95-100 Up/Down 134-142. UpfDown 190-200 252-265 1.5. General and Technical Characteristics Of A Satellite Communication System . Pen rere borrpte fox fy frequency spectrum in Order {0 AVOI LNG HICHCICHEe. EG Signe at ue receiving carth station is processed to get back the bascband signal which is aterrestrial network, Had there becn nodiffference . + thensentto the userthrough yy “4 On the guidelines of WARC - 1979 commercial communication satellites uss a frequency band of 500 MHz bandwidth near 6 GHz for up-hnk transmissions and another 500 MHz bandwidth near 4 GHz for downlink transmission. Infact an uplink of 5.725 ta 7.075 GHz and a downlink of 3.4 104.8 GHzis used. ft may be noted that this 6/$ GHz band is also uscd in many countries for terrestrial communications (microwave links) and sothe problem Ee ee Te ete ean he Innbadinin The S00 MEiz allocation 1 . ae . * . ‘ ” ‘ 'PRINCIPLES OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATION 7 frequency reuse to i allocated to them. It should be of importance to note that 6/4 GHz bands have been the most popular because they offer the fewest propagation problems and historically RF components for these bands have been readily avilable. Rain attenuation is also not much serious at these bands. Sky noise is also low at 4 GHz and so ete ae ae a ae nee te Patra malian bnemeentenmnn at fd ae . ' ae “ ber of transponders in the 500 MHz or 12.5 to 12.7 GHz. This frequency band is not yet congested and is hoped oe f : ate ‘ wt besa Ge advanced technology of satellite communicatjon has been focussed on these bands. Equipments on these frequency bands are in progress and experimental stage. EARTH STATION qoosle ss TERRESTRIAL TERAESTRIAL| INTERFACE , SYSTEN oa USER INTERFACE ‘ TERRESTRIAL SYSTEM Fig. 1.1. General Structure of A Satellite Communication System The basic block diagram of an earth station that transmits to and receives information from a satellite is shown in Fig 1.2. The base band signal from the ierrestrial nctwork enters the earth station at the transmitter after having Processed (bulfered, multiplexed, formatted etc) by a baseband equipment, After the encoder and modulator have acted uport the baseband signal, itis8 SATELLITE COMMUNICATION oS converted to the uplink frequency. Then it is amplified and directed to the appropriate polarization port of the antenna feed. The signal received from the satellite is amplified in an LNA first and is then downconverted from the downlink frequency. It is then demodulated and decoded and then the original baseband signal is obtained. Critical coniponents will often be installed redundantly with automatic switch over in the event of failure so that wT ng Mg teatael an alle mntin ampatsnge lone ‘ : intermodulation products generated in the transponder or earth terminal, It ma that hp fron 1092 sha pontine hetwaan tenon te eee ‘ satellites in space is 2° along the equatorial are instead ota’, ‘The closerspacing has allowed twice as many satellites to occupy the same orbital arc at.d therefore now all the carth station antennas are designed to accommodate this spacing of 2°. 1.6. Advantages of Satellite Communication Communication through satellite has several advantages and 1 . 7 " only for specialized applications and the cascaded radio relays were iumieu - May ban BHA o tan entd fn the gange that point to an arbitrary number of other points within 1s coverage aed. Some of the typical advantages of satellite communication are automatically derived when compared it with other kind of signal relay systems. Firstly the satellite relays are inherently wide-area broadcast, Ze, the point- to-multipoint whereas all the terrestrial relays are point-to-point. Secondly the sateltite circuits can be installed rapidly. Once the satetlite is in position, the earth stations can be instal communication may be . — - awe he camaved relatively ‘ wt is that the mobile communication can be easily duintvs vy saws communications as it has a unique degree of flexibility in interconnecting mobile vehicles, Thus the satellite has become an aliemative to short wave “\. in this specialised area and has significant reliability advantages + * Metworks may inferconnect mobile vehicles by cellular radios).PRINCIPLES OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATION YNN3INY aatdnoday YaMOd HOIH ahent VINES yONTS ISve ‘ 4 Fig. 1.2. Basic Block Diagram of an Earth Staion. The satellite communicat: satelli tages as well. With the ions has cerain disadvan' sition the Communication parh between the terrestriaS tranomitier In ximatel and the receiver is ince the velocity of em wavesis 3.x 10° km/s, there isa delay of 1/4 seconds between the wansmission ae deaeen ly 75000 km long. S va0 SATELLITE COMMUNICATION ee deployed in satellite communications, one may still fecl the echo. The above time delay of 1/2 scconds also reduces the efficicncy of satellite in data transmission and tong file transfers when carried out over the satellites, Satellite communication, however, has the economical advantages. The gine nen nee oz an phn eneengteial nat: ett For thin route remote area aan ng Vien Tadin'g NE sacinn cons wide-bandwidth signals across the occan. 1” ae Simitarly forsearch, rescue andnavigation efforts satellites offer the advantages * which no other systems can offer. ~ 1.7. Active and Passive Satellites The difference between a passive and an active communication satellite - vos oenr Lanting wala fhare catalfital invaluag oe . , i i icati bility of active The most important comparisonof the communication capal act and passive satellites is the amount of power radiaicd toward the receiving ground stations by the satellite. Actually the communication capabil ity o active systems with directional antennas rapidly becomes much greater hs an