STUDENT’S SOLUTIONS MANUAL FOR ELEMENTARY NUMBER THEORY WITH APPLICATIONS Second Edition Thomas KoshyELEMENTARY NUMBER THEORY WITH APPLICATIONS Second Edition THOMAS KOSHY FRAMINGHAM STATE COLLEGEContents Preface How to Study Math How to prepare for an Exam in Math How to Take an Exam in Math 1 Fundamentals 2 Divisibility 3. Greatest Common Divisors 4 Congruences 5 Congruence Applications 6 Systems of Linear Congruences 7 Three Classical Milestones 8 Multiplicative Functions 9 Cryptology 10 Primitive Roots and Indices 11 Quadratic Congruences 12 Continued Fractions 18 Miscellaneous Nonlinear Diophantine Equations Appendix A.1 ix 45 63 17 89 99 113 131 173 181 191,CONTENTSPreface ‘This manual contains detailed solutions of all even-mumbered exercisos inthe author's Elementary Number Theory with Applications, second edition. In addition, it includes some helpful suggestions on How to Study Math, How to Prepare for an Exam in Math, and How to Take an Bsam in Math | would like to thank Ward Heilman of Bridgewater State College, Roger W. Leezor of California State University at Sacramento, and Don Redmond of Southern Iinois University at Carbondsle for preparing the solutions of all even-numbered exercises in the first edition. I am also grateful to Kevin Jackson-Mead for combing through all solutions in the first edition, both even and odd, for inaccurate and incomplete solutions, and typographical errors. Althougit great care has been taken to ensure the accuracy of solutions and proofs, some errors may remain. These are solely my own responsibilty. I would appreciate hearing from users concerning any errors, as well as your thoughts and comments about the book, Finally, enjoy the book and have fun with this rich, dynamic, and fascinating area of mathematics. ‘Thomas Koshy thoshy@fre.mass.edu itPREFACEHow to Study Math © Propare a well-planned and well-balanced schedule for each day of the week, ‘* Read a few sections in advance before each class. * Go to class well prepared. Be ready to ask and answer questions. + Do not skip classes. The information is cumulative; so every step counts, Always take down notes (on the RHS of your notebook; use the LHS for solutions of corresponding exercises from the book) ‘* Always have enough paper and peneils with you. ‘* Study the material taught in class again on the same day as the class. ‘© Pay close attention to symbols, notations, definitions, properties, and theorems. # Develop a decent working vocabulary of the subject. (Math is a concise and precise language; so ty to speak the language of math Muently,) '* Keep practicing definitions, properties, as well as theorems and their proofs in your own words. ‘* Study the examples, proofs, and exercises done in class; close your notebook; try to do them on your ‘own. If you eannot do them without help, study them again and try again. ‘= Do the exercises at the end of a seetion, after studying the section; do not reverse the order. ‘© Do not skip steps until you have mastered the material. ‘© Do not write over previous steps