Student Name

(As per last qualification mark SUSHIN .K . S.

sheet)

Enrollment Number IIMT/IND/MPPM/SK7376/2B18

Professional Graduate Programme in

Course title
Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Semester No. SEMESTER-III

Subject title ELECTRICAL MATERIAL SCIENCE

Examination paper receiving date DECEMBER 29, 2018

 Enrollment Number IIMT/IND/MPPM/SK7376/2B18
PART-A
1. Dielectric constant is defined as the ratio of the capacitance with a dielectric between the plates to the capacitance
with a vacuum between the plates or it is the ratio of absolute permittivity of the medium to the permittivity of
free space. It is also called as relative permittivity or dielectric permittivity.
εr = C / C 0
where C is capacitance between two parallel plates having space between them filled with the particular
insulating material, and C0 is capacitance for same parallel plates when these are separated by vacuum.

2. Dipole moments are a vector quantity. The magnitude is equal to the charge multiplied by the distance between the
charges and the direction is from negative charge to positive charge:
μ=q·r
where μ is the dipole moment, q is the magnitude of the separated charge, and r is the distance between the
charges.
Dipole moments are measured in the SI units of coulomb meters (C m), but because the charges tend to be very
small in magnitude, the historical unit for a dipole moment is the Debye. One Debye is approximately 3.33 x 10.
3. Piezoelectric Effect is the ability of certain materials to generate an electric charge in response to applied mechanical
stress. The word Piezoelectric is derived from the Greek piezein, which means to squeeze or press, and piezo, which
is Greek for “push”.
The piezoelectric effect is reversible, applying an electric field to the piezoelectric material, which can also cause
deformation.
4. Magnetic susceptibility denotes the degree of change in magnetization of a substance when an external magnetic field
is applied to it. Physically, it states the capacity of a material to acquire magnetism. The more the susceptibility, the
more induced magnetism in the material. For paramagnetic and diamagnetic substances, the intensity of
magnetization of a material is directly proportional to the magnetic intensity,
I = XH
where, I is Intensity of Magnetization, H is Magnetic Intensity, And Greek Letter X(pronounced as 'chi') denotes
Magnetic Susceptibility.
5. The insulating material should have the following properties.
 The material must have high mechanical strength so that it carries the tension and weight of the conductors.
 They must have high dielectric strength.
 The material is highly resistive for preventing the flow of leakage current from the conductor to earth.
 The material is non-porous and free from impurities.
 The electrical and chemical property of the material should not be affected by the temperature.
6.
1. Absorbance
2. Birefringence
3. Luminosity
4. Refractive Index
5. Scattering
6. Transmittance
7.
1. γ-Fe2O3
2. CrO2
3. Fe
4. BaO.6Fe2O3
8.
 Body - cast iron moulded /Aluminum alloy moulded
 The stator core - laminated steel alloy sheets pressed together with the varnish applied on it
 The squirrel cage rotor - laminated steel alloy sheets pressed together with the copper bars inserted in the outer circle
of the rotor.
 Rotor shaft is made of steel and shaft is pressed into the rotor.
 Bearings – chrome steel
 End Shields are made of cast iron /aluminium alloy.
 Stator windings are made of insulated copper winding wire.
 Terminals for the motor connection are made of brass or copper.
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9. The dielectric strength of an insulator or dielectric material is given by the maximum potential difference which a unit
thickness of the material can withstand without breaking down. The unit of dielectric strength is volts per meter (V/m)
and it is usually expressed in kV/mm.

