EARTH AND PLANETARY SCIENCE LETTERS 19 (1973) 290-300.

NORTH-HOLLAND PUBLISHING COMPANY

TECTONIC SETTING OF BASIC VOLCANIC ROCKS DETERMINED USING

TRACE ELEMENT ANALYSES

J.A. PEARCE and J.R. CANN

School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, NOR 88C, England

Received 20 January 1973

Revised version received 3 March 1973

Analyses for Ti, Zr, Y, Nb and Sr in over 200 basaltic rocks from different tectonic settings have been used to con-
struct diagrams in which these settings can usually be identified. Basalts erupted within plates (ocean island and con-
tinental basalts) can be identified using a Ti-Zr-Y diagram, ocean-floor basalts, and low-potassium tholeiites and
calc-alkali basalts from island arcs can be identified using a Ti-Zr diagram (for altered samples) and a Ti-Zr-Sr dia-
gram (for fresh samples). Y/Nb is suggested as a parameter for indicating whether a basalt is of tholeiitic or alkalic
nature. Analyses of dykes and pillow lavas from the Troodos Massif of Cyprus are plotted on these diagrams and ap-
pear to the tholeiitic ocean-floor rocks.

1. Introduction show up the distinctions between the different magma

In recent years interest has been shown in geochemi-
cal methods for identifying the original tectonic situa-
tion o f basic volcanic rocks from the past, particularly
in those cases where this cannot be unambiguously de-
duced from the geology. The principle behind the most
successful of these methods is the comparison of trace
element concentrations in the unknown rock with
their concentrations in present day volcanic rocks of
known tectonic settings. This technique was applied
by us both visually and statistically to classify lavas
from some ophiolite complexes as probable ocean-
floor rocks on the basis of their Ti, Zr and Y contents
[1]. The same principle has also been used for identifi-
cation of probable ocean crust in the Archaean of
Western Australia [2], in the Palaeozoic o f Great
Britain [3] and in the Mesozoic of the Alps [4]. Rocks
of other tectonic affinities have also been recognised,
including spilites of ocean island or continental char-
acter in the Variscan geosyncline of NW Germany [5]
and shoshonites o f Permian age in SW England [6].
This paper presents further work in this direction,
particularly in characterising the magma types of differ-
ent tectonic affinities for which a large number of new
analyses have been collected. This characterisation is
made by plotting the analyses on diagrams which best
types and this can be done using either discriminant
functions [1] or selected elements as axes. The latter
method only is used here since most of the informa-
tion can be presented in this way without needing to
use the more complicated discriminant method.
The data are presented visually using two sets of
diagrams. The first set uses the less mobile elements,
Ti, Zr and Y, and is comparable to that published pre-
viously [ 1]. The second set uses the additional element,
Sr, which gives a better discrimination but which is
only strictly valid for fresh and slightly altered rocks.
In addition a diagram based on Y and Nb is presented
which indicates whether the rocks in question are o f
alkalic or tholeiitic nature and which can be used with
altered samples.
The structure of the paper is as follows:
(1) Classification o f present-day volcanic rocks into
a number of magma types according to their geotec-
tonic position.
(2) Selection o f a representative set o f samples from
each magma type for analyses.
(3) Selection of suitable elements which will dis-
criminate between the samples from each magma type
and which will retain their discriminating power in
metamorphosed and altered rocks.
(4) Presentation o f diagrams which illustrate the
 J.A. Pearce, J.R. Cann, Tectonic setting o f basic volcanic rocks 291

