162 Yvonne R.

Masakowski each nation must deem cross-cultural co ducting war To this end, vital
skill in con twenty-first for all future military leaders. Cross-cultural c the knowledge, skills/abilities,
and motivati comperence as a in the twenty-first century and a prerequisite competence (3C) refers
to adapt to and communicate effectively in cross-cultural (Abbe et al., 2008). This ability affords the
mili to understand cultural perspectives and facilitate their ability to b relationships based on trust.
environments military leader the means uild The future security environment is characterised by
dynamic, com situations that will require an ability to adapt to a wide range of cultural social, and
political challenges. Military leaders must be prepared understand cross-cultural impacts, influences,
and behaviours. Cultural intelligence, social intelligence, and emotional intelligence will pla pivotal
role in optimising operational efficiency plex to As Major General Robert Scales (US Army, Ret.) has
stated, "To win World War IV, the military must be culturally knowledgeable enough to thrive in an
alien environment. Victory will be defined more in terms of capturing the psycho-cultural rather than
the geographical high ground. Understanding and empathy will be important weapons of war.
Nations must come together to address the emerging threats in the security environment. Today, in
this new, complex dynamic operational environment, it is insufficient for our military leaders to be
merely tactically and technically competent. This dynamic environment requires that military leaders
are able to communicate their intent th within their teams and forces and with their allies and
coalition partners. The transparency of today's social media environment mandates that leaders
understand the cultural consequences of their ecisions as they attempt to form unity of effort and
unity of command leaders must first understand the ell as their adversaries during coalition
operations. To do so, cultural diversity of thosc they command as w in order to make informed,
effective decisions. leaders must be cognizant of the potential cultural con decisions and actions.
They must communica build trust and confidence among their teams. 1o first-century military leader
must be adapti their leadership style. Each step of the wa sequences of their te their incentions and
this end, the twenty ve and transformational in

Portfolio assessment-reflection instead of reproduction

The classical approach of ensuring that students retain and memorise a given subject matter is to
require a written text at the end of the semester. In study courses and academic fields that mainly
rely on processing information and gaining knowledge this kind of assesment maybe appropriate.
However, when we look at educational areas that teach pshycological principles and insights and
focus on providing students with soft skill, this approach has its shortcomings. As the objective of
educational fields is to cultivate in students a characteristic mindset and to instil them with an
appropriate attitude, the technique of examining more or less disparate nuggets of knowledge alone
will not suffice.

In particular, within the framework of leadership training, psychological topics should be examined
with a focus on the processes that are effective in everyday life rather than solely on content.
Accordingly, if (self-)reflection, interaction, and discourse are the central emphasis in the teaching,
then the performance appraisal should be congruent with this principle - instruction drives testing.

Therefore, the so-called portfolio-assessment (Jones, 1994, or for a broader view, refer to Dochy,
Segers, Gjibels, & Struyven, 2006) emerges as an appropriate way to assess students' performance.
This means that students document their learning process during the semester on a continuous
basis. They are compelled to assume responsibility for their own learning, recognise coherence and
interconnections, an through this critically deal with the subject matter in such a way that the
practical usefulness of the knowledge is brought to the fore. In the portfolio interview at the end of
the semester, it is then discussed what has been entered into the individual portfolio, why it was
selected, how one rates one's own performance and learning process, and what practical
consequences one thinks should be drawn. In a addition, the lecturer can pose questions designed to
evaluate the student's knowledge.

The exxperienes with this appraisal instrument are systematically evaluated an analysed (see Nakkas
& Annen, 2010). Regarding this, the acceptance and the perceived fairness of this method are of
particular interest; that is, the specific aims of the portfolio assessment should be recognised by the
students and the resulting grades should be seen as fair and comprehensible. Therefore, a survey has
been sent to 122 graduates who were assessed with the portfolio method between 2007 and 2010.

Research and teaching of military psychology at the Swiss Military Academy

Hubert Annen

Introduction

The Chair of Military Psychology of the Swiss Military Academy at the Swiss Federal Institute of
Technology in Zurich (in German: Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule or ETH Zurich; academy
abbreviation: MILAK/ ETHZ) conducts research on the psychological aspects of selection, training,
motivation, and leadership of military personnel. The respective research activities are the
foundation of the lectures on the different levels of education for prospective and experienced
career officers. In order to bridge the gap between theory and practice the relevant contents must be
taught with a clear focus on application and using methods, which foster critical thinking and
individual processing of the lesson content.

