Cold War and the US

Introduction
Definition:
- A conflict of about 50 years
- Build upon an antagonism between the USA and the USSR
- Around 1990, we can detect the balance dissolved
- The US won this antagonism → unipolarisation
- It affected many countries (e.g. in Central-Europe and Western European countries were
no exceptions either)
- Cold War had a pressurizing role → integration (Western Europe)
- There are many questions that are still undiscovered
- Contemporary problem: researchers experienced cold war → they are biased
- Problem 2: there are still political figures today who played a role in the cold war →
dissatisfaction of sources
The research:
- Mapping, exploring international power relations in a European and in the global
context
- E. g. spying activities (nuclear weapons)
- What is believable and what is not?
- Writing cold war history was originally an American genre (it wasn’t possible in the
Soviet Union)
- 2 main topics of research:
o Who is the arch-devil?
o Who is the archangel? (Americans)
- The image of the enemy is very important → a very strong, moralized narrative is
needed
- The Soviet Union wasn’t able to stabilize Europe → trigger
- The question ‘Who caused it?’ cannot be answered
- 2nd wave of researchers: Revisionists (1980s and 1990s)
o New sources were published
 Americans started researching the topic without heavy emotions (the
enemy disappeared)
 They didn’t solely blame the Soviets anymore
- There were also some myths about the war → to maintain their nation’s image
o Conspiration theory: Americans and Soviets, too
 Communist vs. imperialist agents
o Golden Age theory: the cold war ruined everything
o Heroism: emphasizes the role of 1 or 2 people in the war
o The classical theory of security zones → both wanted to protect their security
zones
- Building the image of the enemy was very important
- The actions and reactions build up a chain reaction in the cold war
- There is a plentiful number of sources
 - The knowledge acquired so far has to be shared in spite of the fact that there is no
objectivity
- A historian has to have a great imagination to be able to put things together → has to
“use the heads of the people”
Sections of the cold war:
- 1945-50: pre-cold war
- The mid 1950s: major phase of the cold war
- Smaller sections
- End: 1990
Russian-American relations:
- No relations → They followed isolating tendencies
o They were building their own empires continentally
o No real meeting
o No historical relations
- The 20th century brought about possible conflicts
o Americans: “policemen of the world”
o Russia: expansionist phase
- 1919-1921: The war of intervention
o Impossible to maintain a longer war with Russia
o The first official conflict between them (but no hatred)
- After 1921, the reds won against the whites → the USA didn’t recognize the new Soviet
Union → diplomatic ties cut
- 1930s: diplomatic ties re-established because of the Great Depression
- Grand Alliance: only a technical alliance
o The English didn’t like communists
o US: economical relations, not based on friendliness