10.
1. Nichrome
2. Kanthal
3. Cupronickel

PART-B

1.a Dielectric loss is a quantity of dissipation of electromagnetic energy. An efficient dielectric supports a varying charge
with minimal dissipation of energy in the form of heat. There are two main forms of loss that may dissipate energy
within a dielectric. In conduction loss, a flow of charge through the material causes energy dissipation. Dielectric loss
is the dissipation of energy through the movement of charges in an alternating electromagnetic field as polarization
switches direction. Dielectric loss tends to be higher in materials with higher dielectric constants. This is the downside
of using these materials in practical applications. Dielectric loss is utilized to heat food in a microwave oven: the
frequency of the microwaves used is close to the relaxation frequency of the orientational polarization mechanism in
water, meaning that any water present absorbs a lot of energy that is then dissipated as heat. The exact frequency
used is slightly away from the frequency at which maximum dielectric loss occurs in water to ensure that the
microwaves are not all absorbed by the first layer of water they encounter, therefore allowing more even heating of
the food.
The dielectric losses of a material are directly related to its resistance. High losses means low resistance. The losses
are often expressed with the imaginary part of the dielectric permittivity e''. The quotient of the imaginary and the
real part of the dielectric permittivity (e''/e') represents the loss tangent. The loss and loss tangent depend on material
and the material processing parameters. The loss tangent is difficult to be interpreted, because it is a mix of
permittivity and losses.
commonly-used factor to describe the quality of the insulation is dielectric dissipation factor (DDF) or loss tangent it
is denoted by tan δ and unit is radian. Dissipation factor is defined as the reciprocal of the ratio between the insulating
materials capacitive reactance to its resistance at a specified frequency. It measures the inefficiency of an insulating
material. The loss tangent contains a very small value for free space. For solid materials there tan δ = 0.003, that is
equivalent to a Q that is quality factor of 3000. A quite good value of Q for a coil is approximately 300. That is why
more significance to losses in a coil is specified. The variation of tan δ with frequency will demonstrate normal
resonance behavior. It is shown in the figure below. The curves of tan δ contain the largest value in the region of
frequencies here is a sharp change in the dielectric constant. In case of ionic resonance, it changes in the dielectric
constant arises from microwave to infrared areas of frequencies. The dielectric losses related with ionic vibrations are
generally referred to as infrared absorption. Likewise, the losses in the optical region related with electronic vibrations
are referred to as optical absorption. Therefore, it is possible to predict whether the dielectric properties are because
of ionic or electronic polarization.

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1.b Photoelectric cell or photo emissive cell is an electronic device which works on the principle of photo-electric
effect and converts light energy into electrical energy. The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons or other
free carriers when light shines on a material. Electrons emitted in this manner can be called photo electrons.

There are two types of photo-emissive cells; Vacuum type or gas filled type cells. Generally, it consists of two
electrodes i.e. cathode (K) and anode (A). The cathode is in the form of semi-cylindrical plate coated with photo-
sensitive material like sodium potassium or cesium i.e. alkali metals. To have large current, it is usually coated
with antimony cesium alloy or combination of bismuth, silver, oxygen and cesium. The anode (A) is in the
form of a straight wire made of nickel or platinum. The anode (A) faces the cathode (K). These electrodes are sealed
in an evacuated glass or quartz bulb according to weather it is to be used with visible or ultra-violet light. As the
current due to vacuum is small, so to increase the current, the bulb of the cells is filled with an inert gas like helium,
neon, argon etc. at pressure of 1mm of mercury. The emitter is shaped in the form of a semi-hollow cylinder. It is
always kept at a negative potential. The collector is in the form of a metal rod and fixed at the axis of the semi-
cylindrical emitter. The collector is always kept at a positive potential. The glass tube is fitted on non-metallic base
and pins are provided at the base for external connection.
A radiation of frequency more than the threshold frequency of material of emitter is made incident
on the emitter. Photo-emission takes place. The photo-electrons are attracted towards the collector which is positive
with respect to the emitter, Thus current flows in the circuit. If the intensity of incident radiation is increased the
photoelectric current increases.
The main drawback of this type of cell (i.e., gas filled cell) is that the photo-electric current does not vary
linearly with the intensity of the light. Since there is no time lag between the incident light and the flow of electrons
and hence current, therefore such a cell is used in television, photometry, fire alarm etc. Photo-electric cell is used in
the reproduction of sound which is recorded on a movie film. Photo-electric cell is used in exposure meter. The
exposure meter is used along with a camera to know the correct time of exposure for having a good photograph.
Photo-electric cell is used in lux-meter. This device is used to determine the intensity of light. Photo-electric cell is
used in burglar-alarm. This device is kept near a safe to be protected from a thief.
2.a
Impregnation process is used for applying a coating of decorative & protective layers on the substrate, the
impregnation plants are most commonly used for coating of chemically balanced liquids to protect the components
and materials from damage of problems by filling the micropores (very narrow space or hole in a material left in
material due to various processes) from causing serious issues. The impregnation process is most commonly used in
the increasing capacity/protecting the Film paper, Press Board, Paper, Wood, Asbestos board, Mica, Micanite, Cotton
or silk, Rubber, Insulating fabrics, PLASTICS, motor winding, electrical and mechanical machine components and etc.
The process of Impregnation helps
 Preventing leakage in insulating materials
 To reduce moisture defense
 To advance reliability of welds
 To varnish the motor windings
 To prevent accumulation of undesired elements like dust, dirt, chemicals or water
 To improve overall parameters of the equipment/component