discrimination of the tectonically defined magma 2.1. Ocean-floor basalts

types.
(5) Discrimination between allkalic and tholeiitic
samples.
(6) An example of the use of the method.
2. Classification of magma types
Perhaps the most meaningful classification of vol-
canic rocks from a geological point of view is one
which is based on the tectonic environment associated
with their eruption. The scheme suggested is set out in
fig. 1.
The first subdivision is made by considering the
major tectonic regimes related to plate motions. Four
major groups may be defined in this way:
(2.1) Ocean floor basalts (diverging plate margins).
(2.2) Volcanic arc basalts (converging plate margins~
(2.3) Ocean island basalts (within plate-oceanic
crust).
(2.4) Continental basalts (within plate-continental
crust).
These four types can be readily recognised at the
present day and recent volcanic rocks allotted to one
or other of these categories. These are now considered
separately.
plate margin
Analysis of volcanic rocks from the ocean-floor has
revealed them to be an extremely homogeneous rock
type [7]. Basalts predominate and although differen-
tiated rocks in the series basalt-andesite-rhyolite do
occur [8, 9], they are very rare. The rocks are gener-
ally tholeiitic, but with transitional and alkalic vari-
eties occurring in some areas, such as the Mid-Atlantic
Ridge at 45°N [10]. Present-day observations are how-
ever restricted to areas with spreading rates between
1 cm/yr and 10 cm/yr and it seems possible that rela-
tive proportions of the rock types may be different in
the cases of very fast and very slow spreading.
Karig has shown [11] that spreading plate margins
occur not only in large ocean basins, but also in the
small ocean basins behind island arcs. These basins are
of considerable importance as proposed origins of
ophiolite complexes [12]. However evidence so far avail-
able for the small ocean basin behind the Marianas arc
[13] and substantiated by the three analyses in this
paper, suggest little chemical difference between these
basalts and those from large ocean basins. Present
knowledge therefore indicates that ocean floor basalts
represent a single magma type of narrow compositional
range.
within plate

/ \ / \
COnverging oceanic continantal
diverging
crust Crust

/ \ t ,I
ocean ocean continental
volcanic arc ridge island rift

/ \
large small
ocean ocean
basin basin

\ /
VOLCANIC ARC OCEAN-FLOOR OCEAN ISLAND CONTINENTAL
BASALT BASALT BASALT BASALT

\ / \ /\ / \
low- K alkali shosh- tholeiitic . alkalic tholeiltic~alkalic t holeiitic m a l k a l i c
tholeiite basalt onite
Fig. 1. Proposed classificationscheme for basic volcanic rocks based on tectonic setting.
292 J.A. Pearce, J.R. Cann, Tectonic setting o f basic volcanic rocks
2.2. Volcanic arc basalts
It has been suggested that the products ofvolcani-
city in volcanic arcs vary both with the stage of evolu-
tion of the arc [14] and with the vertical distance of
the eruption above the BenioffZone [15, 16]. This
leads to a complex chemical variation which has been
simplified as regards nomenclature by empirical divi-
sion into three rock series: the low potassium tholeiite
series, the calc-alkali series and the shoshonitic series
[ 17], and it is this classification which has been
adopted in fig. 1. Present ideas consider the series to
be gradational from the low potassium tholeiites
through calc-alkali rocks to shoshonites both in time
(in which the tholeiites are typical of the earliest erup-
tions) and in space (in which the tholeiites occur
closest to the trench).
The chemical properties of volcanic arc rocks have
been summarised by Jakes and White [17] and can be
seen to be much more variable than ocean-floor rocks.
The proportion of fractionated rocks is much greater,
particularly in the case of the calc-alkali series where
andesites are the most abundant rock type.
The samples used in this paper to represent volca-
nic arc basalts were subdivided using major elements
as advocated by Jakes and Gill [18]. In this way rocks
from the Izu, Tonga, Marianas and South Sandwich
arcs, where K20 is low with respect to SiO 2 and Na20,
are classified as low potassium tholeiites, and rocks
from the Lesser Antilles and the Java arc which are
higher in K20 are classified as calc-alkali basalts.
Shoshonites are of relatively minor importance volu-
metrically and have been omitted from the diagrams
owing to lack of data.
2.3. Ocean island basalts
The basalts from ocean islands vary chemically
from the tholeiitic lavas of islands such as Hawaii,
Iceland and the Galapagos through the more common
intermediate alkalic varieties of which the lavas of
Tristan da Cunha and Gough Is. are typical examples,
to ultra alkaline types such as those of Trinidad and
the Canary Islands [19]. Products of fractionation are
quite common, and study of the relative proportions
of rock types reveals a bimodal distribution with ba-
salts at one peak and trachytes and phonolites at the
other [20]. The basalts are treated here as a single
group although their relation to fracture zones [21]
or to hot spots [22] may prove to be useful criteria
for subdivision.
2.4. Continental basalts
This magma type is very restricted at the present
day, the most important example volumetrically being
the African Rift Valley. It is however likely that this
does not reflect its importance in the past. An impor-
tant rock type missing at the present day is that of
the flood basalts which have occurred in vast thick-
nesses in the past [23] and may precede the breaking
up of a continent and development of a spreading
plate margin on the lines suggested by Cox for Gond-
wanaland [24]. These rocks have been extensively used
in our selection of samples, however, with analyses
from the Deccan traps, the Karroo basalts and Afar in
Ethiopia, though their tectonic affmites cannot be
known with as much certainty as those of modem ba-
salts.
In practice it proved impossible to distinguish chem-
ically between ocean island and continental basalts on
the basis of present data and so these are treated as one
group, the 'within-plate basalts', for the purpose of
clarity in the final discrimination.
The distinction between tholeiitic and alkalic rocks
is important pretrologically, but does not appear to
be correlated with tectonic setting, in the sense in
which is is used here. For instance oceanic within-
plate basalts may be either tholeiitic or alkalic. This
distinction is therefore considered in a later section.
3. Selection of samples
Ideally the rocks chosen for analysis from each
group should be representative of the chemical varia-
tion within that group - i.e. should be selected ran-
domly and in statistically sufficient quantity. It was
not possible to completely satisfy these requirements
here although this may be possible in the long term
by systematic sampling of present-day ocean-ridges,
volcanic arc volcanoes etc. Instead the procedure
adopted was to analyse readily available samples and
to include suitable analyses from the literature with
the hope that the resulting data was representative of
present-day volcanicity. The criteria used to decide
 J.A. Pearce, J.R. C.ann, Tectonic setting o f basic volcanic rocks 293