Holistic model of military psychological

The swiss armed forces’ experience in war or war-like operations is sparse and, as consequence, a
general and prevention-oriented approach is needed psychological activities, which led to a holistic
model (Annen, 2014; see Figure 1) that is based on the following hypotheses (Annen, Nakkas, &
Gehring, in press):

 Stress is a result of perceived excessive demands. With scientifically sound and

professionally conducted selection procedures one should be able to ensure that military
personnel and specifically military cadres are not overstrained by the demands of their job.
 Motivated people are less stressed.Thus, with continuous research on motivation, the
relevant motivators in everyday military life as well as in more demanding situations can be
identified. This results in valuable suggestions to personnel management and the training
and education of leaders.
  Bad leaders can be a huge stressor. Thus, various measures to foster the self-reflection of
military cadre on every hierarchical level have been initiated as this has a pivotal role in their
development and advancement as credible and competent leaders.

Based on this model and largely regardless of the current tasks an missions of the swiss Armed
Forces, it is possible to conduct purposeful research, to create meaningful content for lectures in
milatary pshycology and to give useful advice.

This includes for instance the operational responsibility for several selection procedures, with an
emphasis on the assessment centres for prospective professional officers and professional NCOs
respectively (Annen, Eggiman & Ebert, 2012). These instruments are routinely evaluated, and
the results of these scientific evaluations are used to optimise the assessment centres
themselves and are also presented to the scientific community through publications and
conference presentations (e.g. Melchers & Annen, 2010; Merkulova, Melchers, Kleinmann,
Annen & Szvircsev Tresch, 2014). When considering leadership issues the topic of motivation,
self-awareness, and stress are of paramount importance. With regard to motivation, researches
in Organisational Citizenship behaviour as well as cadre motivation are of the greatest
significance for the Swiss Armed Forces as a militia organisation (Annen, Goldammer, & Szvircsev
Tresch, 2015). The willingness and ability for systematic and recurrent self-reflection is a pivotal
attribute of a good leader; thus recent research projects have focused on the accuracy and
motivational aspects of self-appraisal, the effects of coaching, and the importance of military
values and virtues on various hierarchal levels. Stress and stress management in basic military
training is part of a comprehensive research project that will lead into a subsequent study on
the benefits of resilience training in cadre schools. Regarding combat stress and war-related
stress disorders, the lessons learned by military organisations with more experience in combat
deployments, such as the US Army and Israel Defense Forces, have proven especially helpful
(e.g. Matthews, 2014). This scientific research forms the foundation of teaching military
pshycology as the swiss Military Academy.

Education of professional officers in the Swiss Armed Forces

The Military Academy at ETH Zurich (MILAK/ETHZ) is the educational institution for the
professional officers of the Swiss Armed Forces. The educational objectives are directed such
that prospective professional officers can acquire and develop the following abilities:

 To perform as didactically skilled and technically competent instructors;

 to act as goal-oriented and effective leaders applying principles of management by
objectives
 to adopt a committed stance on military matters based on expertise in military sciences
 to offer scientifically based views on non-military issues of a political, social, economic,
and ecological nature.

prospective professional officers holding an upper-secondary degree first complete the Bachelor
Study Course (BSC) lasting 3.5 years or, if they already degree hold a university degree, the 18-month
Diploma Study Course (DSC). On completion of their course, the professional officers assume their
duties as company commanders, mentors of the militia cadre, or instructor at recruit and cadre
schools. After five to eight years practice most of these officers attend specific Supplementary
Training Courses, which prepare them for functions such as school commandants or heads of
organisational units; in addition, Advanced Training Courses provide mission-related training.
 MILAK aims to keep pace with the rapid developments and changes in military and civilian
life through the provision of a broad and comprehensive education and through scientifically based
research. The latter involves the six departments of Military History, Strategic Studies, Economics of
Defense, Leadership and Communication Studies, Military Sociology, and Military Psychology.
Together with the Chair of Leadership and Communication Studies, the Chair of Military Psychology
seems to have the strongest relationship to the everyday military life a professional officer
encounters after completing his basic education. Accordingly, based on a sound theoretical
foundation the relevant topics are presented with a focus on practical application.