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Paper impregnation have two sections, one to fill the core and the second to coat the surface. Both sections consist
of an application unit, and a drying stage. This process requires that the resin be uniformly distributed within the paper
core and on its surface. This is achieved by careful adjustment of the resin viscosity and line speed, and through the
obligatory use of specially designed additives. After drying the impregnated papers can be stored for several months
before being hot-pressed onto boards. During hot-pressing or thermo-fusing the resin in the paper softens sufficiently
to bond with the substrate. Subsequently the resin cures to become a very hard and durable solid that protects the
décor paper. Release agents support the clean separation of the laminated board from the press plate. Curing speed
and completion is determined by the right choice of catalysts. All additives and catalysts are added to the resin prior
to the impregnation process.
2.b Insulating oil in an electrical power transformer is commonly known as transformer oil. It is normally obtained by
fractional distillation and subsequent treatment of crude petroleum. That is why this oil is also known as mineral
insulating oil. The properties that are required to be looked into before selecting an oil for transformer application are
as follows,
 INSULTING PROPERTY
This is a very important property. However most of the oils naturally fulfill this. Therefore, deterioration in insulating
property due to moisture or contamination may be more relevant.
 VISCOSITY
It is important as it determines the rate of flow of the fluid. Highly viscous fluids need much bigger clearances for
adequate heat removal.
 PURITY
The oil must not contain impurities which are corrosive. Sulphur or its compounds as impurities cause formation of
sludge and also attack metal parts.
 SLUDGE FORMATION
Thickening of oil into a semisolid form is called a sludge. Sludge formation properties have to be considered while
choosing the oil as the oil slowly forms semi-solid hydrocarbons. These impede flows and due to the acidic nature,
corrode metal parts. Heat in the presence of oxygen is seen to accelerate sludge formation. If the hot oil is prevented
from coming into contact with atmospheric air sludge formation can be greatly reduced.
 ACIDITY
Oxidized oil normally produces CO2 and acids. The cellulose which is in the paper insulation contains good amount
of moisture. These form corrosive vapors. A good breather can reduce the problems due to the formation of acids.
 FLASH POINT AND FIRE POINT
Flash point of an oil is the temperature at which the oil ignites spontaneously. This must be as high as possible (not
less than 160◦C from the point of safety). Fire point is the temperature at which the oil flashes and continuously
burns. This must be very high for the chosen oil (not less than 200◦C).
 POUR POINT
It is the minimum temperature at which oil starts to flow under standard test condition. Pour point of transformer
oil is a valuable property mainly at the places where the climate is icy. If the oil temperature falls below the pour
point, transformer oil stops convection flowing and obstruct cooling in a transformer.