TABLE 1
Summary of the Ti, Zr, Y, Nb and Sr analyses used in this paper for characterising the different magma types. The average contents
in ppm for each sample area are given, together with references for published data and acknowledgements for donated samples
No. of
Magma type Location Ti Zr Y Nb Sr Ref. Ackn.
analyses
Ocean ridge
Ocean floor Alula-Fartak trench, Gulf of Aden 24 8300 77 27 t.5 123 [1]
basalts Carlsberg Ridge 5~°N 7 10150 117 35 4.0 140 [25]
Palmer Ridge 8 6500 70 24 7.0 121 [25]
Gulf of Aden - median valley 7 6150 64 22 6.5 119 [25]
Mid Atlantic Ridge 45°N 7 8050 93 23 15 188 [25]
Mid Atlantic Ridge 24 ° and 30°N 12 8850 129 45 - 108 [3]
Juan de Fuca Ridge 4 11950 122 47 5.0 125 A
Marianas small ocean basin 3 8100 101 25 6.0 197 B
Ocean floor basalt - mean 72 8350 92 30 5.0 131
Volcanic arc
Low-K Izu arc (Oshima) 14 6700 44 21 1.0 184 [1] C
tholeiites Tonga arc (Falcon Is.) 7 4550 33 17 1.5 179 C
Marianas arc (Guam) 8 3900 52 16 2.5 218 A
Fiji (Viti Levu) 5 4900 68 22 - 344 [ 14]
South Sandwich Is. 12 4850 44 18 2.0 127 D
Low-K tholeiite - mean 46 5150 52 19 1.5 207
Calc-alkali Java arc 53 5300 107 24 3.5 384 E
basalts Lesser Antilles (St. Lucia) 5 5850 90 23 3.0 239 F
Japan 2 5750 64 15 2.0 420 C
Calc-alkalibasalt - mean 60 5400 106 23 2.5 375
Shoshonites Fiji (Viti Levu) 9 3700 52 16 - 1193 [14]
Ocean island
Ocean island Jebel atTair (Red Sea) 3 11800 137 28 11 240 [26]
basalt Hawaii 20 14850 164 25 14 338 [1]
Galapagos 7 17800 251 39 24 329 [27]
Reunion 15 19850 178 28 - 522 [28]
Zubair (Red Sea) 11 15350 250 33 35 373 [26]
Hanish Zukur (Red Sea) 10 19350 297 33 46 578 [26]
Madeira 3 16350 251 27 64 776
Flores, Azores 9 19150 262 28 90 889
Ocean island basalts - mean 78 16250 215 29 32 438
Con~nenml
Continental Deccan traps 9 11850 132 28 10 187
basalt Tuli Syncline, Rhodesia 12 16800 328 - 27 683 [29]
Paka, Gregory Rift 3 15550 132 31 24 495 [30]
Afar, Ethiopia 11 15900 177 29 21 431
Continentalbasalts - mean 35 15150 215 29 20 460