in a solution or proof. ‘+ If you cannot solve a problem because it involves a new theorem, formula, or some property, then resstudy the relevant portion of the section, ‘* Math can be learned in small quantities only. So, do math every day. Remember, practice is the best way to succeed. © Work with others whenever helpful. Seek help when in doubt or trouble. (e.g. teacher, fellow student, or tutor)HOW TO STUDY MATH Mako the best use of your professor's office hours. Go to him/her always well-prepared. Bring a list of questions to ask the professor. Math is a cumulative subject. So, build a good foundation to do additional work Always review earlier materials before each week. Things must be fresh in your mind for you to build on them. Use your time wisely and carefully.How to prepare for an Exam in Math © Review notations, definitions, formulas, properties, and theorems. Practice by writing them down. * Study every example worked out in clas. © Do a few typical problems from each section. On the night before the exam, go to bed early and get a good nights sloop, Otherwise, you won't be able to concentrate during the exam, your mind will wander, and the material will 1ook foggy. Do not stay up late to learn any new material. In fact, do not try to learn anything new the night before the exam. ‘The morning of the exam, glance ovor all materials to refresh your memory; focus on formulas, prop- erties, and theorems. « Ifa scientific calculator is allowed in the exam, make sure you know how to use the various keys and functions viivit HOW TO PREPARE FOR AN EXAM IN MATHHow to Take an Exam in Math ‘+ Taking an exam (in math) is en art. So, master the steps wel. '* Take enough writing tools (and a good scientific calculator with extra batteries, if allowed for use in the exam). ‘© Take a fow minutes to quickly glance over every problem. '* Do the problems that are easiest for you and those that carry the most weight. ‘The order in which ‘you answer the problems has no bearing on the score; what matters is the final output. ‘Always write the formula, if a formula is involved. © Save all your work on scrap paper for later vasification. # Thon do the less easy problems. ‘* Whenever possible, save enough time to check your answers at the end. ‘© Always double-check the solutions that carry the most weight. Good LuckHOW TO TAKE AN EXAM IN MATHSolutions to Even-Numbered ExercisesHOW TO TAKE AN EXAM IN MATHChapter 1 Fundamentals Exercises 1.1 (p. 7) 2 tor-t 4. 00r1 6 0 8. 1,9, 45, 55, 99 10. 635, 318, 657 = 59* + 1584 = 1334 + 1344 12, A number which is a square, cube, and fifth power must be of the form n?*% = n%, So the desired number is 2°° = 1, 073, 741, 824, 14, Let n be an arbitrary positive integer such that: n? can be displayed on a 16-cigit calculator. Then n® < 999, 999, 999, 999, 999; that is, m < 3VTIT, TTT, TTT, TIT, TTL. Thus n < 31,622,776; that is, there are 31,622,776 positive integers whose squares can be displayed on the calculator. Including 0, the final answer is 31,622,777. 