Inhibited oils and synthetic oils are therefore used in the transformers. Inhibited oils contain additives which
slow down the deterioration of properties under heat and moisture and hence the degradation of oil. Synthetic
transformer oil like chlorinated di-phenyl has excellent properties like chemical stability, non-oxidizing, good
dielectric strength, moisture repellent, reduced risk due fire and explosion.

Transformer oil serves mainly two purposes one it is liquid insulation in electrical power transformer and two it
dissipates heat of the transformer e.i. acts as a coolant. In addition to these, this oil serves other two purposes, it
helps to preserve the core and winding as these are fully immersed inside oil, and another important purpose of this
oil is, it prevents direct contact of atmospheric oxygen with cellulose made paper insulation of windings, which is
susceptible to oxidation.

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3.a
Insulating materials can be classified in two ways as below

1. Classification according to substances and materials.

2. Classification according to temperature.
1. Classification According to Substances and Materials:
(i) Solids (Inorganic and Organic) - Mica, wood, slate, glass, porcelain, rubber, cotton, silk, rayon, terylene, paper
and cellulose materials etc.
(ii) Liquids (Oils and Varnishes) - Linseed oil, refined hydrocarbon mineral oils, spirit and synthetic varnishes etc.
(iii) Gases - Dry air, carbon dioxide, argon, nitrogen etc.
(iv) Vacuum has excellent insulating and arc quenching properties.
Material properties are breakdown strength, relative permittivity, thermal stability limit, thermal
conductivity and density. More than one class of insulating materials also used together.
2. Classification According to Temperature
The majority of electrical insulation is organic in its chemical nature and is subjected to chemical change
which is caused by the chemical reactions which are continually occurring. These chemical reactions cause
gradual deterioration and reduce the effectiveness of the insulation. The reaction rate is very sensitive to
temperature, i.e. exponentially dependent on temperature. The conductor temperature where it is contact with
the insulation that determines the insulation operating temperature.
The following are brief explanations of those insulation techniques,
 Class-Y insulation
Withstands a temperature of up to 90°C. Typically made of cotton, silk, or paper
 Class-A insulation
Withstands a temperature of up to 105°C; reinforced Class-Y materials with impregnated varnish or
insulation oil.
 Class-E insulation
Withstands a temperature of up to 120°C. Example, Varnish-treated polyethylene terephthalate cloth, Enamel
wire polyurethane resin Enamel wire epoxy resin.
 Class-B insulation
Withstands a temperature of up to 130°C. This has a form that inorganic material is hardened with
adhesives. This is the first insulator using this structure.
 Class-F insulation
Withstands a temperature of up to 155°C. For example, made of Class-B materials that are upgraded with
adhesives, silicone, and alkyd-resin varnish of higher thermal endurance.
 Class-H insulation
Withstands a temperature of up to 180°C. For example, made of inorganic material glued with silicone resin
or adhesives of equivalent performance.
 Class-N insulation
Materials or combinations of materials which by experience or accepted tests can be shown to have required
thermal life at 200°C.
 Class-R insulation
Materials or combinations of materials which by experience or accepted tests can be shown to have required
thermal life at 220°C.
 Class-S insulation
Materials or combinations of materials which by experience or accepted tests can be shown to have required
thermal life at 240°C.
 Class-C insulation
Materials consisting entirely of mica, porcelain, glass, quartz, and similar inorganic materials. Other materials or
combination of materials may be included if can be shown to have required thermal life at above 240°C.