Acknowledgements for samples: A: Smithsonian Institution (Dr. Banks and Dr. Melson); B: Carnegie Institution (Dr. Hart and
Dr. Karig);C: Dept. of Mineralogy and Petrology, Carnbddge University (Dr. Agrell); D: British Antarctic Survey, Birmingham
University (Dr. Adie and Dr. Baker); E: Technische Hogeschool, Delft (Dr. van Hilten and Dr. Marius) and Geological Institute,
Amsterdam; F: Dept. of Geology and Mineralogy, Oxford University; G: Imperial Ministry of Mines, Ethiopia (C. Garland).
294 £A. Pearce, £R. Cann, Tectonic setting of basic volcanic rocks
which of these samples were suitable for the purpose
of discriminating between the magma types were as
follows:
(1) It had to be possible to classify the sample on
a priori grounds, usually on the basis of its location.
(2) Samples had to be fresh, although a small num-
ber of altered ocean-floor samples were used in dia-
grams not involving Sr.
(3) Analyses taken from the literature were only
included when the method of analysis was comparable
with, or better than, that used for our own analyses.
(4) Compositional limits of 20% > CaO + MgO>12%
were used to select essentially basaltic rocks from the
analyses available.
A list of the analyses used in this paper is given in
table 1.
4. Selection of elements
For an element, or combination of elements, to be
geologically useful in characterising the different mag-
ma types, they must ideally:
(1) Have a much greater variation in concentration
between samples of different magma types than be-
tween samples of the same magma type.
(2) Be insensitive to secondary processes such as
weathering and metamorphism.
(3) Be easy to measure with good reproducability
of results.
This paper considers the five elements Ti, Zr, Y, Nb,
Sr. The methods used for our own analyses have been
described elsewhere [1, 25]. Of these elements Ti, Zr,
Y and Nb have been suggested as being insensitive to
processes of alteration [25]. Sr is generally fairly
stable in uncarbonated rocks below greenschist facies,
but can be noticeably affected by some types of green-
schist facies metamorphism. It is however a useful ele-
ment for studying fresh or slightly altered rocks be-
cause of its large variation between the groups.
The usefulness of other elements in distinguishing
between the magma types was investigated by using
published analyses and comparing within-group and
between-group variations. The most successful in this
respect were Cr, Ni and Ba. Cr and Ni are generally
lower in volcanic arc basalts than in ocean-floor basalts.
They are however very sensitive to olivine and pyro-
xene fractionation which can lead to large local varia-
tions particularly in the early stages of fractionation
[31]. Of these two elements Cr is much more stable
during secondary alteration. Bloxam and Lewis have
used Cr in investigating the nature of some pillow
lavas of unknown affinities [3]. Ba shows perhaps the
greatest variation being lower in ocean-floor than in
volcanic arc basalts. It does however have many disad-
vantages being particularly mobile during weathering
and metamorphism [32] - much more so than Sr -
and would therefore have to be used with great care.
Nevertheless if the magnitude of these effects can be
shown to be small compared with its variation between
the groups, it may still be important in characterisation
problems.
In addition other elements may prove important
when taken together. For example the rare earth pat-
tern has been used by Herrmann and Wedepohl [5]
for studying altered spilites in Gemaany and seems to
be resistant to alteration in the same way as Y, which
behaves chemically as a heavy rare earth.
5. Discrimination of magma types
Visual discrimination between the four magma
types defined earlier (low potassium tholeiites, calc-
alkali basalts, ocean-floor basalts and "within-plate"
basalts) is shown using three diagrams.
(1) T i - Z r fig. 2.
(2) Ti(X 1 0 - 2 ) - Z r - Y ( X 3) fig. 3.
(3) Ti(X 10 -2) - Z r - Sr(X 0.5) fig. 4.
The scaling factors used in the triangular diagrams
serve to bring the points into the centre of the trian-
gles without altering their relative position.
The method of discrimination used depends on
whether it is intended to identify fresh or slightly
altered samples, for which fig. 4 can be used, or
whether the samples are either altered or metamor-
phosed, at or above greenschist facies. In the latter
case fig. 4 should not be used unless Sr can be shown
to have been immobile, by absence of calcium deple-
tion or calcium carbonate introduction.
For "fresh" samples figs. 3 and 4 should be used.
The first step is to plot the analyses on fig. 3. On this
diagram the field of "within-plate" basalts (ocean is-
land + continental basalts) can be seen to be distinc-
tive, over 95% of such rocks giving analyses which plot
within field D. The other magma types are best sepa-
 J.A. Pearce, J.R. Cantg Tectonic setting o f basic volcanic rocks 295

o OFB
• LKT
. CAB

I
/Doo 8o ~ o e / ,,
Ti
ooo, /
ppm O0 0 ~i7

/-,B- oM'l ~ _z ~'" , , _ I

5'o Zr ppm 16o I.~O 260

Fig. 2. Discrimination diagram using Ti and Zr. Ocean-floor basalts (OFB) plot in fields D and B, low-potassium tholeiites (LKT)
in fields A and B, and calc-alkali basalts (CAB) in fields C and B.