The incubator phase of the cold war

Early antagonism
- 1941: The Atlantic Charter (Roosevelt + Churchill)
o the USA helps Britain against Germany
o Lend-lease: transfer of power
 lending money, food, ammunition
 the British had a huge possession that the US took in return
o 8 points:
 Not making the same mistakes again (like in WW1)
 Free trade after the war → boosting the economy → US interest
 Free trade on the sea
 Security zones
- The Atlantic Charter is the first step toward cooperation
- Communism vs. Capitalism
o Not only politically, but also economically
- Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact: division of German and Russian interest zones in Eastern
Europe
 o Why Eastern Europe?
 Strategic / economic reasons → richer countries
 Building a buffer zone around USSR
 Expanding communism
 Cordon sanitaire → originally: isolating Germany + creating a pro-
French zone to stop Germany
 The USA was willing to let the USSR invade Eastern Europe →
compromise
 British plans:
 Teheran conference: to outline the goals of the war, where to
open up a new front
 Churchill: new front in the Balkans
 The Americans wanted to make a deal with the Soviets → they regarded
the Soviets more like a partner than the British
 For Churchill, the Balkan countries and Greece were important →
sacrificed Central European countries for better British presence in the
Balkans
 The USSR had a strong propaganda → in western countries: politicians
→ communist parties in Western European countries (political takeovers
were possible)
 Stalin: absolute transformation after the war → Stalinisation
 Immediate integration of the invaded areas → introducing Stalinist
socialism there
 The Western zone: 10-15 years of transition → smooth transition
 Fourth zone: propaganda
o The British didn’t want this scenario to play out
o Percentage: how to divide the territory
The end of WW2:
- Conferences
- January-February 1945: Yalta
- Conference in Potsdam
o Final conference
o Next to Berlin → symbolic
o Topic:
 the borders after the war
 influence zones → which country can occupy which one
o The defeated Germany should be occupied and monitored by the allies
o Monitoring / controlling the defeated countries in Europe (SZEB) → Council of
Allied Control
o Soviet Military Administration
o Germany → occupied zones
 Soviet, US, French, British
 French + British: decrease power of Germany + resources (Ruhr Region)
 USA: southern part of Germany
 Reconstructing, catering the population
  Defence against Soviets
o Aims of the Allies with Germany
 4D policy:
 Demilitarisation
 Denazification
 Democratization
 De-industrialization
 The Soviets seemingly agreed (officially)
 free elections → communist parties should be accepted
 compromise
 the final aim was to change the system, to take over
 Morgentau: forcing Germans to live in a colony
o Yalta was democratic ↔ in Potsdam, there were sides
o Berlin wasn’t a free city, it was occupied and divided into four parts
o The wall (1961): symbol of new tension
o Collective responsibility was put on the Germans
- The war was not over → still going on against Japan
o The end: early August → atomic bomb to Hiroshima and Nagasaki
o New dimension
o Research about atomic energy (e.g. Albert Einstein)
o Manhattan Project: producing an atomic weapon; international project –
Oppenheimer was the leader of the project
- Spying: easier being a Soviet spy in the US → the Soviets knew much
- Americans became paranoid of communist agents + the Jewish
- NKVD: Soviet Military Intelligence (before KGB)
o Led by Kadel Sudoplatov
- First atomic weapon: in New Mexico, July 16, 1946 (Los Alamos)
- Stalin didn’t think the Americans could use the weapon
- Truman gave Stalin a hint in Potsdam
- Stalin: atomic bomb, but bigger and larger quantity
- Attack on Japanese citizens: deterrent effect
o The nature of warfare against the Japanese was different → they were not willing
to surrender
o Showing off for the Russian
- Russian reaction:
o Need to speed up
o Stalin had no fear that the USSR will be bombarded
The Truman Doctrine and its context: confrontation becoming
official
- Not just a military conflict but also an ideological one → Europeans’ trust had to be
gained in order to be able to help them
- Ideology:
o belief
o in relation with politics (public issues)
o applied ideas to support an argument
o 19th century German philosophy (political philosophy)
 Broad category → worldview
 Narrower → idea (eszme)
 Even narrower
- Early 1946
o Stalin’s speech: communism over capitalism
 Confident views
 Argument 1: defeated Nazi Germany (USA couldn’t have without
USSR)
 Argument 2: location of the USSR
 Argument 3: triumph interpreted as that of communism / socialism
 Socialism: the way to reach communism
 Utopic worldview
 Capitalism develops through catastrophe → not logical (like
communism)
 Not implicit → open confrontation
o Reactions – Churchill’s Fulton speech (with Truman’s supervision)
 He didn’t win the election → devoted his energy to strengthen the ties
between the British and the American + integration
 cold war was a major catalyst in European integration
 Churchill was on a mission
 War and tyranny → two marauders (bandits)
 Defeat them → deliver democracy + English-speaking people get close
 No appeasement → force should be applied
 Churchill = anti-Bolshevik
 Showing military weakness is not an option
 Division of Europe: iron curtain
o American reactions:
 Kennan’s reactions (most important)
 vice-ambassador in Moscow
 telegram → delivered right after Stalin’s speech (he was
preparing for it) + emphasizes its urgency + as quick as possible
+ caution (official channels were monitored)
 why so long? – to explain things, to be clear
 structure
o same as Churchill’s opinion
o showed Soviet way of thinking
  antagonistic people, insecure, irrational (minority
complex), nationalism in new “dress”, fear of
their rules being shattered, neurotic
 duality of Stalin
 practical deductions
o no compromise
o no “modus vivendi”
o Kennan recognised weak points in the Soviet system →
no fixed plans, no risks
o Soviets admire strength
o sensitive to logic
o economically weaker, less stable on the long run
 Foreign Affairs: Mr. X
 The system can be defeated if the leaders are stopped (monolity)
 Not easily defeated
 Conclusions:
o USA is not enough to force the Russians
o coordination needed
o USA should be the initiator
o strategy:
 get allies
 contain the expansion
 active agent
 no open war
 long-term plan (not a working system)
 force the Russians into political moves →
lengthen the conflict → weaken Soviets
 Received by the President
o February 1947: Greece and Turkey → conflict
o Truman’s speech (March 1947) → containment policy
Greece and Turkey:
- American interest
- Geostrategic interest:
o to seat the Russian off
o Dardanelles
o buffer zone between Europe and USSR → Turkey
o Greece:
 The British were weak
 Civil war (communists ↔ non-communists)
 Truman: USA should intervene → initiative role
 Money + military support
 $400 million was transferred to Turkey and Greece
 Debated in the Congress
 Truman’s speech was passionate (self-identity)
 Successful speech
  Containment policy
 Modernization
 Link between Kennan’s opinion and the Truman Doctrine
o Pressure on the USSR → war
o Soviets would also reinforce their energy
 Soviet answer: KOMINFORM (channel of communist parties of the
world)
 Signed by Andrei Zhdanov
 Speech: two spheres of interest
- Bevin: British → USSR is primarily responsible for conflicts; western military union
needed
- Marshall plan: see presentation
o Soviet response: need to develop own economic cooperation (COMECON →
KGST)
o Molotov travelled to Paris
o Pravda: article about the Marshall plan → loss of independence
o Stalin: accelerate communist presence in Eastern Europe → destroy democratic
parties