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3.b
Orientational polarization
In absence of external electric field, electric dipoles are oriented randomly that their net effect
becomes zero but in presence of electric field, these dipole try to rotate and align in the direction of electric
field. This is known as orientation polarization which is dependent over temperature. Orientational polarization
arises when there is a permanent dipole moment in the material. Materials such as HCl and H2O will have a net
permanent dipole moment because the charge distributions of these molecules are skewed. For example, in a HCl
molecule , the chlorine atom will be negatively charged and the hydrogen atoms will be positively charged causing the
molecule to be dipolar. The dipolar nature of the molecule should cause a dipole moment in the material, however,
in the absence of an electric field, the dipole moment is canceled out by thermal agitation resulting in a net zero dipole
moment per molecule. When an electric field is applied however, the molecule will begin to rotate to align the
molecule with the field, causing a net average dipole moment per molecule as shown in figure.

Loss tangent
Dielectric loss reveals a dielectric material's inherent dissipation of electromagnetic energy (e.g. heat). It can be
parameterized in terms of either the loss angle δ or the corresponding loss tangent tan δ. Both refer to the phasor in
the complex plane whose real and imaginary parts are the resistive (lossy) component of an electromagnetic field and
its reactive (lossless) counterpart. In the perfect insulator, polarization is complete during each cycle and there is no
consumption of energy and charging current lead the applied voltage by 90°. But for commercial dielectric, this phase
angle is less than 90° by an angle δ and is called dielectric loss angle. Tan δ is taken as measure of dielectric loss and
is known as loss tangent. The loss tangent of a medium is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of imaginary part and
magnitude real part of the complex permittivity. Loss tangent is frequency dependent. The dielectric loss tangent (tan
δ) of a material denotes quantitatively dissipation of the electrical energy due to different physical processes such as
electrical conduction, dielectric relaxation, dielectric resonance and loss from non-linear processes.
5.a
Insulations are defined as those materials or combinations of materials which retard the flow of heat energy by
performing one or more of the following functions
• Conserve energy by reducing heat loss or gain
• Control surface temperature for personal protection and comfort.
• Facilitate temperature control process .
• Prevent vapour flow and water condensation on cold surfaces.
• Prevent or reduce damage to equipment from exposure to fire or corrosive atmospheres.
• Reduce emissions of pollutants to the atmosphere