Ti/lO0 T~ 1 1 0 0

o OFB / ~ o OFB
/ \ • LKT

Zr Y,3
Fig. 3. Discrimination diagram using Ti, Zr and Y. "Within-
plate" basalts (WPB) i.e. ocean island or continental basalts -
plot in field D, ocean-floor basalts (OFB) in field B, low-potas-
sium tholeiites (LKT) in fields A and B, calc-alkali basalts
(CAB) in fields C and B.
Zr $r/2
Fig. 4. Discrimination diagram using Ti, Zr and Sr. Ocean-floor
basalts (OFB) plot in field C, low-potassium tholeiites (LKT)
in field A, and calc-alkalibasalts (CAB) in field B.
296 J.A. Pearce, J.R. Cann, Tectonic setting o f basic volcanic rocks

rated using fig. 4. This shows the ocean-floor basalts
to be well separated in field C with low potassium
tholeiites in field A and calc-alkali basalts in field B.
For altered samples figs. 2 and 3 should be used,
"within-plate" basalts being first identified as before
using fig. 3. Separating the remaining magma types is
best carried out using fig. 2. This distinction is not as
good as that possible for "fresh" samples but identifi-
cation can be made in most cases.
Fig. 2 is divided into four fields, A, B, C and D.
Ocean-floor basalts plot within fields D and B, low
potassium tholeiites within fields A and B, and calc-
alkali basalts within fields C and B. The fields A, C
and D are therefore distinctive with each group en-
croaching on field B. In the instance of the great ma-
jority of analyses plotting within field B further evi-
dence should be sought.
The diagrams assume that cumulate crystals are
only present in small amounts. However in the early
stages of volcanicity the basalts may contain a large
proportion of olivine phenocrysts which reduce the
absolute amounts of Ti, Zr, Y, Nb and Sr. In this case,
which can be recognised in altered rocks by abnormal-
ly high MgO, Cr or Ni, fig. 2 should not be used al-
though figs. 3 and 4, which effectively consider rela-
tive proportions of the elements, are still applicable.
It can be seen from the diagrams that only rarely
can a single unknown sample be identified with com-
plete confidence as there is nearly always a finite prob-
ability of mis-classification. This can be overcome by
using a representative suite of samples from the un-
known rock series in question to identify the most
probable ma~'na type. Another reason for using a
large sample set is that in many cases the rock series
may be polygenetic - i.e. contain more than one mag-
ma type. Common examples of this exist when ocean-
floor and ocean island volcanics have been emplaced
together, or when a volcanic arc series including mag-
ma types from low-potassium tholeiites to shoshonites
is sampled.

TRANS "
( ALKALIC THOLEIITIC )
ITIONAL

Island Ar c -LKT &CAB- )

Alula -Fartak Trench .OF-

Carlsberg Ridge -OF- >

Gulf of Aden .OF-

Palmer Ridge -OF.

Deccan Traps "C"

Jebel at Tair -OI-

45' N .OF-

Hawaiian 'Tholeiites'-OI-

Paka - C - - -

Galapagos - OI.

A f a r • C-

Zubair -OZ.

Marion & Prince Edward Is..OI-

Hanish Z u k u r - O I .

Madeira - OI-

Flores .OI

, , i i i f i

01 ' ' ' ' ' 1 ' 10

Y/N8

Fig. 5. Determination of petrologic character. Rock types as in table 2 except Marion and Prince Edward Islands [37]. Y/Nb for al-
kalic basalts is less than 1 for "within-plate" basalts and less than 2 for ocean-floor basalts. Y/Nb for tholeiitic rocks is greater than
2 for "within-plate" basalts and greater than 3 for ocean-floor basalts.
 J.A. Pearce, J.R. Cann, Tectonic setting o f basic volcanic rocks 297

