Behind The Letters: College Greek Life

Greek Life:
Behind the Letters
Submitted to
Kendall Hunt Publishing Company
Dubuque, IA
Necessary Steps: Road Map for First Generation College Student Success
Michael C. Williams-Scurlock, Ph.D.

February 2014
1
Greek Life: Behind the Letters
Arguably, fraternities and sororities are the most noticeable symbols of college social life.
Dr. Fran Becque, a fraternity history scholar states, “Nationally, fraternity or sorority members
are the largest and most visible value-based student organizations”.1 As a freshman, from the
moment you step on campus, you cannot help but notice the ubiquitous Greek letters in a
spectrum of bright colors. A diverse array of college fraternities and sororities exists that should
appeal to any demographic, culture, or interest. These range from the centuries-old traditionally
White associations, historically Black Greek-lettered organizations (BGLOs), Latino-oriented
fraternities and sororities, and the newer cultural interest groups that were founded in the past
half century. The following chapter presents a history of the American college Greek system;
controversies and criticisms of Greek life; the positive attributes and contributions Greeks make
to campus life and society; and finally, how to succeed in joining the fraternity or sorority of
your choice.
Brotherly Bonds: A History of American Fraternities
Traditional Fraternities
Since before the founding of America, there have been fraternal organizations for men
based on religious, occupational, or philosophical grounds. Many of these organizations were
centered on an institution of higher learning that had a higher population of men who shared
common values.2 American fraternal societies have their origins in the Middle Ages in the
brigades of German universities. These fellowships with their high sense of pageantry, elaborate
1
(F. Becque 2013)
2
(Anderson. 2009)
2
costumes, and symbolic rituals were prevalent in the 18th century. The modern American college
fraternity has distinctive features from their European predecessors.3
On Thursday evening, December 5, 1776, five undergraduates—John Heath, Thomas
Smith, Richard Booker, Armistead Smith, and John Jones met for dinner in the Apollo Room of
the Raleigh Tavern at William and Mary College in Williamsburg, Virginia. They were members
of one of the Latin-named literary societies at William & Mary. On this night, these men decided
to form the first Greek-lettered secret society, Phi Beta Kappa, with objectives that included
scholarship, inspiration, and fraternity.4 The development of fraternities was a direct response to
students’ desire for informal fellowship outside the classroom to balance the rigidity of early
American academic primness and formality. The original chapter of Phi Beta Kappa at William
and Mary College was deactivated during the American Revolution in 1781 but chapters at Yale
and Harvard endured.5
In 1826, public sentiment grew increasingly hostile toward secret organizations following
the disappearance and suspected murder of a local man who threatened to publish Masonic
secrets. This began the first anti-Masonic movement in America. Most secret societies were
forced to reveal many of their secrets and rituals, including fraternities. As a result, Phi Beta
Kappa abandoned its premise as a secret society and emerged as an honor fraternity.6
While popular agitation against fraternities was at its height in America during 1825-
1827, three new undergraduate fraternities were organized, Kappa Alpha—the oldest existing
3
(Wesley 1991) (Waszut-Barrett 1996)
4
(Parks, Black Greek-Letter Organizations in the Twenty-First Century: Our Fight Has Just Begun 2008) (Wesley
1991)
5
(McKenzie, Fraters: Black Greek-Letter Fraternities at Four Historically Black Colleges, 1920-1960 1986)
(Waszut-Barrett 1996) (Parks and Toberson, Brothers and Sister: Diversity in College Fraternities and Sororities.
2009)
6
(Wesley 1991) (Waszut-Barrett 1996) (McKenzie, In the Beginning: The Early History of the Divine Nine 2013)
(McKenzie, In the Beginning: The Early History of the Divine Nine 2013) (Mathiasen 2005)
3
general fraternity, Sigma Phi, and Delta Phi. These three fraternities formed what would be
referred to as the “Union Triad.” Soon after, three other fraternities were founded at Ohio’s
Miami University: Beta Theta Pi, Delta Theta, and Sigma Chi. These fraternities came to be
known as the “Miami Triad”.7
The fraternal spirit soon expanded and new chapters were established at Harvard, Yale,
Columbia, Brown, Dartmouth, Amherst, and other colleges. Most traditional fraternities were
founded within three major eras: 1840-1850, 1865-1870, and 1900-1920. The first era mostly
included fraternities founded in northern liberal arts colleges to counter society’s previous
puritanical leanings. The second era followed the Civil War with a growth of conservative
fraternities in the south dedicated to preserving Southern heritage and reflecting the collective
sentiment of the American South during Reconstruction. During the final era, fraternities with
more enlightened viewpoints—with less exclusionary considerations written into their charters
emerged. However, racial and religious discriminatory policies remained firmly entrenched in
most traditional fraternities and sororities until the 1960s.8 Consequently, the four leading
historically Black fraternities were founded during this period.