Military pshycology in basic and continuing education of professional officers

In the first semester of the BSC as well as of the DSC the objective for the students is to
become acquainted with the scientific basics of psychology with specific reference to military
practice. Since military psychology is defined as the application of psychological theories, methods,
instruments, and findings to the military sphere (Taylor & Alluisi, 1994), consequently, selected
aspects of various school thoughts, such as behaviourism, humanistic psychology, and cognitive
psychology, and psychological principles, such as content and process theories of motivation, are
covered. Building on this knowledge acquired during the first semester, in the second semester the
students will be sensitised for psychological aspects and diynamics of military formation, education,
and leadership, for example, sensitised to the dangers of group processes or abuse of authority and
power in a hierarchical setting. Finally, special attention is directed to the phenomenon of 'stress',
and different models of stress-related disoerders and their prevention and common treatments.
Topics of current relevance are further explored in a seminar that takes place in the fourth and fifth
semester of the BSC; recently, the seminar's subject matter focused on job satisfaction and retention
of military professionals.

During the Supplementary Training Course, a refresher of basic findings and achievements of
military psychology and insights from recent research projects is provided. Against this backdrop, the
participants bring their practical experiences and problems in their individual everyday military life
and explore how psychological knowledge could or should respectively contribute to solutions and
general improvements. Due to the explicit reference to the realm of practice this course serves also
as an indicator for relevant problems in the respective period of time. In recent years topics such as
values and virtues in military organisations as well as detecting and training of resilience were key
components of this course.

It has become clear that the courses in military psychology are characterised by interaction
and discourse in order to make the link between a sound theoretical basis and the perspective of the
practitioner. The students are being asked to participate actively in class; therefore, established
methods such as essays, case studies, and group discussions are common (Annen, 2010). This may
not be very innovative, but it is nevertheless a logical consequence of the courses’ aim. More
exceptional is the method of testing, which follows strictly the main characteristics of the lecture in
military psychology and therefore takes the learning process and reflection into account.
Research and teaching of miliary psychology at the Swiss M Res research, to create meaningful
content for lecture and to give useful advice aningfu rocedures, with an emphasis on the assess tive
professional officers and pr for instance the operational responsibility for several ment centres for
selectionp ofessional NCOs respectivel ann, & Ebert, 2012). These instruments are routinel ros (Ann
evaluated, and op he results of these scientific evaluations are used to essment centres themselves
and are also presented to the rommunity through publications and conference presentations
Melchers & Annen, 2010; Merkulova, Melchers, Kleinmann, Annen Tresch, 2014). When considering
leadership issues the topic on, self-awareness, and stress are of paramount importance. With regard
to motivation, researches in Organisational Citizenship tas well as cadre motivation are of

They were asked to view their individual experience with the portfolio from their current perspective
as professional officers in everyday military life. The response rate of 77 percent and the fact that
over 40 percent of the respondents added partially comprehensive comments suggest a good degree
of interest in the topic. The majority (85 percent) indicated that they became more aware of their
learning process and reflected more on their learning behaviour. Almost all of the former students
(95 percent) considered their grades to be fair and reasonable. They viewed the portfolio interview
as an equitable and pleasant experience and regarded the procedure of assessing their performance
as transparent and comprehensible. More than 90 percent believed that their standard of knowledge
was enhanced by the use of the portfolio and even 94 percent of the respondents regarded the tool,
in comparison with other exam types, as beneficial in transferring their knowledge into practice.
Although the responses inevitably included some less favourable comments, these findings show
evidence of the potential value of portfolio assessments in the education and training of professional
officers

Conclusion

Leadership development is the development of character and personality. In the career of a

professional officer of the Swiss Armed Forces this becomes tangible at an early stage insofar as the
time they spend at the assessment centre, during which period personality traits and social
behaviour are systematically observed and assessed, and the observation process at the centre is the
most decisive hurdle for admission to the Military Academy. Subsequently, (military) psychology is
one of the main elements of the courses in basic and continuing education of professional officers.
There within the framework of the holistic model of military psychology, the relevant topics stem
from the basics of psychological theories and principles, established insights of military psychology,
lessons learned of other armed forces, as well as current research projects. In order to foster the
critical analysis of the subject matter of the course and to bridge the gap between theory and
practice interaction during the lessons is essential. The principle of ‘reflection instead of
reproduction’ should also be applied when it comes to testing. Regarding this, the Portfolio
Assessment is an important and recommendable component in the teaching of military psychology
and has proven successful in achieving sustainanility inthe education of officers.