6. Alkali and tholeiitic basalt I collection of 10+ I

random samples ]
Although it is not certain whether this distinction
is important tectonically, it is useful petrologically and I
will therefore be included here. Traditionally alkalic I na!ysis for Ti + ]
Zr, Y. Nb, Sr
rocks have been defined as those where olivine is not
in reaction relationship [33], where (Na~O+I~O)/SiO 2
is high, or where olivine features in the normative com-
[
I
plot Y / N b on fig 5]
measure of
'alkalic'
position [34]. character
It was noticed that of the rocks listed in table 1,
those which would be classified as alkalic by traditio-
I
plot Ti, Zr & Y on [
nal methods had a greater concentration of Nb respect fig 3
I
to Zr or Y than did those which would be classified as I
tholeiitic. This relationship, in which Y/Nb decreases continental or
with increasing alkalic character, is displayed in fig. 5. yes -- Ocean island
basalt
Alkalic ocean island and continental basalts are ap- !
parently characterised by a Y/Nb ratio of less than one, no
and ocean-floor alkalic basalts by a Y/Nb ratio of less
than two.
Of course it must be emphasised that use of this
method for classification cannot replace the original
method, but may be some indication of petrological ye~ no
type when the rock is substantially altered. / \

7. Assignment of unknowns Fig.6, Flow diagram illustrating the proposed method of

characterisingbasic volcanic rocks.
It is now possible to present the proposed method
of assignment in terms of a flow diagram (fig. 6).
The lower pillow lavas and dykes from the Troodos
Massif of Cyprus [35, 36] were taken as an example
of an unknown volcanic suite. They were selected for TRO
this purpose because the Troodos Complex is a well-
described ophiolite sequence and because geological
and geophysical results have established its ocean-floor
character on a priori grounds. The analyses are plotted
on figs. 7, 8 and 9.
Ti
Following fig. 6: ppm
(i) The ratio of Y to Nb is high (> 8), indicating
that the rocks are of tholeiitic character.
(ii) The points plot within field B of the T i - Z r - Y
diagram (fig. 8). Ocean island, continental and talc-
alkali basalts earl therefore be eliminated as possibili-
ties.
5b 16o i,+o 26o
(iii) The rocks range from fresh to upper green- Zr PDm
schist facies metamorphism and are sometimes
weathered. The samples are therefore now plotted on Fig. 7. Troodos (TRO) samples plotted on the Ti-Zr discrim-
the T i - Z r diagram (fig. 7). The points plot within ination diagram.
298 J.A. Pearce, J.R. Cann, Tectonic setting of basic rolcanic rocks

Ti/lO0
by unusually high Rb and K) which indicates that addi-
tion of Sr is also possible.
The results are therefore consistent with an ocean-
floor origin for the Troodos Massif. Several further ex-
amples have also been examined but these will be pre-
sented elsewhere.