Since the turn of the 20th century, new fraternities have multiplied in number and in
influence. In 1883, there were only 26 college fraternities with about 66,000 members. By 1910,
this number increased to 32 college fraternities with 1068 chapters, and by 1912, there were over
40 college fraternities with over a quarter million members. By 1922, there were 66 college
fraternities with over 2,000 chapters and more than a 500,000 members nationwide.9
7
(George Mason University, Office of Student Involvement 2013) (James 2000)
8
(James 2000)
9
(Wesley 1991)
4
Most American fraternities are members of the North-American Interfraternity
Conference (NIC). NIC was founded in 1909 and currently has 75 member organizations with
5,500 chapters located on over 800 campuses in the United States and Canada with
approximately 400,000 undergraduate members and over 4,500,000 alumni members. All of the
historically Black fraternities, with the exception of Omega Psi Phi, hold dual memberships in
the NIC and the National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC). In fact, Alpha Phi Alpha, Phi Beta
Sigma, and Kappa Alpha Psi actually have the distinction of having the most NIC collegiate
charters granted (with the notable exception of Tau Kappa Epsilon)—occupying the second,
third, and fourth rankings respectively with almost 1,200 charters between them, Iota Phi Theta
Fraternity is in the sixth spot. The NIC stresses fraternal aims such as scholarly pursuit,
leadership, service, and fellowship among all of the fraternal organizations.10
The Historically Black Fraternities
While White students enjoyed the benefits of fraternity life for almost 200 years, this
privilege was not initially extended to Black students.
The collegiate life in which the majority of the black college group lived took its course
also from the conditions in which the black college found itself. In the period just prior to
and after the Civil War, there was uncertain aid and temporary relief for the education of
the black population. Shortly thereafter, definitely organized efforts were launched for
the building of colleges and the college training of blacks for service among the more
unfortunate members of the black group. This phase of the education was missionary in
character and ideals. . . (xi). Consecrated men and women devoted their lives to the work
of education for blacks.
The school and college for youth of this early day was a big family. The spirit of
brotherhood was in the very air breathed by the student groups of this generation. Clubs,
literary societies, personal contact groups were the developments from this condition.
College activities found their social outlet in these organizations. . . (xii). Rapidly, the
fraternity idea spread into schools whose student body was entirely of the black
10
(North-American Interfraternity Conference 2014b)
5
population. The coming of one fraternity in these institutions gave rise to the others
(xii).11
Remarkably, the anti-fraternity sentiment was also shared among the African-American
intellectual class, most notably faculty and administration at historically Black colleges. Often
these early pioneers found more resistance to the fraternal ideal at HBCUs than those students at
predominately-White colleges.
National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)
For more than a century, historically Black fraternities and sororities have made profound
contributions to collegiate development and provided service and leadership to Black society.
The historically Black Greek-letter organizations are all member organizations of the National
Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC). From 1930-1997, the NPHC represented the Original 8
historically Black fraternities and sororities, previously referred to as the Elite 8. This consisted
of Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity, Inc., Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternity, Inc., Omega Psi Phi Fraternity,
Inc., Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity, Inc., Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority, Inc., Delta Sigma Theta
Sorority, Inc., Zeta Phi Beta Sorority, Inc., and Sigma Gamma Rho Sorority, Inc.12
The Original 8 were founded in the early 1900s as support systems and in response to
Black students being formally excluded from traditional fraternities and sororities. They faced
extreme racial discrimination, segregation, and sometimes, outright hostility in a post-
Reconstruction/Jim Crow-era America. In historical context, many were the children or
grandchildren of slaves; they were part of the Progressive Era and the Great Migration—all eight
organizations were founded in northern states.