Germany and China

Germany
- Marshall plan → huge success → economic growth → strengthens political stability
- Germany’s situation is still in question
- Marshall aid → a lot of money for Britain and France
o They used it for developing occupied territories
o Strengthen Western Germany (not Eastern → Soviets)
- Political situation in Germany
o Free elections had to be held (both parts)
o Democratic parties were formed
o No official government → executive power: the allies
o Re-establishing police, etc. → expensive
o West: Allied Council
 3 allies delegated representatives
 John McCloy: USA
 P. M. Koenig: France
 Sir Ivone Kirkpatrik: Great Britain
 They discussed the situation
 Major decisions were made on the high level: Byrnes, Bevin, Schuman
o East: Soviet Military Administration in Germany (SMAG)
 Head: Zhukov, Sokolovsky
 Increased taxes
 Inflation → increased the amount of money in circulation
- Germany still functioned as a whole economically
o US wanted strong money, but Soviets didn’t
o Economic clash, especially in Berlin → situation had to be handled
 o Soviets: blockade of Berlin (June 1948) → threat
 Cold war → hot war
 Bevin + Byrnes: organize supply of Berlin → airbridge (for almost 1
year)
 Berlin was transformed into a huge vegetable garden
 Allies’ offer to the Soviets: economic help + uniting Germany
 Condition: they had to accept American leadership → Soviets
didn’t accept it (Plan B)
 Plan A: Kennan → united Germany without US economic
dominance; condition: Soviets remove their forces → they didn’t
accept it
- No agreement on neutral Germany
- One solution: permanent division
o Stalin didn’t accept it
o Only after Stalin’s death
- Jessup-Malik Agreement:
o Let the Germans decide
o Shift the burden to the Germans
- West and East Germany were two different states
o West: Federal Republic of Germany (FRG / BRD)
 Multi-party system
 Democratic
 Leader: chancellor (Konrad Adenauer)
o East: German Democratic Republic (GDR / DDR)
 Seemingly democratic
 Socialist party: SED
- Both Germanies had new constitutions
o Both were written to make uniting the two states possible
o Buharin
- More active military organization in the West
- Final result: NATO
o Treaty of Dunkirk
o Brussels Treaty Organization (BTO) – 1947-48
 French + Benelux ↔ Soviets
- 1948: Vandenberg Resolution → new constitution (amendment)
o Military alliance
- 1949: Soviet atomic bomb → US: shock
- KGB: Beria, Kurchatov
o research was taken seriously
China:
- Chang Kai Sek: national democratic ↔ Mao Ce Tung : communist
- Civil war
- Reason for communist triumph :
o Help from Moscow
 Support, but not so openly
  Allow them to suffer
- National democrats :
o Corrupt system

The Anti-Communist Crusade

- Short definition: hysteria against people thought to be communists the USA in the 1950s
(mainly after the Korean war)
- Not only a hysteria → there was a real fear behind it (e.g. threat of the atomic bomb)
- Governmental intention to find communists
o Spying activity was obvious
o House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) → investigations
o Whoever was suspicious was put on a blacklist
o Federal Employee Loyalty Program
 Like B-lists in Hungary
 removal from employment due to untrustworthiness
 run by the FBI
- Primary targets:
o people with Russian names / origins
o people who had relatives / acquaintances who worked with national secrets
o people somehow related to the Communist Party
o leftish people
o Hollywood
 Film had a huge impact on people
 Well-known figures
 Active relations with communists (international business)
 Jewish people
 Around 500 people
- Show trials
o Accusation with treason
- Communism vs. nationalism (“A good American cannot also be a communist”)
o Identity is very important
o Definite image
- These people got a subpoena
- The Chambers vs. Hiss case:
o Hiss was found to commit perjury
o Nixon: domestic communism
- The Rosenberg case:
o Allegedly members of the Communist Party
o No direct evidence against them
o Summer 1950: they got arrested
o 1953: they got executed
o They were really spies
o Deterrent factor
o Encourage further investigation
o Soviets = terrorists → self-evident
- McCarthy:
 o Aims:
 To eradicate communists
 Fame / influence
 Seemingly served the nation

The Suez crisis and its aftermath; The Hungarian revolution of

1956
Eisenhower:
- More aggressive stand against Russians
- Reason:
o Korean war (cold war turning into a hot war)
o Growing military budget
- Dulles: containment is not enough
- Nuclear power
- Indochina:
o Defense perimeter was threatened
o Neutral countries were also threatened
o Deterrence policy
o Soviet expansion → USA: nuclear power → nuclear war
o Domino theory → if one country falls in Indochina, it starts a chain reaction (the
others will fall, too)
o Rich in raw material → economic reasons for USSR
- USA: cannot let even one domino fall
- New liberation agenda
- Military spendings → nuclear war:
o Cut back on conventional forces
o Increase taxes
- The Middle East
o Highest oil deposits
o Economically devastated after the war
o Power of France and Britain decreased
o Power vacuum in the Middle East
o 2 major powers: USA + USSR → Middle East polarized
o Local authorities wanted to gain independence
o Islam: church = state