16, proof: case 1 Suppose a, > 0, Then ab > 0,0 [ab| =a case 2 Suppose a > 0 and b <0, Since a{-b) > 0, Ja(—b)] = a(-8) al - |b] = Jal - fp), But a(—8) = ~ab, so [a(—b)| = |-ab] = jab]. Ths ja = [a case 3 The case « $0 and 6 > 0 is similar to case 2. case 4 Suppose @,6 <0. Then ab > 0 and [ab] = \(~a)(~8)] = [0] |b), by case 1. Thus |ad| = |a\- 2 18. proof: Let n= 2k-+1 for some intoger &. Then [n/2] = [k + 1/2] = = (n= 1/2. 20, proof: Lot n = 2k +1 for some integer k. Then [n2/4] = [k@+k-+1/4] = RP +k = A(R +1) = (m= 1)/2- (9+ )/2= (0? = 1)/44 CHAPTER 1. FUNDAMENTALS 22, ease 1 If mis even, then [n/2] + [n/2] = n/2+n/2 case 2 fn is odd, say, n = 2k-+1 for some integer b, then [n/2) +[n/2] = k+(k-+1) = 2k-+1 =n. 24, proof: Let c= k+2", where 0 <2" <1. Then ~ 26. proof: Let z= k+2', where 0 <2! <1 Then ko if 1/2 R44 otherwise So [2k +22") —b- [zx'] =k + [22' - [2'} e412) ite’ < 1/2 _ fk+o-0 k41-0=k+1=[241/2| otherwise Thus [22] — {xj = | +1/2] 28. proof: d(x, y) =|y ~2] 2 0, since Jal > 0 for all a 30. proof: Suppose d(z,y) = 0. Then |y~2| =0, so x = y. Conversely, let 2 = y. Then y—2 =0 and hence |y — 2 = 0. ‘Thus d(r,y) = 0. 2. dle) = |y—al=ly-2) + -2)] lr at lea] Aey) + dle, 2) = dle 2) + dle) 3 n ifmisoda fo (0 one =} Exercises 1.2 (p. 14) 2. SG4A)= 34 Hk=5.34 4.0 3=6-3=18 a 6. 1 Mw : M4: S0-2) = 3543 a8. BE SE oT10. SG oKyk = @ 12. Est 14, S464) = Proof: RES = z grin =F of, whore} = n-+m—t = LHS 2. Sas ay (n+ys—1 (ny iP—1 as Therefore $ By Eins) as a aT Sai? +344] aye + age + a 35-4+3n(n+1)/24n, where § denotes the desired sum n? 43n? +3n—3n(n+1)/2—n m3 43n? +2n— 3n(n+1)/2 a(n + 1)(n +2) — 3n(n + 1)/2 n(n + 1)(2n+1)/2 n(n + 1)(2n+ 1/6 ) = Eee 643-42) E(ai=0s) 12s 4681 = 12. BE + 63 405 Cee = E(eZ-$s+E)) RVR RITE = = Eor-H+9) = 637-1551 =6- 8! 15.5 = 55 h &6 CHAPTER 1. FUNDAMENTALS %. F@+)=0+N04)2+H841) <2 8. TL io 30. Sp p=2434547=17 32. [] (3-1) =(8-1-1)(8-2-1)-3-)@-5-1) = 1120 er BA. SD (12/a) = (12/1) + (12/2) + (22/3) + (12/4) + (12/6) + (12/12) = 28 36. esta Sltl¢1¢1=4 38 (a 7) (g ») (g ») ( ») = (14°15)22224 99 (6) = 20,995, 200,000 4 40. 38 — 9-1) = 31-3 = 81-1 = 80 2 = Blow tanta) = (anton +a) +(012 +002 +082) = 941 +13 + Gai + G29 +031 + O92 44. ay tan +3 von to 46. TL G+ 1/n) = TL 8 BB gf = 1028 48, Soke M = S[(k-41)!- Al] = (ntl = (ntay!-1 50. By Exercise 48, Jo kk! 1000! — 1 = ...999, s0 the hundreds digit is 9. Exercises 1.3 (p. 24) 2. no; has no least element. 4. yes 6. proof (by contradiction): Assume there is an integer n’ € such that n! < mot l= 1. Then ng +I 1 < *, Since n —no +1 € S* and w—~no +1 < 1°, I" is not a least clement of S*, a contradiction. 8, Let A be a non-empty set of nogative integers. Then B = {ala € A} is a non-empty set of positive integers and has « least element / in B, by the well-ordering principle. Thus —a > ! for every a € A; that is, a-<¢ for every ain A. Since -1 € A, —1 is a largest element in A.eee eae eee andi + 1 + on = on + (Ht) $e DY Fo FB ET = (ti) + (tt) + + (R41) + (HI) + (ned) = n(ntl) s = san 14. Basis stop: When n= 1, LHS = 1? =1=1.2.3/6=1. Therefore, P() is true. Induction