11
(Wesley 1991, xi-xii)
12
(National Panhellenic Council, Inc. 2010)
6
On May 10, 1930, on the campus of Howard University, in Washington DC, the National
Pan-Hellenic Council was formed as a permanent organization with the following charter
members: Omega Psi Phi and Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternities, and Alpha Kappa Alpha, Delta
Sigma Theta and Zeta Phi Beta Sororities. In 1931, Alpha Phi Alpha and Phi Beta Sigma
Fraternities joined the Council. Sigma Gamma Rho Sorority joined in 1937 and Iota Phi Theta
Fraternity completed the list of member organizations in 199713.
The stated purpose and mission of the organization in 1930 was “Unanimity of thought
and action as far as possible in the conduct of Greek letter collegiate fraternities and
sororities, and to consider problems of mutual interest to its member organizations.”
Early in 1937, the organization was incorporated under the laws of the State of Illinois
and became known as “The National Pan-Hellenic Council, Incorporated.”14
After the Elite 8, a number of other BGLOs were founded. Even though during this time,
there was greater integration within traditional organizations. The most recognized of these
younger Black fraternities is Iota Phi Theta Fraternity. The fraternity was founded by 12 men in
the midst of the Civil Rights Movement. While there were already four prominent historically
Black fraternities, the Iotas served a unique demographic from the rest of the Elite 8 fraternities.
Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity
At first, historically Black fraternities were modeled after their traditionally White
counterparts but later they began to incorporate aspects of African and African-American culture
and heritage that was more historically significant to their population. This was the case with the
nation’s first Black college fraternity, Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity. The origin of the fraternity
was borne out of survival. During the 1904-1905 school term at Cornell Institute, there were six
Black students on campus. Because of intense racial discord, none was retained the following
13
(National Panhellenic Council, Inc. 2010) (Iota Phi Theta Fraternity, Inc. 2013)
14
(National Panhellenic Council, Inc. 2010, ¶1-2)
7
school year.15 Founder Henry Arthur Callis described their situation, “The incoming students in
1905-06…were determined to bind themselves together to ensure that each would survive in the
racially hostile environment”16 These individuals formed a Social Study Club as a support
group.17
By October 23, 1906, the club evolved into a Literary Society; Founder, George Biddle
Kelley proposed that the society be identified by the Greek letters  (Alpha Phi Alpha).
Founder Robert Harold Ogle suggested that the organization adopt black and old gold as the
official colors. At this time, the club became the “Alpha Phi Alpha Society”. There was great
divide among the members of the society if they wanted to become an actual fraternity,
dissenters believed that African-Americans did not have a cultural basis on which to establish a
fraternity, especially since there was no precedence.18 However, on a cold Tuesday evening in
upstate New York on December 4, 1906, the dispute was put to rest. The motion passed to
establish Alpha Phi Alpha as the first fraternity created for Black male college students. Some of
the former society members felt strongly enough to depart over this decision. The Cornell Seven
“…who formed Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity were Henry Arthur Callis A.B. ’09, Charles Henry
Chapman, Special Agriculture Student ’06, Eugene Kinckle Jones, M.A. ’08, George Biddle
Kelley, Civil Engineering degree ’08, Nathaniel Allison Murray B.S. ’11, Robert Harold Ogle,
Special Agriculture Student, and Vertner Woodson Tandy, Special Architecture Student. They
are known as the Seven Jewels”.19
15
(Wesley 1991) (Mason 1999) (Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity, Inc. 2013)
16
(Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity, Inc. 2013, ¶1)
17
(Wesley 1991) (Pawley, III 1993)
18
(Wesley 1991)
19
(Ross Jr. 2000) (W. M. Kimbrough, Black Greek 101: The Culture, Customs, and Challenges of Black Fraternities
and Sororities 2003) (Cornell University: Division of Rare & Manuscript Collections 2006)
8
Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternity
On another predominately-White campus in 1910, the only 10 Black students that
attended Indiana University—Elder Watson Diggs (affectionately known as The Dreamer), Dr.
