3D Seismic Interpretation

3D SEISMIC INTERPRETATION

3.1 COLOUR: CONCEPTS, USES, AND PERCEPTIONS

The use of colour in seismic interpretation has been made possible through the development of
sophisticated workstation software. As colour by its very nature is subjective, the interpreter should
experiment with different colour schemes to find the one that best suits him or her when doing
interpretation.

Recall from your Physics classes at school that there are three additive primary colours: red, green
and blue; and three subtractive primary colours: magenta, yellow and cyan.

Concepts: Hue, saturation and density:

Colour is characterized by the above three parameters, which can be displayed on a colour cube (or
other shaped display). Varying the three parameters will change the colour perceived by the
observer, and you are encouraged to experiment with the colour parameters as given on your
particular software. A scheme that suits one person will not necessarily suit another, so it would be
pointless to recommend one scheme for you to follow.

 Hue: the spectral content of the colour

 Saturation: graded from 0 to full; affects the visual perception of the colour
 Density: a continuous scale of grayness (from white to black)

Uses:
The primary use of colour is to enhance the visual perception of the seismic data. In particular, the
use of colour to indicate the amplitude of the seismic signal has made it possible to correlate high
amplitude response with structural and stratigraphic features.

Contrasting colour schemes: used, for example, in a contour map giving a definite change of
colour at a boundary

Gradational colour schemes: used to highlight trends, patterns and continuity, as for example
when interpreting a seismic section.

Perceptions:

As stated above, the use of colour is very subjective, and different people find it easier to work with
different schemes. Having said that, the author finds that a continuous gray scale, with no wiggle
trace overlay, is excellent for interpreting faults. The only way to find out the best scheme for you is
to experiment. Most interpretation software packages not only allow you to choose any on of a
number of standard schemes, but in fact to build your own colour scheme from scratch.

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3.2 SOFTWARE CAPABILITIES

When deciding on which software package to buy and install, the minimum capabilities should
include the following:

 Automatic and manual tracking of horizons on both vertical and horizontal sections.
 Automatic spatial horizon tracking and editing throughout a 3D volume
 Correlation of vertical sections with well data, including the ability to apply “stretch and
squeeze” to a sonic and/or synthetic seismogram
 Extraction, sorting and manipulation of seismic amplitudes
 Manipulation of maps
 Flexible use of colour
 Extraction and use of seismic attributes

3.3. TO GET STARTED

When interpreting a 3D volume you should:

 Understand the phase of the data before interpreting

 Use horizontal sections as much as possible
 Study and interpret the minimum horizontal and vertical sections necessary for automatic
picking
 Use the intermediate horizon products
 Be careful of smoothing; if you use too much smoothing you may lose important
stratigraphic information, and you may lose small-throw faults
 Combine your seismic interpretation with stratigraphic and reservoir studies
 Never hesitate to use the expertise of geologists and reservoir engineers!

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3.4. PATTERN RECOGNITION USING 2D EXAMPLES

This section of the notes contains some examples of 2D sections to illustrate some of the
stratigraphic and structural features that one needs to recognize on a seismic section.

Faults, unconformities, sand and shale sequences:

- Unconformity

Sand/Shale
Sequence

- Unconformity

- Unconformity

T. Patterson, P.T. Selva, and H. Constens in AAPG Geological Studies, Series No. 27, AAPG 1988. Reprinted with permission

Here we see a Jurassic rifting sequence with several unconformities above, marking definite
sequence boundaries. The importance of the ability to identify sequence boundaries cannot be over-
stressed.

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Thrust faulting:

M. Pieri in AAPG Geological Studies, Series No. 27, AAPG 1988. Reprinted with permission

This section illustrates the problem we often face in such regimes: poor imaging below the fault
plane

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Reef:

Reef:

The possible presence of a reef is characterized by lack of internal reflectivity, drape over the top
and the hint of velocity pull-up underneath

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Channel Sand:

The channel is quite obvious. It should be noted that this is a reverse polarity section. What is the
importance of knowing the polarity of your section?

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Salt tectonics:

This example contains an interpretation pitfall in the dipping event seen inside the salt; this is a
reflection from out of the plane of the section (“side-swipe”). The cap rock at the top of the salt is
quite evident.

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Salt tectonics

Amplitude
-30000

-20000

-10000

0.

10000

20000

30000
MMD_ Moves
AA' - MMD_Moves - Crossline 283

L 825 775 725 675 625 575 525 475 425 375 325 275 225 175 125 75 L
XL 283 283 283 283 283 283 283 283 283 283 283 283 283 283 283 283 XL
Time (Seconds)

1.000 1.000

2.000 2.000

3.000 3.000

4.000 4.000

This vertical slice from a 3D data volume is through 2 salt domes that have pierced to the surface.
Note the severe deformation of adjacent stratigraphic units.