step: Assume P(k): 3° = MALIOR Then = HAMOEED a yay _ cee [Hebe _ Ge Te (KADELBK+3) _ (k++ DARED +1) é 6 ‘Therefore, P(E + 1) is true. Thus P(n) is true for every n > 1 16. basis step When n = 1, LHS 2t—) _ RHS. Therefore, P(1) is true. induction step Assume P(k) is true: So ar! = 2. Then: ket & Sart 2 Sarl! + ort tar’, by the inductive hypothesis i 1 sark(r=1) _ a(rtt1—1) rat ‘Thus, P(K) implies P(k +1), s0 the result follows by induction as, $9 42) = $642.58 1 = (60-61/2)2 + 2-50 = 1,625, 725 20. SP = Fa) + [2/2] + J9/a) +--+ [DEL a DE Db eo (a2) + (m/2) if mis even TL ert 24 24. + (n-124(n—/24 (n+ 1)/2 otherwise a ecereemey) ifn is even ai MAL +B@+--- + (n—1)/2]+(n+1)/2 otherwise 2An/2)(n/2+1)/2 if nis even 2 = 1/2]l(n— 1/241) + (04 1)/2 otherwise n(n + 2/4 if nis-even (n+1)?/4 otherwise2, Luwry-Le +38 ti pet per lett) in 42) as Moen AS 28 +3243) MEY n(n +1) +2nt1 41) = Tot bE) a2 SED guts) it fe= ah = ferme saa.. a were u Sum of the numbers in the magie square = 142+. That i, nk = MOE, go k= nite, L424 ade HONE =r a1 ‘Total number of grains a 4 feseeyaein 4 ataen] iutth (aug 4 4) = atin case 1 Let n be even. Then OLED Et (0/21) + Ltt 4 On ont + (n/2— Dj +n/2= CHAPTER 1, FUNDAMENTALS gfe wopnt 9. mason 4 nen) nn) 42) ica ny M(o3V/2 = (pyre /2 2 (n/2— 1 +n/2 2(n/2—1)(n/2+1) on Soaacaeaaeiacase 2 Let n be odd. Then Om = OFTET H+ (n— 1/24 (n—1)/2 2. Bol adh = M42+ (nV n= o 1 2 ife no To prove that P(n) is true for every n > no: Let S denote the set of integers > mo such that P(n) is false. If $ = 0, then we are done. So, assume S #8. Since P(np) is true, no ¢ S. By the well-ordering principle, $ has a least element ! and P(() is false, Since ng ¢ $ and Le 5,1 # no; $0 1 > no; that is, 12 ng-41, orl —1 > no, Sinee 1 no, Exercises 1.4 (». 2) 21,347 41,235)10 6, 8 10, 12. 14, 16. 18, 20. 2. 24, 26. CHAPTER 1 1,2,8,6 a = 3 Oy = Gn $5, 232 a = 1 =a; + (n= Nd sat (n= 1d Oy = Taney WB? Sy = atbartar? poeta PSq = arbartesebar™! ar 1S, —Sn = ar"—a; thatis, (r—1)S, = a(t" —1) SoS, = # Gm = Ona + (n—1) ana2 + (n~2) + (n-1) On-3 + (n — 3) + (n —2) + (n~1) ay tit 2b (n=l) = 14 [bP been) = MeENa1, nel MOEN +1 < 2076 < Met sO) < onra < mast nin- 1) <4182< n(n +2) ‘Therefore, n = 64. a =i On Gna tn?, nd2 proof (by induction): Let P(n) : by =2"—1, where n > 1 basis step Since b; = 1, the statement P(1) is true, FUNDAMENTALS induction step Assume P({) is true for an arbitrary integer k > 1: bj = 2*— 1. Then beer = 2y +1 = 2124 1) $1 formula works for every integer n> 1 (98) = 1 +1 _ 1, so the formula works with n= k+1. Thus, by induetion, theu 28. f(91) = J(f(202)) = f(201) = 91 So f(f(91)) = f(91) =91. 0. (90) = f(FQ201)) = FOL) = f(F(102)) = #092) = F(F(103)) = 7(93) = F(F(208)) = F199) = 1, by Exercise 29 32, A(O,7)=7+1=8 34, Key steps: A(2,1) 5 A(1, 2) 4 A(1,5) A(1,8)= 11 A(1,3}= 15 AQ,5) = 13 AQ,13)=29 AG,3)=61 A(5,0) = A(a,1) AGB, A(2,5)) (3,13) A(2, A(2, 2, AG, 3)).u) = A(@,AQ,.