Ezra D. Alexander, Dr. Byron Kenneth Armstrong, Atty. Henry Tourner Asher, Dr. Marcus Peter
Blakemore, Paul Waymond Caine, George Wesley Edmonds, Dr. Guy Levis Grant, Edward
Giles Irvin, and Sgt. John Milton Lee—formed a temporary association named Alpha Omega
until the particulars of developing a full-fledged college fraternity could be realized. Diggs and
Armstrong had just transferred from Howard University, where they “were aware of the
existence of another historically black Greek-letter organization (Alpha Phi Alpha) and that their
contact with this organization motivated them to pursue the idea of a fraternity at Indiana Uni-
versity.”20
Racial prejudice, hostility, and outright violence towards African-Americans were
widespread in Indiana. Indiana was emerging as a haven for the new Ku Klux Klan. Indiana was
infamous for violence and lynching of Black men. These Black students were thoroughly denied
access to all campus recreation facilities, dormitories, and social activities. They faced
indignities heaped upon them daily by White administrators, their fellow students, and the
community. They remained segregated and isolated from the Indiana University campus.21.
Similarly, to the founders of Alpha Phi Alpha, racial discrimination inspired them to
create their own organization to combat the seclusion they felt being the only Black students on
an unfriendly White college campus. They would seldom travel alone as they needed to watch
each other’s backs; this strengthened their bonds. On January 5, 1911, near the banks of the
20
(Jennings 2008, 117)
21
(Ross Jr. 2000) (Bryson 2003) (Jennings 2008)
9
Jordan River that ran through the campus. They adopted Indiana University school colors,
crimson and cream as their fraternity’s colors and named it Kappa Alpha Nu.22
The fraternity hosted house parties that attracted not only IU students but also Black
students from around Indiana. Soon camaraderie and friendship replaced their isolation. In time,
the house parties evolved into proms that they eventually were able to hold on campus.23
In 1915, the fraternity was renamed as a response to two Kappa founders overhearing
some white students refer to a member competing at a track meet as Kappa Alpha Nig. They
began considering a name change; there was also a secondary desire to have an actual Greek
letter in their name. Therefore, on April 15, 1915, members voted and the Nu was replaced with
the Greek letter (Psi) which mimicked Indiana University’s prominent red interlocking IU
logo and Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternity was so designated.24
Omega Psi Phi Fraternity
As previously noted, this period saw unprecedented number of Black students attending
historically Black colleges and universities. Howard University saw extraordinary enrollment at
this time and the fraternal spirit caught on quickly. Alpha Phi Alpha had already installed their
Beta chapter at Howard on December 20, 1907.25 Andre McKenzie states, “Omega Psi Phi was
founded at Howard University in response to the establishment of an Alpha Phi Alpha chapter on
the campus years earlier”.26
On Friday evening, November 17, 1911, three Howard University undergraduate

students, with the assistance of their faculty adviser, gave birth to the Omega Psi Phi
22
(Bryson 2003)
23
(Bryson 2003) (Jennings 2008)
24
(Bryson 2003) (Jennings 2008)
25
(Wesley 1991) (Ross Jr. 2000)
26
(McKenzie, Fraters: Black Greek-Letter Fraternities at Four Historically Black Colleges, 1920-1960 1986, 3)
10
Fraternity. This event occurred in the office of biology Professor Ernest E. Just, the
faculty adviser, in the Science Hall (now known as Thirkield Hall). The three liberal arts
students were Edgar A. Love, Oscar J. Cooper and Frank Coleman. From the initials of
the Greek phrase meaning, “friendship is essential to the soul,” the name Omega Psi Phi
was derived. The phrase was selected as the motto. Manhood, scholarship, perseverance
and uplift were adopted as cardinal principles. A decision was made regarding the design
for the pin and emblem, and thus ended the first meeting of the Omega Psi Phi
Fraternity.27
According to Omega Psi Phi Fraternity,
On November 23, 1911 in Thirkield Hall, Love became the first Grand Basileus
(National President). Cooper and Coleman were selected to be the Grand Keeper of the
Records (National Secretary) and Grand Keeper of Seals (National Treasurer),
respectively.28
However, this was only the beginning of a long road to becoming a fully accepted
fraternity on Howard’s campus, let alone a national fraternity. The Omegas were immediately