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Fibrous insulation are composed of small diameter fibers which finely divide the air space . the fibers may be
perpendicular or parallel to the surface being insulated, and they may or may not be bonded together. silica ,rock
wool , slag wool and alumina silica fibers are used . the most widely used insulations of this type are glass fiber and
mineral wool. Glass fiber and mineral wool products usually have their fibers bonded together with organic binders
that supply the limited structural integrity of the products. fibrous insulation is a specific type of insulation that works
by capturing air within the fibers , preventing the heat transmission through convection .this type of insulation also
limits heat conduction between molecules of gases by minimizing collisions between the particles.
Types of fibrous insulation are the below,
Fiber glass: this type of insulation is composed of extremely fine fibers of glass and comes in rolls or loose fill. fiber
glass insulation is made from molten glass that is spun or blown in to fibers.
Mineral wool: this type of insulation is man made and consists of natural minerals or minerals left over from use of
molten metal . it contains a significant amount of industrial recycled content and doesn’t require any extra chemicals
to make it fire retardant. mineral wool insulation comes in rolls or loose fill.
Cellulose: cellulose insulation is made of recycled paper products such as news print .the paper used is cut into small
pieces and then fiberized and packed in to cavities ,chemical compounds , such as mineral borate , can be added to
increase fire resistance.
Natural fiber: some natural fibers including cotton, wool, straw, and hemp are used as insulation material. cotton
insulation is non toxic, but is more costly than fiberglass insulation and must be treated with borate to make it flame
retardant. wool must also be treated with borate , but can hold large amount of water which can remove this flame
resisting coating .
Acoustic insulators
Fibrous materials have also been used to dampen acoustic resonances, characteristic impedance and propagation
constants were measured for super – thin fiber glass with different fiber diameters and density. The empirical relations
between the acoustic parameters and physical values characterizing an internal medium macrostructure were then
derived.
5.b
The term resin has been applied to a group of substances obtained as gums from trees or manufactured
synthetically. The word gum was originally applied to any soft sticky product derived from trees: for example latex
obtained from heavea trees, which is the source of natural rubber, ie; chemically unsaturated polyisoprene. Resins
and related resinous products are produced in plants during normal growth or secreted as a result of injury to the
plants.
Physical characters of resin are the below,
• All resins are heavier than water , they are usually amorphous , hard and brittle solids.
• They are insoluble in water and usually insoluble in petroleum ether but dissolve more or less completely in alcohol,
chloroform and ether.
• Chemically , resins are complex mixtures of resins acids, resin alcohol(resinols), resin phenols(resinotannols),esters
and chemically inert compounds known as resenes.
• Many resins when boiled with alkalies yield soaps.
• By the action of heat they soften yielding clear, adhesive fluids, resins burn with a characteristic, smoky flame.
Chemically resins are not pure substances but complex mixtures of several resinous substances as resin
acids, resin alcohol, resin esters, and neutral resins. Resins do not contain nitrogen elements .
Natural resins
Natural resins are typically fusible and flammable organic substances that are transparent or translucent and are
yellowish to brown in colour . they are formed in plant secretions and are soluble in various organic liquids but not in
water. natural resins , occur as exudates from plants, produced normally or as result of pathogenic conditions.
Synthetic resins
Synthetic resins are materials with a property of interest that is similar to natural plant resins: they are viscous
liquids that are capable of hardening permanently. Chemically they are very different from the various resinous
compounds secreted by plants. Synthetic resins comprise a large class of synthetic products that have some of the
physical properties of natural resins but are different chemically. Synthetic resins are not clearly differentiated from
plastics.
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7.a Ferrites are composed of iron oxide and one or more other metals in chemical combination. Ferrites are having
particular useful properties like magnetic properties and dielectric properties. Ferrites are having dielectric properties
means that even though electromagnetic waves can pass through ferrites, they do not readily conduct electricity.
This gives them an advantage over iron, nickel, and other transition metals that have magnetic properties
(“ferromagnetic”) in many applications because these metals also conduct electricity. Materials can become
magnetic because each of the molecules that make up the material function have a “magnetic moment”, that is they
function like a very tiny magnet. When they all line up the overall material can produce a magnetic field. In the
“ferrimagnetic” ferrites, as opposed to the “ferromagnetic” metals, there is not one alignment but a distinctive
arrangement of parallel and perpendicular magnetic moments. This arrangement gives them their interesting
properties. This effect can be achieved through several different crystal structures. Different ferrites lend themselves
to different applications, as we will see. Because their magnetism depends on an orderly crystal structure, both
ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials can lose their magnetism if they’re heated too high or subjected to
mechanical stresses. Ferrite could be a single crystal or a collection of crystals grown together. In practice ferrites are
made from pressing together iron oxide powders under high heat. Because of this, ferrites can be put into a ceramic
or rubber matrix and molded into an endless variety of sizes and shapes. Because there are different types of ferrites,
different mixtures of iron oxides with other materials added as well and can be produced with the exact desired
combination electrical and magnetic properties. A ferrite is formed by the reaction of ferric oxide (iron oxide or rust)
with any of a number of other metals, including magnesium, aluminum, barium, manganese, copper, nickel, cobalt,
or even iron itself. The chemical composition of ferrites are includes spinel type, garnet type and hexagonal type. A
ferrite is usually described by the formula M(FexOy), where M represents any metal that forms divalent bonds.
Ferrites are hard, brittle, iron-containing, and generally gray or black and are polycrystalline—i.e., made up of a large
number of small crystals.
A ferrite is formed by the reaction of ferric oxide (iron oxide or rust) with any of a number of other metals,
including magnesium, aluminum, barium, manganese, copper, nickel, cobalt, or even iron itself.
Examples - Nickel ferrite- NiFe2O4, manganese ferrite-MnFe2O4, Yttrium- Y3Fe5O12 , Barium- BaO:6Fe2O3 and
magnetite- Fe(Fe2O4)
Whenever a fixed magnet, as opposed to an electromagnet, is needed, ferrites are used. Certain types of electric
generators and electric motors use fixed magnets, and ferrites are ideal for these applications. They are used as cores
for inductors and transformers. Cassette and video tapes use ferrites coated onto the plastic base to record the signal.
And many computers up to the 1970s used magnetic core memories where the cores were made of ferrite. Because
of their reliability, ferrite core memories were used in the Space Shuttle until 1990. The most important use of ferrites
is as a medium for transmitting microwaves. This is because some ferrites at very high frequencies (beginning above
about 500 MHz, and very strongly in the microwave range of 1 to 30 GHz) exhibit a nonreciprocal effect. That means
that electromagnetic waves passing through them behave differently traveling in different directions. This
phenomenon allows the construction of one-way transmission lines, junctions that can control the “traffic” of
microwaves, and other microwave control devices. Our modern telecommunications system would not be possible
without ferrites.
7.b
Magnetic material should have the following properties
 Retentivity
The ability of a material to retain some quantity of residual magnetic field when on achieving the stage of saturation,
the magnetizing force is removed is called retentivity of the material.
 Residual Magnetism or Residual Flux:
It is the amount of magnetic flux density that remains in the material when the magnetizing force is reduced to zero.
At saturation level, both retentivity and residual magnetism are the same but before that residual magnetism may
be lower than the retentivity.