-AQ,61))..) ea = 65,533 36, Let P(n) denote the given statement. basis step When n = 0, LHS A(1,0) = A(0,1), by definition, 141, by definition = RHS Therefore, P(0) is true Induction step Assume P(k) is true: A(1,k) =k +2, Then: AG,B+1) = A@,AQ,8)), by definition = A(0,k-+2}, by the inductive hypothesis = (kt) 41843 ‘Thus P(R) implies P(k +1), so the result holds for every integer n > 0. 38. 4,0) = A(2,1) = AQ,AQ,0) = AQ,AG,1) = AQ,A(,40,0) = AQ,A@,A0,1))) = AQ,AO,2) = AG,3) A(0, A(L,2)) = A(0,4) 5 AGI} = A(2,A(3,0)) = AQ,AQ,1)) = Al2,5) = 132 CHAPTER 1. FUNDAMENTALS Similarly, A(3,2) = 29, A(3,3) — 61, and A(3, 4) = 125. Thus we have: AG3,0) = AGA) A@,2) = (3.3) AGA) = 125 = 249-3 Following this pattern, we conjecture that A(3,n) = 2"*5 - 3,n > 0, 40. We have: In general, Since 9999 mod 4 = 3, it follows that uswoo = u us us dats 4 ifmmod4 5 ifnmod4 2 ifnmodd = 2 1 otherwise te Exercises 1.5 (p. 38) 6 (tay)? ‘Total number of gifts sent by the nth day = So C(-+1,2)=C(n +2,3) (22 — a)" =F O(09(82)(-9—" Coefficient of xt? C(G,r)2"(-3)°", where = ©(9,4)24(-3)° = -489, 888 Screen 8+ L2x8y + 60aty? + 160x%y! + 2402%y! + 192ey4 + 64y*10, 12 4, 16, 18, 20. 22, 24, 26. 13 (41/079 = Scions Middle coefficient = (10,5) = 252 (et =F C(r)etyh Largest binomial coefficient = C(6,3) = 20 (ery y Cryer Largest binomial coefficient = C(8, 4) B= ¥C0,)B.= Be By = 55 O(1,i)B)= Bo + By =2 By = 3 C(2,4)B, = Bo + 2B) + By =142-142=5 a YC(B,)B = Bo + 3B: + 3B + By = 143-143-245 =15 (n=1) nwa)! RES = Fas = FED a 2 gn =) ~ aR Gnjnsinn) (any _ (2) GST = meri = nat ‘The LHS is the difference of two integers, so the LHS is an integer. Consequently, the RHS is an integer. Therefore, (n+ 1)|(2*). proof: (1 +2)" = x ()2. Let 2 = 2, Then -Ex() proof: (1+) = (x +1)(1 +2)". The coefficient of 2"* on the LHS is (,2%,) and that on the RHS is (2) (). Hence the rest: Let 5-Yet «(7 ay Reverse the sum on the RHS: s-Yeeetn na(,",) = Sole+ oma (2) (2)4 CHAPTER 1, FUNDAMENTALS Adding equations (1.1) and (1.2), 28 = Soensns(t) = aan (") = Gan 2° im S = (tatndja"-? 28. proof: By Exercise 27, (2) < (2) < + < (2) < (0), where r < $2. Therefore, (*) is maximum when r is the largest integer < "2 case 1 Let n be odd, say, n= 2k +1. Then case 2 Let n be even, say, n= 2h, Then $2 = 2! — b+ J. Sor must be k= n/2 = [n/2). Thus, by eases (1) and (2), (%) is maximum when r= [n/2]. 30. proof (by induction): Let P(n) denote the given statement. When n= 1, LHS = =RHS, Therefore, P() is true, Assume P(A) is true, where & > 1 = +1. Sor must be k= 34 = [n/2] BO ser SC) = SUC) C2) win ft ia - E244) = EQ eeen(eh) Ze-06 8) E4) - £0-£0-£0 = betty 1428, by the IM and Exercise 25 = (eno ‘Therefore, P(k +1) is true. Thus, by induction, P(n) is true for every n > 1. Hence the result (rat). Let 2 = 1. Then n-2"1 = ¥ r() = ct 32, proof: n(1 + 2)"! = 2 = 1-0 EO = O+@=113-1-9 EO = O+O+@=-1+3+6=0-@6 36. As in Exercise 34, we conjecture that $5 (5) = (*f") mt), 38. Using Bxercises 34 and 36, we conjecture that 3° ({) = (S21 Exercises 1.6 (p. 48) 2. Let tn = 666; that is, n(n + 1)/2 = 666. Then n? +n — 1832 = 0; that is, (nm —36)(n +36) = 0. So n= 36, 4, Bey ETS Salm $1)/2-+ 1 = dn(n +1) +1 = dn? $n 1 = (2041)? = song 8 Py = Pao +3n—2= Pao + (3n— 1) - 2430-2 Pua + 3{(n~1)-+n}—2-2 = Pag $3l(n—2)+(n—1) +n] ~3-2 = FAA I En) = 200-1) 1+ 8{n(n + 1)/2—1]-2(n—1) = n(3n-1)/2 8B tits = n(n-1/2+n? = nQn~1)/2= Px 10. y+ toa = n(3n = 1)/2 + n(n — 1)/2 = n(2n—1) = hh 12. By Theorem 1.13, 8in-1 +1 (2n—1)?, $0 8tya1+4n = (2n— 1)? +4n 14. proof: — 2ny(en+y) tay — 2p 7 16, By ‘Theorem 1.11, ty +t:-1 =. Letting, k = th, this yields the desired result. (This can be confirmed algebraically also.) 18. proof: Let n= m(m + 1)/2. Then (Qk+1)m tty = (2k+1)%m(n+ 1)/2-+ bl + 1)/2 = [2b +)? (m? + (2k +1)? E+ I)] /2 = [Qk-+ 1pm + Ak + 1)m4 1/2 = N(V41)/2, where = (2k 1)ma +k = twovenyas 8 triangular number16 CHAPTER 1. FUNDAMENTALS 20. in = gat +4 —3= hina + [A(t — 1) — 3) + (4-3) haa + dif — 1) +n] -2-3 FAQ 434---4n) +3(0-D 14 4249-4---4n)+3(n— 1) = 1+ 4in(n+1)/2-1]-a(n-1) = nQn~1) 22. er = lien ena tnd, n>2 24. 1,8, 21, 40 Ont +60 — 5 = On~2 + [(6(n — 1) ~ 5] + (6n—5) onan +6l(n 1) +n] -2-5 = os + 6l(n—2) + (n= 1) +n] -3-5 1 + 6(2+34--+n)—5(n-1) 14 6[n(n-+1)/2-1)-5(n-1) 1+8n(n +1) 6 -5(n=1) n(8n— 2) 28. Both 6 and 6? = 36 are triangular numbers. 30. 1225 = 49. 50/2 = 35%; 41616 = 288. 280/2 = 204%; 1413721 92. 9g = WISER roiaVia2 _ aartaaana sre4s70-2 2 35, as = OtAVEP ar sa/—2 _ aurea ginaee 34a Exercises 1.7 (p. 52) 10. 5 Pa Tan + Toca ey Tyg + CHPOaD 4 fostn nines) 4 Gegbe mbn ‘ nie) 144 te ep UB yD AA. 4 stm minty sary Spar tn? Spat (n— 1)? +n? Snaat(n— 2)? + (a 1? +n? SAP AP ek (na IP be? LER (WP bn? nan) 3 = Pit EY nde 3 a= Sek -1) pie Sea o[seyen] agin bey] mG) _ ale 9009 4 1) 3] nition2 En CHAPTER 1, FUNDAMENTALS = nat 2nt—n Hy-a+ [2(n—1)? ~ (n-1)] + (Qn? ~n) Hy-a-+ [2(n— 1)? + 2nd) = [(n— 1) +m] = Hy + 2[(n— 2)? + (n= 1)? +4] —[n—2) + (m1) +] = Wt QR 4324 nt)— 4340 4M) = 14202438 tnt) (2434+-+n) = seen fasengonsn 9] [ayen = 1p neuen nies yy F Men S 4 [se -aha] = sr i5(an + 1) ~ 9] snenyanes) _ ste] ns y(sn=2) Exercises 1.8 (. 57) 2 o) Ce mm) 2 Gat pay aa iat ~ aS = atatinlin +) ~ a] = Athy = Cnl0.25em) CP) = a Re = hip = Cn eH) = 2@)—2Re = (2-28) = al) = Ze JOM = ()24Ca + (3)2Cr + (3)2°C2 = lere-4- 1424219 10. C(x) = Cy $ Cyn + Cyn? 4-H gz + (Clay? = CoCo + (CoCr + CCa)e + (CoC + CrCr + C2Co)2? + Oy + Cort Cyr? +--+ Capit + 12. Since Vi=ae = it follows that at By Exercise 11, this implies that That is, dow “yo ()= Equating the coeflicients of 1", we get the desired result: sans) Review Exercises (p. 60) 2 SH er4ay) = Seuss hs Biss it 4 7 = Sara t2)-20 = m?_m-4 6 Hise = fs = fpamene a yey = tye ase pus sian grinsinins2y/316. mona CHAPTER 1, FUNDAMENTALS =2%, where T, denotes the nth tetrahedral number. £(8:)-§ae-he-o h(n 1) +4(n 1) h(n 2) -+-4(n 2) $4(n = 1) ‘(w —3) + 4(n 3) 4 4(n = 2) + 4Gn~ 1) AQ) 44 424-4 (nD) 044-(n—1)n/2 Qn(n—1), m 21 anit n(n+1) aq-2t (n= Int n(n +1) aq-at (n~2)(n—1)+(n~ Dn+n(n +1) ey F2-348-4 4 bn(n +1) 1242-34--4n(n 4) Eieen- Berke insayana pais nest) ana tort Cr en a yas FMF INF BONE ay F242 tbo THERE OM 2-1, mel22. ay = nar t {n/2], whore ay =1 LA [2/21 + [3/21 + [4/2] + 15/2] 4+ Ff} = 1LF14 2424-04 [nf] _ [e248 etna) if mis even Ol 4 2434-4 (n—1)/2]+ (nt 1)/2 otherwise 2n/2}(nf2+1)/2 if nis even 2i(n—1)/2-(n+1)/2/2+ (n+ 1)/2 otherwise n(n +2)/4 if nis even (n+1)?