denied recognition from the administration. The Omega Founders and charter members went on
a campaign to win the hearts and minds of the campus by posting cards all around the campus
announcing the arrival of the first fraternity founded at Howard University—Omega Psi Phi
Fraternity. This did not go over well with the administration, prompting the president of the
college, Dr. Wilbur Thirkield, to make a formal speech to the student body denying the very
existence of the fraternity.29
Undeterred, the Omegas decided to make a personal appeal to President Thirkield and
that very day, they met with Howard University’s head administrator. Despite an immediate
admonishment about the posts, Dr. Thirkield received them warmly and listened to their motives
and ideas for starting a new fraternity. President Thirkield promised to give them due
consideration if they removed the card postings.30
27
(OrgSynch 2014)
28
(Omega Psi Phi Fraternity, Inc. 2010, ¶1)
29
(Ross Jr. 2000)
30
(Ross Jr. 2000)
11
The administration did not move quickly, waiting until 1912 to make the decision to
recognize them as a local fraternity. This flew in the face of Omega Founders who envisioned a
national organization from its inception. For over a year, the fraternity went back and forth with
the faculty and administration of Howard about its expansion to other campuses. It was not until
1914, that Omega Psi Fraternity finally installed their second chapter at Lincoln University—
succeeding in their quest of becoming the first national fraternity founded at Howard
University.31
Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity
That same year at Howard University, Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity, Inc. was founded on
January 9, 1914 by three young men: A. Langston Taylor, Leonard F. Morse, and Charles I.
Brown. However, the groundwork for the fraternity began all the way back in 1910 when A.
Langston Taylor was entertained with stories of fraternity life from a friend that attended
Howard. By the time Langston enrolled at Howard University during the fall of 1913, he already
had the basic structure of the fraternity completed. He enlisted his roommate and another friend
to assist in his endeavor.32
In November 1913, the three founders met at Morse’s house and initiated nine more
members into their new fraternity. The founders and charter members met on January 9, 1914 at
a YMCA in Washington, DC and came up with their motto, Culture for Service and Service for
Humanity; they elected officers and made plans to submit their application to the university
31
and Sororities 2003) (Ross Jr. 2000) (Brown, Parks and Phillips 2012)
32
(Ross Jr. 2000) (McKenzie, In the Beginning: The Early History of the Divine Nine 2013)
12
Deans for official recognition. The Deans took three months to approve their request.33 Phi Beta
Sigma describes their Founders’ sentiment in establishing the Fraternity:
The Founders deeply wished to create an organization that viewed itself as “a part of” the
general community rather than “apart from” the general community. They believed that
each potential member should be judged by his own merits, rather than his family
background or affluence…without regard to race, nationality, skin tone or texture of hair.
They desired for their fraternity to exist as part of an even greater brotherhood which
would be devoted to the “inclusive we” rather than the “exclusive we”.
From its inception, the Founders also conceived Phi Beta Sigma as a mechanism to
deliver services to the general community. Rather than gaining skills to be utilized
exclusively for themselves and their immediate families, they held a deep conviction that
they should return their newly acquired skills to the communities from which they had
come. This deep conviction was mirrored in the Fraternity’s motto, Culture For Service
and Service For Humanity.34
Iota Phi Theta Fraternity
On September 19, 1963, during the height of the Civil Rights' Movement, 12 men—
Albert Hicks, Lonnie Spruill, Jr., Charles Briscoe, Frank Coakley, John Slade, Barron Willis,
Webster Lewis, Charles Brown, Louis Hudnell, Charles Gregory, Elias Dorsey, Jr., and Michael
Williams—gathered together on the steps of Morgan State College’s Hurt Gymnasium and
formed Iota Phi Theta Fraternity. The Iota founders were distinguished from those of the other
historically Black fraternities as they were all non-traditional students. They were three to five
years older than their fellow students were. Many had served in the military during the Vietnam
War, worked full-time while attending classes full-time, and had families with small children.
