What’s Microbiology?

Why study Microbiology?

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The limits of microscopic resolution

Fig 2.20 and 2.21 10

X1,000 X100,000
Bacterial Cell Structure

11
 Bacterial and Archaeal Cell
Structure and Function

• Prokaryotes differ from eukaryotes in size and

simplicity
– most lack internal membrane systems
– prokaryotes are divided into Bacteria and Archaea

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 Shape and Arrangement - 1

Fig 3.1

• Cocci (s., coccus) – spheres • Bacilli (s., bacillus) – rods

– diplococci (s., diplococcus) – pairs
– streptococci – chains
– staphylococci – grape-like clusters
– tetrads – 4 cocci in a square
– sarcinae – cubic configuration of 8 cocci 13
 Shape and Arrangement - 2

Coccobacilli – very short rods

• Vibrios – resemble rods, comma
shaped
• Spirilla (s., spirillum) – rigid helices
• Spirochetes – flexible helices
• Mycelium – network of long,
multinucleate filaments
• Pleomorphic – organisms that are
variable in shape

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Fig 3.2
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Size
• Smallest – 0.3 μm (Mycoplasma)
• average rod – 1.1 - 1.5 x 2 – 6 μm (E. coli – coccobacilli)

• Largest - Epulopiscium fishelsoni: isolated from the intestinal tract of a

brown surgeon fish from the Red Sea
• Size: 600X80 um (more than a million times larger in vol than E. coli

• Even larger (100X)

• Thiomargarita nambiensis (Ocean sediment off the coast of Namibia)

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Size

Fig 3.3 16
A Bacterial Cell

Fig 3.6
17
18
Bacterial cell structure contd…

Bacterial Cell Envelope

• Plasma membrane
• Cell wall
• Layers outside the cell wall

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 Bacterial Plasma Membrane
Fluid Mosaic Model of Membrane Structure

(Sterol-like molecules)

Fig 3.7 20
 Plasma Membrane Functions

• Encompasses the cytoplasm

• Selectively permeable barrier
• Interacts with external environment
– receptors for detection of and response to
chemicals in surroundings
– transport systems
– metabolic processes

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 Bacterial Cell Wall

• Peptidoglycan (murein)
– rigid structure that lies just outside the cell
plasma membrane
– two types based on Gram stain
• Gram-positive: stain purple; thick peptidoglycan
• Gram-negative: stain pink or red; thin
peptidoglycan and outer membrane

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Figure 3.16
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 Cell Wall Functions

• Maintains shape of the bacterium

– almost all bacteria have one
• Helps protect cell from osmotic lysis
• Helps protect from toxic materials
• May contribute to pathogenicity

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 Peptidoglycan
Structure
• Meshlike polymer of identical
subunits forming long strands
– two alternating sugars
• N-acetylglucosamine (NAG)
• N- acetylmuramic acid
– alternating D- and L- amino
acids

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Fig 3.17
 Strands are crosslinked

• Peptidoglycan strands have a

helical shape
• Peptidoglycan chains are
E. coli crosslinked by peptides for
strength
– interbridges may form
– peptidoglycan sacs –
interconnected networks
– various structures occur

Fig 3.19 26
S. aureus
 Gram-Positive Cell Walls
• Composed primarily of peptidoglycan
• May also contain teichoic acids (negatively
charged)
– help maintain cell envelope
– protect from environmental
substances
– may bind to host cells
• some Gram-positive bacteria have layer of
proteins on surface of peptidoglycan

Fig 3.22

Fig 3.16
Teichoic acid
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Fig 3.23
Gram-Negative Cell Walls

• More complex than Gram-positive

• Consist of a thin layer of
peptidoglycan surrounded by an
outer membrane
• Outer membrane composed of
lipids, lipoproteins, and
lipopolysaccharide (LPS)
• No teichoic acids

Fig 3.24
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Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)

• Consists of three parts

– lipid A
– core polysaccharide
– O side chain (O antigen)
• Lipid A embedded in outer
membrane
• Core polysaccharide, O side chain
extend out from the cell

Fig 3.25

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 Importance of LPS
• contributes to negative charge on cell surface
• helps stabilize outer membrane structure
• may contribute to attachment to surfaces and biofilm
formation
• creates a permeability barrier
• protection from host defenses (O antigen)
• can act as an endotoxin (lipid A)

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 Gram-Negative Outer Membrane
Permeability
• More permeable than plasma membrane due to presence of
porin proteins and transporter proteins
– porin proteins form channels to let small molecules (600–
700 daltons) pass

Fig 3.26 31
Mechanism of Gram Stain Reaction

• Gram stain reaction due to

nature of cell wall
• shrinkage of the pores of
peptidoglycan layer of Gram-
positive cells
– constriction prevents loss
of crystal violet during
decolourisation step
• thinner peptidoglycan layer
and larger pores of Gram-
negative bacteria does not
prevent loss of crystal violet

Fig 2.18
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 Osmotic Protection
• Hypotonic environments
– solute concentration outside the cell is less than
inside the cell
– water moves into cell and cell swells
– cell wall protects from lysis
• Hypertonic environments
– solute concentration outside the cell is greater
than inside
– water leaves the cell
– plasmolysis occurs

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 Evidence of Protective Nature of
the Cell Wall

Fig 3.27

• lysozyme breaks the bond between N-acetyl glucosamine

and N-acetylmuramic acid
• penicillin inhibits peptidoglycan synthesis
• if cells are treated with either of the above they will lyse if
they are in a hypotonic solution
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 Cells that Lose a Cell Wall May
Survive in Isotonic Environments

• Protoplasts
• Spheroplasts
• Mycoplasma
– does not produce a cell wall
– plasma membrane more resistant to osmotic
pressure

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 Archaea

• Highly diverse with respect to morphology,

physiology, reproduction, and ecology
• Best known for growth in anaerobic, hypersaline, pH
extremes, and high-temperature habitats
• Also found in marine arctic temperature and tropical
waters

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 Archaea
• Many features in common with Eukarya
– genes encoding protein: replication, transcription,
translation
• Features in common with Bacteria
– genes for metabolism
• Other elements are unique to Archaea
– unique rRNA gene structure
– capable of methanogenesis

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 Archaeal Membranes

• Composed of unique
lipids
– isoprene units (five
carbon, branched)
– ether linkages rather
than ester linkages to
glycerol
• Some have a monolayer
structure instead of a
bilayer structure

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Fig 4.5
Archaeal Cell Walls
Ø Lack peptidoglycan

Fig 4.6 39