/4 otherwise 24. proot: Since ( Va ~ vB) 20, a+b-2Vab > 0; that is, (a + 0)/2 > Vib. 26. When n= 1, LHS 3822) = RHS, Thoroforo, P(1) is true Assume P(k) is true: (28-1)? = M2, hen: ken b Vei-1? = Vei-?+ee+1? a iat (ak? 1) ora oh 41)? = RADOE+ YOR) Sreaeec ver aeECEa (E+ 1a +1)? — 1) Ss ‘Therefore, P(k) implies P( +1), so the result follows by induetion. 2 Let P(n): an = Bettie) When n = 1, a1 = 492 = 2. So P(L)is true, Assume P(A) is true. Then ona = ant HE +2) EEN a py = (eenasn [f+] -Merueeneen ‘Thus P(k) implies P(k + 1), so the result follows by induction. 80. Let P(n}: an = 2"~ 2. Since ay Then age = an +2* = (24-1) +2 induetion, 21-1 = 1, P(1) is true, Assume P(k) is true: ag = 2* ~1 HH — 1, So Pk) implies P(k +1) and the result follows by 32. proof: 34. thot tao H tay tae tian ties = tas thao t+ tay tts tag + tro + tar + toy + tga + tot tas = tae + tart tse tse + tao2 CHAPTER 1, FUNDAMENTALS 36. = Se-2 J=8-g-8-1 Thus So n(n + 1)/2) 40, 2tgtyan = 28 ED MED abet 1y 42 gta tlacatey = MERIBAD 4 (etn = Mts 1) += 1k-1)) hte tae 44, DHS = Qk-+1)2. MED 4 MeeD oke1)'n*4(0k-1)tnth(el) Qeerjnsei|i2e tyne = tekenth 46. proof (by induction on n): Clearly, itis en integer when n= 0 and 2 Now, assume the result is true for an arbitrary integer k > 0. Then: [e+ 1)r] (ry) e+ apr}! kiiry (kr trib r= 1). (kr 1) err (krtr= 1)... (r+) ey a Since the RHS is an integer, so is the LHS. So the result is also true when m = k+1. Thus, by induction, the result is true for every integer n> 0. 48, Since ay satisfies the same definition as Fy, it follows that ay = Fy, n> 1. Supplementary Exercises (». 62) 2 (PLDC a2) = (a2? 4 Bad) 4 (a2? + BCA) (0% + UPd? + Dabed) + (ad? + B22 — 2abed) (ac-+ bd)? + (ad — be}?6. Let $= Si. Sum of the numbers in the array = $428 +39 4-408 = (142484 dns? But the sum of the numbers in the array also equals the sum ofthe elements in euch gnomon, which i424 beknd = L. Thsj be & a = 1 Oy = an + MED, nd nip ot i! 10. LHS = Sis EES AT = tail inl nt Doe aca Tana we = Rus 12. (by J. Snow) To evaluate the given expresion, we use the follwing denis mG) =k asgar dS kG) = nae XC) Dat )e wa a ek 4+2k-1) = EGE meee EG} = n{Sie-n(f Ja-nsays (f= e-we (ED} = nfin-03( hoa) (k= 2-41) + 2(n — 129-2 42" ‘}, by (8) and (2) . nfin-nf(r)a-a4 (- 2) | senate ‘| = nf(n= ln 2)2"-9 + 2"8] 4 02"-}} = nfl 1)fna"-9 2"? 97] nat = nfn2QF = nD"-3 4. nh“) = m(n?2"3 — "3.4 dn2"4)24 CHAPTER 1. FUNDAMENTALS = n(n?"-3 432") = ni2t%n 4a) 14, nou $ 1)(n+2)(0 +3) 41 = (n+ 304 1)F and n? 4 Bn + 1 = MentdelnAy int) 16. 