8. Conclusions

We have attempted to show that the elements Ti,

Zr Y.3
Fig. 8. Troodos (TRO) samples plotted on the T i - Z r - Y dis-
cdrnination diagram.
fields B and D and are therefore most like ocean.floor
basalts.
(iv) If the analyses are plotted on the T i - Z r - S r
diagram they cluster mostly in the ocean-floor field.
However two observations illustrate the dangers of
using Sr for very altered samples: some analyses have
very low Sr (and very low CaO) due to intense albiti-
sation, and some have high Sr (mostly accompanied
TiLIO0
Zr Sr/2
Fig. 9. Troodos (TRO) samples plotted on the T i - Z r - S r dis-
crimination diagram.
Zr, Y, Nb and Sr may be of use in characterising basic
volcanic rocks from different tectonic settings. The
method would seem to be fairly effective in deter-
mining the tectonic setting of unknown volcanic rocks
from the past providing a number of points are borne
in mind. The first of these is the possibility of the con-
tent of the elements in the rock being affected by proc.
esses such as weathering and metamorphism. The care
needed for use of Sr has already been stressed and fea-
tures such as albitisation and calcium-depletion in
greenschist facies metamorphism, and the presence of
wildly fluctuating Sr values from otherwise chemically
similar rocks should be looked for as examples of
cases where Sr should not be used. Ti, Zr, Y and Nb
are generally stable particularly in zeolite and green-
schist facies metamorphism [25]. Results from other
metamorphic facies have also been obtained which
are consistent with the stability of these elements.
However great care must be taken in studying rocks
containing bands of rutile or sphene since this might
indicate Ti mobility.
Another instance when the analyses should be
treated with caution is in the case of picritic rocks
where the presence of large numbers of olivine mega-
crysts has the effect of diluting the absolute amounts
of trace elements in the rock. In fresh samples the
olivine can be recognised in thin section; otherwise
abnormally high values of MgO, Ni or Cr are indica-
tive of these rocks.
It is still uncertain whether the diagrams are valid
for very old rocks since very little is known at present
about magma genesis in the Precambrian. However it
does seem likely that many of the variables controlling
present-day magma genesis have changed with time.
For example the Precambrian mantle would on average
have undergone less melting episodes and therefore
might have been richer in incompatible elements;
 J.A. Pearce, J.R. Cann, Tectonic setting o f basic volcanic rocks
higher heatflow in the Precambrian could have re-
suited in partial melting at a shallower level than at
the present day and involving different liquidus
phases; other critical factors such as partitioning o f
trace elements and degree o f partial melting are so
far unknown for the Precambrian and could have
been significantly different. In addition major tec-
tonic influences on magma composition such mantle
recycling processes, rates of plate movement and even
the nature o f the tectonic regimes themselves are un-
known for the Precambrian.
In view of these queries regarding Precambrian vol-
canism it is perhaps surprising that the trace element
results from two Archaean greenstone belts, one in
western Australia studied by Hallberg and Williams
[2], and one in Manitoba studied by ourselves, plot
precisely within the fields of ocean-floor basalts and
low-potassium tholeiites respectively, res-alts which
are consistent with field observations. The question of
Archaean volcanism is therefore a very open one and
the diagrams in this paper should be used with extreme
reservations in the study of such rocks.
At this stage of development of the method it is
therefore possible in most cases to determine the tec-
tonic setting o f eruption of volcanic rocks of Phanero.
zoic age which are fresh, weathered, o f metamorphosed
in zeolite or greenschist facies. Further refinement may
enable a more precise evaluation o f tectonic setting to
be made, and may make it possible to extend the use
o f the method to rocks o f Precambrian age.
Acknowledgements
We should like to thank Dr. R.J. Adie, Dr. S.O.
Agrell, Dr. P.E. Baker, Dr. H.H. Banks, Chris Garland,
Dr. S.R. Hart, Dr. van Hilten, Dr. D.E. Karig, Dr.
Manus and Dr. W.G. Melson for providing many of the
samples on which this paper is based. We also thank Dr.
A.G. Smith and Dr. F.J. Vine for their constructive
criticism o f the manuscript, and Mr. Clive Winter for
his help with the analyses. J.A. Pearce was supported
in this work by an NERC studentship.
References
[1 ] J.A. Pearce and J.R. Cann, Ophiolite origin investigated
by discriminant analysis using Ti, Zr and Y, Earth Planet.
Sci. Letters 12 (1971) 339.
299
[2] J.A. Hallbetg and D.A.C. Williams, Archaean mafic and
ultramafic rock associations in the Eastern Goldfields
region, Western Australia, Earth Planet. Sci. Letters 15
(1972) 191.
[3] T.W. Bloxam~and A.D. Lewis, Ti, Zr and Cr in some