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 Coercive force
In order to make magnetic flux equal to zero, the amount of reverse magnetic field which is required to be applied
to the magnetic material is called the coercive force.
 Permeability
The property that explains the effortlessness with which a magnetic flux is established in the component.
 Reluctance
It is the opposition that a ferromagnetic material shows to the establishment of a magnetic field. Reluctance is
analogous to the resistance in an electrical circuit.

Magnetic materials can be divided in to two families based on their resistance to being demagnetized.
Hard type material
Magnetic materials which retain their magnetism and are difficult to demagnetize are called hard magnetic
materials. These materials retain their magnetism even after the removal of the applied magnetic field. Hence these
materials are used for making permanent magnets. In permanent magnet the movement of the domain wall is
prevented. They are prepared by heating the magnetic materials to the required temperature and then quenching
them. Impurities increase the strength of hard magnetic materials.
 They have large hysteresis loss due to large hysteresis loop area.
 Susceptibility and permeability are low.
 Coercivity and retentivity values are large
 Magnetic energy stored is high.
 They possess high value of BH product
 The eddy current loss is high.
Example: Alnico, chromium steel, tungsten steel, carbon steel.
Hard type materials have high coercivity, so they are difficult to demagnetize. They are used to make permanent
magnet for refrigerator magnets, loud speakers small electric motors and so on.
Soft type material
Soft magnetic materials are easy to magnetize and demagnetize. these materials are used for making temporary
magnets. the domain wall movement is easy. Hence, they are easy to magnetize. by annealing the cold worked
materials, the dislocation density is reduced and the domain wall movement is made easier. soft magnetic materials
should not possess any void and its structure should be homogeneous so that the materials are not affected by
impurities.
 They have low hysteresis loss due to small hysteresis area.
 Susceptibility and permeability are high.
 Coercivity and retentivity values are less.
 Since they have low retentivity and coercivity, they are not used for making permanent magnets.
 Magnetic energy stored is less.
 The eddy current loss is less because of high resistivity.
Example: iron –silicon alloy, ferrous nickel alloy
Soft type materials have low coercivity, so they easily change their magnetization and act as conductors of magnetic
fields. they are used in the electronics industry to make efficient magnetic cores called ferrite cores for high frequency
inductors and transformers and in various microwave components.

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