8444596 18. The given sets contain 1,2,3,4,... elements respectively. Let F denote the first element in the nth set and L the last element, Notice that Z is the k-th element of the arithmetic sequence of odd positive integers where k = n(n +1)/2. So 5,7...) with first term a= 1 and common difference d = nfoe +1) boot th-naniea[ 7 weeniern—a ‘Therefore, last term in the (n—L)st set = (n—I}n—1, by changing n ton—1, Then F-= n(n 1) +1. Since the n-th set contains n elements, [(m—1yn +2 = Su FUP +E) =F flr) +1) + [n(n + 1) - a} = Flom -1) tan ny] =n? 20. Let Su = 3 = Do MY, where k= n(n +4)/2. Then: a fare 1 [A(k+ 1) QR +1), k(E +1) s 3[E°-E4 [aes 2 AURA IE+2) _ [rf 3)]fr(n +1) + Brin +1) +4] 6 Fe eevee Ee as eeEaPEE n® 4 3n+ Ont + 13n? + Lan? + $n ssSoeCTTEaEeL geen veELSEREESIEEE Changing 2 ton =1, = 3n6 +9n! ~ 1309 + Ldn? ~ Sn 6 = Sebtaget ten _ nntessy Sno Therefore, desived sum = Sy, 22. GeorsiaChapter 2 Divisibility Exercises 2.1 (p. 70) 2.057 42 6. 12 has six positive factors: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 12; so f(12) 8. 17 has exactly 2 positive factors, namely, 1 and 17; 80 f(47) 10. No. of positive integers < 3076 and divisible by 28 = [3076/23] = 133 12, No. of positive integers < 3076 and not divisible by 24 3076 — [9076/24] = 3076 ~ 128 = 2048, 151 ~ 131 = 120 14. (3776/15) 16, No. of positive integers < 3776 and not divisible by 19 = 3776 — [3776/19] = 3776 — 198 = 9578 No. of positive integers < 1975 and not divisible by 19 — [1975/19] = 1975 — 103 = 1872 Desired answer = 9678 — 1872 = 1708 eT 20. F 22. Fy26 CHAPTER. 2. DIVISIBILITY 24. 26. F 28, 3] — 3 and —3)3, but 34 —3. 30. 412-6, but 4 J2 and 4 6. 32, Sp 1 = number of positive factors of 12 = 6 34. 5 1 = sum of the positive factors of 18 =1 =2+3+64+9418 = 39 ie 7 36, f(16) = 1+ #(17) =141+ f(18) = 2+ f(18) =241=3 38. proof: (ran)b, 90 mn = 1, Thus m ince alb and bla, b— ma and a = nb for some positive integers m and n. ‘Then b = m(nt) = & =leoa 40. proof: Let x and y be any two even integers. Then 2 = 2m and y = 2n for some integers mm and m. Then a+ y = 2m 2n = 2(m +n) and xy = (20)(2n) = 2(2mn) are even integers. 42, proof: Let x and y be any odd integers, Then © = 2m +1 and y= 2n-+1 for some integers m and n. ‘Then ay = (2m + 1)(2n + 1) = 2(2mn + m+n) + 1, which is an odd intoger. 44, proof (by contradiction): Let 2 be any integer such that 2 is even. Suppose 2 is odd, so 2 = 2k+1 for some integer k. Then 2? = (2k +1)? =2(K2 42k) 41, an odd integer, which is a contradiction, 46. proof: Let « and y = 2+ 1 be two consecutive integers. Suppose = is even, say, x = 2m some integer (2ma)(2mn + 1) = 2(2m? +m) is an even integer. On the other hand, let = 2m 1 be (2m + 1)(2m +2) = 2mm + 1)(2me +1) is even, Thus, in both eases, zy is even, m, Then 2 odd. Then ay 48. proof: Let n be an odd integer. By the division algorithm, n is of the form 4k +1, where r = 0, 1,2, or 3. But r #0 or 2, since m is odd. ‘Thus n is of the form 4k+1 or 4k +3, 50. proof: Let x and y be any two integers of the form 4k +1. Let x = 4m +1 and y integers m and n. ‘Then xy = (4m +1)(4n +1) = 4(4mn +m +n) +1 is also of the same form, in +1 for some 52. proof (by contradiction): Let x and y be any two integers. Suppose 2 or y is even. Then, by Exercises 40 and 43, ry is even. This contradicts the given hypothesis, so the result follows, 54. case 1 Let n be an even integer, 2k. Then Dn +3n7 n= 2(2K)* 4 3(2K)? + 2k = 2(8k9 +68? +4) an oven intoger.