Many were long-time friends. Spruill, Coakley, Dorsey, and Gregory had known one another
33
and Sororities 2003)
34
(Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity, Inc. 2013, ¶1-3)
13
since grade school, and Spruill and Coakley’s friendship extended to when the two were pre-
schoolers.35
Based upon their ages, heightened responsibilities, and increased level of maturity, this
group had a slightly different perspective… This perspective [informed] the Fraternity’s
purpose, “The development and perpetuation of Scholarship, Leadership, Citizenship,
Fidelity, and Brotherhood among Men”.36
Iota Phi Theta has emerged as the most established of the younger predominately-Black
fraternities. The Iotas first inquired about admission into the National Pan-Hellenic Council in
the 1970s; however, the NPHC did not have mechanisms in place for new member organizations
since the Elite 8. After decades of consideration and deliberation, Iota Phi Theta was finally
admitted into NPHC in 1996 and the Elite 8 became the Divine 9.37
“Hazing is the result of group interaction processes that are linked with students’ need for
belonging, their isolation from other social relations on campus, and subcultural definitions, that
legitimate hazing events as a necessary component of fraternity initiation rites” (Sweet, 1999, p. 355).
Top 25 Fraternities
In 2012, Newsweek compiled a ranking of the top 25 fraternities of the 75 fraternities that
are members of the North-American Interfraternity Conference (NIC).
We first considered the number of active collegiate chapters for each. We also considered
the number of alumni who are currently members of the U.S. Senate and the U.S. House
of Representatives, as well as the alumni, if any, who became president. Lastly, we
considered the amount of money the fraternity’s non-profit fund donated to 501(c) (3)
organizations according the most recent public filing (funds were normalized using a per-
chapter ratio). Funds donated to individual chapters, classified as a 501(c) (7) non-profit
social club, were not considered for this aspect of the ranking.
25. Delta Upsilon (ΔY)
35
(Iota Phi Theta Fraternity Inc. 2013a)
36
(Iota Phi Theta Fraternity Inc. 2013a, ¶5)
37
(Williams-Scurlock 2005) (Iota Phi Theta Fraternity, Inc. 2013)
14
24. Phi Beta Sigma (ΦBΣ)

23. Phi Kappa Sigma (ΦKΣ)
22. Delta Chi (ΔX)
21. Beta Theta Pi (BΘΠ)
20. Iota Phi Theta (IΦΘ)
19. Sigma Alpha Mu (ΣAM)
18. Alpha Tau Omega (ATΩ)
17. Pi Kappa Phi (ΠKΦ)
16. Tau Kappa Epsilon (TKE)
15. Pi Kappa Alpha (ΠKA)
14. Lambda Chi Alpha (ΛXA)
13. Phi Kappa Tau (ΦKT)
12. Kappa Alpha Psi (KAΨ)
11. Delta Tau Delta (DTD)
10. Alpha Phi Alpha (AΦA)
9. Kappa Alpha Order (KA)
8. Sigma Phi Epsilon (ΣΦE)
7. Alpha Gamma Rho (AΓP)
6. Alpha Epsilon Pi (AEΠ)
5. Sigma Nu (ΣN)
4. Theta Chi (ΘX)
3. Phi Gamma Delta (FIJI)
2. Sigma Alpha Epsilon (ΣAE)
1. Sigma Chi (ΣX)38
Inside the Sister Circle: A History of American Sororities
Traditional Sororities
Much like African-Americans, women faced intense opposition against attending college.
Some administrators and faculty members contended that the female mind was inferior and
expressed doubts that women could become proficient in mathematics and the classics. However,
Dr. Erastus Otis Haven, after serving as president of University of Michigan and Northwestern
University, was selected chancellor at Syracuse University and asserted that women had a place
38
(Newsweek 2012a)
15
in higher education on par with men. To illustrate this, he confidently enrolled his daughter,
Frances Elizabeth, at Syracuse where she became a founder of Gamma Phi Beta Sorority.39
The earliest Greek lettered organizations for women were also called fraternities because
the term sorority had not yet been conceived. “No such history of sororities existed for women
until much later in America’s turbulent past, mostly because women did not share the same
educational or political opportunities that their male counterparts enjoyed”.40 Just prior to the
Civil War, secret women literary societies were forming at women colleges as support system for
being in a predominately-male environment. Like the fraternities, these literary societies evolved
to modern American sororities. The first such secret literary society was Adelphian, which is
Greek for sister. Found on May 15, 1851 at Wesleyan Female College in Macon, Georgia by six
young women: Eugenia Tucker Fitzgerald, Elizabeth Williams Mitchell, Sophronia Woodruff
Dews, Octavia Andrew Rush, Mary Evans Glass, and Ella Pierce Turner, who were between
thirteen and eighteen years of age. They founded the organization on the principles of developing
the mental, moral, social, and domestic improvement of its members.41 The Adelphian Society
changed its name to Alpha Delta Phi in 1905 when it attained a charter as a national organization
and changed its name to Alpha Delta Pi in 1913 to avoid confusion with an existing men's
fraternity.42
Just a few months later on January 4, 1852, another women’s literary society was
founded on the same campus. In 1914, three teenage women—Mary Ann DuPont (Lines), Mary
Elizabeth Myrick (Daniel), and Martha Bibb Hardaway (Redding) founded a separate society
39
(Haven 1883) (Syracuse University n.d.)