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Reef as seen on a 2D slice from a 3D data set:

The top of the reef is seen at about 3.5 seconds in the centre of the section. Note the presence of
several fault blocks shallower in the section

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The angular unconformity, and faulting

Amplitude
- 10000

- 5000.

0.

5000.

10000

Chambers
BB' - Chambers - Crossline 65

L 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 91 101 111 121 131 141 151 161 171 181 191 201 211 221 231 241 251 261 271 281 291 301 311 321 331 341 351 361 371 381 391 401 411 421 431 441 451 461 471 481 491 501 511 521 531 541 551 561 571 581 591 601 611 L
XL 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 XL
Time (Seconds)

3.000 3.000

The main angular unconformity is seen below the one second timing line. The reader is encouraged
to identify the many faults on this 2D slice from a 3D data volume. Also consider the problem of
correlating horizons across either side of a fault plane.

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Listric Faulting

In this example you can trace a number of listric, or curved, normal faults. They apparently sole out
in a thick shale section.

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The 3D time slice:

This 3D time slice is given here to illustrate the use of the time slice to identify a channel system in
plan view. It also shows the cross-section of two salt domes, seen in an earlier illustration in a
vertical time slice from this data volume.

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3.5. STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION

By the time you are ready to do structural interpretation it is assumed that you have learned to
recognize the various patterns on a seismic section, particularly faults, both normal (including listric
and growth faults) and reverse. Faults are identified by truncation of events, in both vertical and
horizontal sections.

The basic procedure is as follows:

 Identify the major faults in the data cube. Interpret these and define your fault polygons.
Be sure you identify your faults correctly through the data volume. You may find that
fault segments that you have initially identified as being separate and unique are in fact
segments of the same fault plane so re-naming and consolidation may be required.
 Within the major (largest) fault block, map horizons using the horizontal section. Contours
are drawn on the horizontal section at the desired contour interval.
 When the first fault block is interpreted satisfactorily, then revert back to the vertical
sections to correlate across the fault.
 After correlating across the fault plane interpret the second fault block, and so on.

Cross – fault correlation

A problem facing all interpreters is how to correlate across a fault plane (or across any other feature
that interrupts the sedimentary sequence). There are a number of techniques you can use:

 Correlate the seismic data with wells drilled on either side of the fault (the best method!!)
 Correlate on the basis of isochrons
 Correlate on the basis of seismic character

The last two should be done together. Remember the cardinal rule: your interpretation and indeed
your correlation across faults must be geologically defensible.

Use of time slices

Time slices can be generated by most good interpretation software packages. You may need to
have your seismic processor generate the required slices to be loaded into your workstation project.
Whatever means you have to use, it is important to specify the right number of slices, generated at
the appropriate intervals. To do this you should examine the migrated data for the frequency
content. You need to ensure that you generate sufficient slices through the zone of interest to sees
the necessary detail.

Once you have the time slices generated, you can then use them to contour your horizon directly on
screen. Note that, if you are scrolling downward in time, an anticline will produce contours that
become gradually larger in diameter; a syncline will appear in the opposite fashion.

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Dealing with the poor reflector

What is the 3D equivalent of the phantom horizon? If you know where your target horizon is, but it
is not itself a good reflector so you cannot see it well, choose a reflector above the desired
objective, that parallels the objective as closely as possible. Time this reflector. Then add a fixed
time to the reflector you have picked, to make it closer to the objective. Once you have done that,
then use wells and vertical sections to estimate any corrections needed to the objective horizon.
Interpolate between these calibration points to produce the final correction map.

Use of the isochron

It is very common to map in time – that is, to produce just a time structure (or depth structure)
map. However in doing so you run the risk of producing a time structure for something that is not
real. You must be able to show that the structure you have mapped really existed at the time that
hydrocarbon migration was taking place. In other words, you must be able to show that the trap
existed in time to be filled with hydrocarbons. To do this you must make an isochron (or isopach)
map.

The basic procedure is to choose a well known reflector, younger in age than the horizon of
interest, and to generate a map of the time difference between this marker horizon and your
horizon of interest. In doing this, you will generate a map of your horizon that will show structure
that was real and in existence at the time of deposition of your marker horizon. In this way you
should be able to relate the trapping mechanism to the time of hydrocarbon generation and
migration.

A quick way to check the validity of a time structure is to use a pair of dividers and check the
isochron over the structure of interest. If there is isochron thinning then you can assume that the
time structure is indeed real.