British pillow lavas and their petrogenetic affinities,
Nature Phys. Sci. 237 (1972) 134.
[4] M.J. Bickle and E. Nisbet, The oceanic affinities of some
alpine marie rocks based on their Ti-Zr-Y contents,
J. Geol. Soc. 128 (1972) 267.
[ 5] A.F. Herrmann and K.H. Wedepohl, Untersuchungen
an spilitischen Gesteinen der variskischen Geosynkline
in Nordwestdeutschland, Contr. Mineral. Petrol. 29
(1970) 255.
[6] M.E. Cosgrove, The geochemistry of the potassium-rich
permian volcanic rocks of Devonshire, England, Contr.
Mineral. Petrol. 36 (1972) 155.
[7] J.R. Cann, Major element variations in ocean-floor ha-
salts, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (London) A268 (1971) 495.
[8] F. Aumento, Diorites from the Mid-Atlantic ridge at
45°N, Science 165 (1969) 1112.
[9] G. Thompson, F. Shido and A. Mtyashiro, Trace element
distributions in fractionated oceanic basalts, Chem. GeoL
9 (1972) 89.
[10] I.D. Muir and C.E. Tilley, Basalts from the northern part
of the rift zone of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, J. Petrol. 5
(1964) 409.
[11] D.E. Karig, Origin and development of marginal basins
in the western Pacific, J. Geophys. Res. 76 (1971) 2542.
[12] J.M. Bird, J.F. Dewey and W.S.F. Kidd, Prnto-Atlantic
oceanic crust and mantle: Appalachian/Caledonian
ophiolites, Nature Phys. Sci. 231 (1971) 28.
[13] S.R. Hart, W.E. Glassley and D.E. Karig, Basalts and sea-
floor spreading behind the Mariana island arc, Earth
Planet. Sci. Letters 15 (1972) 12.
[14] J.B. Gill, Geochemistry of Viti Levu, Fji, and its evolu-
tion as an island arc, Contr. Mineral. Petrol. 27 (1970)
179.
[ 15 ] W.R. Dickinson, Circum-Pacifie andesite types, J. Gee-
phys. Res. 73 (1968) 2261.
[ 16] W.R. Dickinson and T. Hatherton, Andesitic volcanism
and seismicity around the Pacific, Science 157 (1967)
801.
[17] P. Jakes and A.J.R. White, Major and trace element
abundances in volcanic rocks of orogenic areas, Bull.
Geol. Soc. Amer. 83 (1972) 29.
[18] P. Jakes and J.B. Gill, Rare earth elements and the island
arc tholeiitic series, Earth Planet. Sci. Letters 9 (1970)
17.
[19] A.R. McBirney and I.G. Gass, Relations of oceanic vol-
canic rocks to mid-oceanic rises and heat flow, Earth
Planet. Sci. Letters 2 (1967) 265.
[20] F. Chayes, Relative abundance of intermediate members
of the oceanic basalt-trachyte association, J. Geophys.
Res. 68 (1963) 1519.
[21] I.G. Gass, Proposals concerning the variation of volcanic
products and processes within the oceanic environment,
Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (London)A271 (1972) 131.
300 J.A. Pearce, J.R. Cann, Tectonic setting o f basic volcanic rocks
[22] J-G. Schilling, Afar mantle plume: rare earth evidence,
Nature Phys. Sci. 242 (1973) 2.
[23] H. Kuno, Plateau basalts, in: Geophysical Monograph 13,
P.J. Hart, ed. (American Geophysical Union, Washington
D.C., 1969).
[24] K.G. Cox, Tectonics and vulcanism of the Karroo Period
and their bearing on the postulated fragmentation of
Gondwanaland in: African magmatism and tectonics,
T.N. Clifford and I.G. Gass, eds. (Oliver and Boyd,
Edinburgh, 1970).
[25] J.R. Cann, Rb, Sr, Y, Zr and Nb in some ocean-floor
basaltic rocks, Earth Planet. Sci. Letters 10 (1970) 1.
[26] I.G. Gass, D.I.J. Mallick and K.G. Cox, Volcanic islands
of the Red Sea, in press.
[27] A.R. MacBirney and H. Williams, Geology and petrology
of the Galapagos islands, Geol. Soc. Amer. Mere. 118
(1969).
[28] B.G.J. Upton and W.J. Wadsworth, Aspects of magmatic
evolution on Reunion Island, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc.
(London) A271 (1972) 105.
[29] J.R. Vail, G. Hornung and K.G. Cox, Karroo basalts of
the Tuli Syncline, Rhodesia, Bull. Volc. 33 (1969) 398.
[30] J.S.C. Seal and S.D. Weaver, Trace element data on the
origin of salic rocks from the Quaternary volcano, Paka,
Gregory Rift, Kenya, Earth Planet. Sci. Letters 12 (1971)
327.
[31] B.M. Gunn, Trace element partition during olivine frac-
tionation of Hawaiian basalts, Chem. Geol. 8 (1971) 1.
[32] J.A. Philpotts, C.C. Schnetzler and S.R. Hart, Submarine
basalts: Some K, Rb, St, Ba, rare-earth, H20 and CO2
data bearing on their alteration, modification by plagio-
clase, and possible source materials, Earth Planet. Sci.
Letters 7 (1969) 293.
[33] C.E. Tilley, Some aspects of magmatic evolution, Quart.
J, Geol. Soc. 106 (1950) 37.
[34] H.S. Yoder and C.E. Tilley, The origin of basalt magmas:
an experimental study of natural and synthetic systems,
J. Petrol. 3 (1962) 342.
[35] E.M. Moores and F.J. Vine, The Troodos Massif, Cyprus,
and other ophiolites as oceanic crust: evaluation and im-
plications, Phil Trans. Roy. Soc. (London) A268 (1971)
443.
[36 ] I.G. Gass, Is the Troodos Massif of Cyprus a fragment of
Mesozoic ocean floor? Nature 220 (1968) 39.
[37] E,J.D. Kable, A.J. Eriank and R.D. Cherry, Geochemical
features of lavas from Marion and Prince Edward Islands,
in: Report on the South African biological and geological
expedition/1965-66, Van Zinderen Bakker, Sr., Winter-
bottom and Dyer, eds. (A.A. Balkema, Cape Town, 1971).