40
(Dubroff n.d.)
41
(Anderson. 2009)
42
(Dubroff n.d.)
16
called the Philomathean Society—not to be confused with the Philomathean Literary Society
founded at the University of Pennsylvania in 1813 which remains the nation’s oldest literary
society. In 1904, the name was changed to Phi Mu Fraternity and it became America's second
oldest secret organization for women. Formally, the women’s organization remains Phi Mu
Fraternity, as they chose not change it to sorority to preserve their heritage. These first two
college women’s groups are referred to as the “Macon Magnolias”.43
The I.C. Sorosis was founded at Monmouth College in Monmouth, Illinois on April 28,
1867. Later they adopted the Greek letters representing their secret motto as their official name,
Pi Beta Phi. It was the first sorority to model itself after the men’s fraternities. Three years later
on the same campus, Kappa Kappa Gamma was established at Monmouth College on October
13, 1870. These two sororities were known as the “Monmouth Duo”.44
There were three women fraternities that were founded at Syracuse University between
1872 and 1904; they comprise the Syracuse Triad. Alpha Phi International Women's Fraternity
was the first. “On the afternoon of September 18, 1872, Martha Foote Crow was visiting her
friends Clara Sittser Williams and Kate Hogoboom Gilbert in their boarding house at Syracuse
University. Martha mused, “Why can’t we have a society as well as the men?”45
The women’s fraternity was founded by 10 of the original 20 women first admitted into
Syracuse University: Clara Bradley Wheeler Baker Burdette, Hattie Florence Chidester Lukens,
Martha Emily Foote Crow, Ida Arabella Gilbert DeLamanter Houghton, Jane Sara Higham, Kate
Elizabeth Hogoboom Gilbert, Elizabeth Grace Hubbell Shults, Rena A. Michaels Atchison,
43
(Hood 2006) (Phi Mu 2010) (Velez 2010)
44
(San Jose State University 2013) (Anderson. 2009)
45
(Alpha Phi Fraternity 2010)
17
Louise Viola Shepard Hancock, and Clara Sittser Williams. In Alpha Phi, the Greek letter Phi is
pronounced fee as the Greeks pronounced it, instead of the more Americanized fi. The women
used this pronunciation because they felt it sounded more feminine.46.
Gamma Phi Beta was founded two years later on November 11, 1874 by Frances
Elizabeth Haven, daughter of Syracuse Chancellor Erastus Haven, and three friends Helen M.