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3.6. STRATIGRAPHIC INTERPRETATION

Stratigraphic interpretation involves the ability to recognize certain patterns on a seismic section
and relate them to geological changes. Some of the basic elements are recognition of:

 Shale sections: characterized by very little reflectivity – a “quiet” zone on the seismic
section.
 Sandy sections: a higher amplitude of reflectivity.
 Flooding surfaces: recognition of on-lap
 Sequence boundaries: recognition of on-lap, down-lap, and truncation
 Unconformities and disconformities (usually marking sequence boundaries)
 Reefs: characterized by drape, lack of internal reflectivity and possibly velocity pull-up
below
 Channels: characterized by drape, accommodation, and in 3D time slice or horizon slice
view, sinuosity
 Salt: again, characterized by lack of internal reflectivity, distortion of the surrounding
sediments, faulting above, and possibly the presence of a cap rock. Processing in the
vicinity of salt can prove to be major headache because of the large velocity contrasts
present.

Most of these stratigraphic examples are illustrated in the second section of these notes “Pattern
Recognition”

 Pinch-outs: as a bed thins, so the vertical resolution becomes more problematical. One
indication of thinning is an increase in amplitude at the tuning thickness, beyond which
the unit tends to disappear. Unfortunately the author does not have a good seismic
example to show of this phenomenon.

The “interpretation tools” to look for are:

 Phase changes: a lateral phase change over a few stack traces is often an indicator of a
change in facies. This can also indicate a change in porosity or fluid content.
 Change in the wavelet shape: the edge of a thin bed may be indicated by a “shoulder” just
above or below the peak of the wavelet (depending on the polarity of the section).
Recall discussions about vertical resolution.
 The tuning effect (mentioned above)
 Changes in amplitude: a lateral change in amplitude over several traces can be the result of
a facies change, a porosity change, or a change in fluid content.

The right use of colour is also critical in stratigraphic interpretation. Do not over-saturate your
colour bar, as you are looking for subtle changes that you do not want masked by too strong a
colour.

One of the most powerful tools in stratigraphic interpretation is the time slice, as it can properly
delineate features seen only in cross-section on the vertical slice (a good example being the channel
example given in the second section). Fault patterns around salt domes can often be easily traced
on the time slice.

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Stratigraphic interpretation in the presence of structure:

Consider the situation where you have interpreted a structural prospect, defining the faults and
interpreting the horizons. On a horizon of interest, you see an amplitude anomaly or some other
evidence of a stratigraphic feature. How do you interpret and follow the feature?

The procedure is as follows:

 Flatten the data volume on the horizon of interest

 Use the interpretation software to generate time slices of the data
 Slowly slice down through the horizon of interest (i.e. at the level of the interpreted
horizon). You should then be able to interpret the feature of interest.

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3.7. DEPTH IMAGING

The topic of depth imaging should properly be dealt with in a separate course by itself. For the
purposes of this course we will discuss very briefly the generation of depth images from time data.
Make sure firstly that your software has the capability to generate depth maps from the time
sections.

The key to producing depth images is of course velocity modeling. Having a good velocity model is
critical. You should consider very carefully what velocity data you have to work with. The best
source is of course a well with a check-shot survey, or even better, a VSP.

Single velocity model:

The simplest depth image, although not a very accurate one, is generated with a single velocity.
The technique is to use the average velocity from surface to the horizon in question, and the one-
way time, to calculate the depth for the complete horizon. In the absence of well information then
you are restricted to using the stacking velocities from the seismic section itself. This is inherently
the most inaccurate method to use.

Interval velocity model (layer cake method):

In this, more accurate model, you identify layers in the section for which you can derive the interval
velocities from your well information. With enough wells in the area you can also handle lateral
velocity changes.

The basic technique is to determine the velocity of the first layer, along with the one way time to
the first horizon, and calculate that depth. You then proceed, layer by layer, until you have reached
the horizon of interest.

Pre-stack depth migration:

The ultimate (and best) depth imaging is of course pre-stack depth migration, which his a process
that is finally reaching the interpreting geophysicist as a reality. Again, the validity of the process is
only as good as the velocity modeling.

It is critical to calibrate the depth image that you produce. The depth map must match the depth of
the horizons at every well that penetrates the horizon mapped.

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3.8. ATTRIBUTES

Attribute classification is based on a fairly limited amount of basic information derivable from the
complex seismic trace:

 Time: provides structural information

 Amplitude: provides stratigraphic and reservoir information
 Frequency: not yet fully understood, but may provide further stratigraphic and reservoir
information
 Attenuation: not yet used but may in future yield information on permeability.

Note that these are all post-stack attributes. The main pre-stack attribute used today is that related
to the angle of incidence (hence source-receiver offset), in other words the AVO effect.

3.9 Reference

The reference for this material is Interpretation of Three-Dimensional Seismic Data by Alistair R.
Brown, published by the AAPG. This text should be a standard reference for anyone doing 3D
interpretation.

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