Cultural competence and leadership in multinational milit both the humanitarian perspective and
securi must weigh and balance the costs of intervention i ponsible way for n a res a view towards
both humanitarian and security implications their interactions and decisions Conclusion The twenty-
first century is a time of complexity and profound change on global security level where terrorist
threats and attacks continue to emerge. There has also been an increase in humanitarian/refugee
not seen since the Second World War. To address these challenges, the military must emphasise the
education and training of its leaders and military personnel on the value of cultural perspective
taking, cultural competency, and fluency in order to address these challenges. It is left to us to
rebuild good will and improve relationships around the globe based on our willingness to reach out
and understand the influence and impact f each other's cultural lens.

168 Yvonne R. Masakowski This task is made more complex by the fact tha effective at
communicating their intentions in eir intentions in a clear manner. Leaders rally competent,
articulate, persuasive and must have bility to resolve conflicts, mediate problems, and remain ive as
they move the team towards achieving mission need to achieve consensus in an environment of trust
develope d an a urally sensiti cu presents critical challenges to command and effort. According to
Gurstein (1999 military leaders when striving for unity o ), there is a need for multinational military
leaders to achieve abilities in mediation, confli resolution, and cultural sensitivit Although it is the
war fighter who must conduct the operation, it is left to the military leader to develop the tactical
plan, inspire trust and confidence, and build a cohesive team that will execute the plan. Thu leaders
must be adaptive and aware of the cultural and sociopolitical networks that exist within the
operational environment in order to become effective leaders. This chapter will explore the
requirements for effective leadership in multinational military operations as well as the required
knowledge, skills, and abilities that must be developed to achieve this goal. Historically, the United
States has struggled with this issue throughout the years where nations joined forces to achieve a
common goal. Both First and Second World Wars provide evidence of the complexities of sharing
leadership and resp d cultural knowledge. according to capabilities, competencies, an partners
missions has increased (e.g. Afghanistan, Irag Since the Cold War ended, the United States has
reached out to its ers for numerous multinational military operations in support ot military missions.
Indeed, the operational tempo and diversity of Iran. Syria, etc.) and us clearly aware of the need for
cultural sensitivity and leader engagement with our coalition partners enables pabilities and level of
cooperation and support for and humanitarian challenges. The recent events example of the
complexity of the multinational made those facing security humanit in Syria serve as an the co
operational mission. Leaders must achieve an understanding of the potential consequences for the
interactions and/ e refugee crisis of Syria has raised challenges from environment, and the ent, the
culture of its people, the sociopolitical consequen
esearch and teaching of miliary psychology at the Swiss M Res research, to create meaningful
content for lecture and to give useful advice aningfu rocedures, with an emphasis on the assess tive
professional officers and pr for instance the operational responsibility for several ment centres for
selectionp ofessional NCOs respectivel ann, & Ebert, 2012). These instruments are routinel ros (Ann
evaluated, and op he results of these scientific evaluations are used to essment centres themselves
and are also presented to the rommunity through publications and conference presentations
Melchers & Annen, 2010; Merkulova, Melchers, Kleinmann, Annen Tresch, 2014). When considering
leadership issues the topic on, self-awareness, and stress are of paramount importance. With regard
to motivation, researches in Organisational Citizenship tas well as cadre motivation are of the
greatest significance for the Swiss Armed Forces as a militia organisation (Annen, Goldammer
Szvircsev Tresch, 2015). The willingness and ability for systematic and recurrent self-reflection is a
pivotal attribute of a good leader; thus recent research projects have focused on the accuracy and
motivational aspects of self-appraisal, the effects of coaching, and the importance of military values
and virtues on various hierarchal levels. Stress and stress management in basic military training is
part of a comprehensive research project that will lead into a subsequent study on the benehts of
resilience training in cadre schools. Regarding combat stress and war related stress disorders, the
lessons learned by military organisations with more experience in combat deployments, such as the
US Army and Israel Defense Forces, have proven especially helpful (e.g. Matthews, 2014). This
scientific research forms the foundation of teaching military timise the ass g. & Szvircsev of motivati
Behaviou psychology at the Swiss Military Academy Education of professional officers in the Swiss Ar
med Forces The Military Academy at ETH Zurich (MILAK/ETHZ) is the educati institution for the onal e
professional officers of the Swiss Armed Forces. The jectives are directed such that prospective
professional acquire and develop the following abilities. S can e to perform instructors; orm as
didactically skilled and technically competern