Dodge, E. Adeline Curtis and Mary A. Bingham. The word sorority was devised for Gamma Phi
Beta by their advisor Dr. Frank Smalley, a professor of Latin who felt that fraternity was a
masculine term; soror meant sister in Latin.47
Alpha Gamma Delta Women’s Fraternity completed the Syracuse Triad on May 30,
1904. Alpha Gamma Delta was founded at the home of Professor Wellesley Perry Coddington
by 11 female students: Marguerite Shepard, Estelle Shepard Beswick, Georgia Alberta Dickover,
Jennie Titus Smith Morris, Ethel Evelyn Brown Distin, Grace Mosher Harter, Edith MacConnel
Hickok, Mary Louise Snider, Georgia Otis Chipman, Emily Helen Butterfield and Flora Knight
Mayer. The organization retained the term fraternity rather than sorority because their advisor
contended that soror was a Latin word and not consistent with the Greek tradition. Unlike the
other members of the Triad, Alpha Gamma Delta Fraternity aspired to become an inter-collegiate
organization that expanded beyond Syracuse from their onset. To this day, the Syracuse Triad
holds some special events together on most campuses where all three organizations are present.48
In the early days of sorority expansion, there was intense rivalry between the various
organizations; they competed for members, distinction, and status. However, the women's groups
46
(Alpha Phi Fraternity 2010)
47
(University of Wisconsin Madison 2013)
48
(Baird and Brown 1920)
18
recognized the benefit of standing together before the men’s fraternities. In 1902, seven women’s
fraternities met in Boston and formed the National Panhellenic Conference (NPC) to encourage
unity among the different sororities, to foster positive relations with the host colleges, and to
serve as a resource to the different chapters.49
The Historically Black Sororities
Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority
As previously stated, women were not given much encouragement to attend college; most
men felt that women’s greatest contributions were in the home as wives and mothers so there
was little need for higher education. Despite the ratification of the 15th Amendment, which
granted voting rights to citizens regardless of race, color, or previous condition of servitude,
gender was not protected. In the post-Reconstruction era, Southern states reverted to the formal
disentrancement of African Americans by rewriting their state constitutions. Twenty million
women were also denied the right to vote. If this was the plight of women and Black men, Black
women were subjugated even more. Even at the historically Black, Howard University, there
were only a nominal percentage of women enrolled.50
Ethel Hedgeman (Lyle) encountered this social and political climate upon returning to
Howard for her junior year in fall 1907. Even though she dated—and later married George Lyle,
one of the charter members of the Alpha Phi Alpha chapter at Howard—Ethel had envisioned a
Black sorority that previous spring after being inspired by accounts of sorority life from her
teacher, Ethel Robinson and other Howard faculty. Ethel had already recruited eight other
49
(Anderson. 2009) (Dubroff n.d.) (San Jose State University 2013)
50
(Ross Jr. 2000) (McKenzie, In the Beginning: The Early History of the Divine Nine 2013)
19
women during the summer: Anna Easter Brown, Beulah Burke, Lillie Burke, Marjorie Hill,
Margaret Flagg Holmes, Lavinia Norman, Lucy Slowe, and Marie Woolfolk Taylor. These nine
women spent fall 1907 creating the foundation of their sisterhood.51
On January 15, 1908, they met in Miner Hall on Howard’s campus where they composed
the sorority's constitution based on a draft by Lucy Slowe. They conceived their motto, By Merit
and Culture; selected their colors, salmon pink and apple green; and designed the sorority’s
insignia, a green enameled ivy leaf with the letters A K A in each of the leaf’s three points. From
the first three letters of the three Greek words that formed the Sorority’s motto, they christened
their sorority Alpha Kappa Alpha—the first Greek-lettered sorority for Black college women.52
All of these nine women were seniors with the exception of Ethel Hedgeman. For their
organization to endure, more members were needed. A group of seven sophomore honor students
had expressed some interest in the organization and they were invited to join without having to
go through initiation. These sophomores: Norma Boyd, Ethel Jones Mowbray, Alice Murray,
Sarah Meriweather Nutter, Joanna Berry Shields, Carrie Snowden, and Harriet Terry joined the
original eight as the founders for 16 total members. They then sought official recognition from
Howard University administration, which granted them status as a local sorority without
incident.53
By the 1911-1912 school term, there were over 20 members but Alpha Kappa Alpha did
not exist beyond Howard University. During the spring of 1912, after attending the sorority’s
annual Ivy Day, former chapter Basileus, Nellie Quander was shocked when she discovered that
51
(W. M. Kimbrough, Black Greek 101: The Culture, Customs, and Challenges of Black Fraternities and Sororities
2003) (Ross Jr. 2000) (McKenzie, In the Beginning: The Early History of the Divine Nine 2013)
52
(Brown, Parks and Phillips 2012) (McKenzie, In the Beginning: The Early History of the Divine Nine 2013)
53
(Ross Jr. 2000) (Brown, Parks and Phillips 2012)
20
the 22 newly initiated members on campus intended to make profound changes to the sorority.
They intended to revise the constitution and extend the organization beyond Howard University.
Since the organization was not incorporated, the members felt they did not have legal authority
to form additional chapters. The seven chapter officers proposed changing the sorority colors, its
symbols, and had already adopted a new name, Delta Sigma Theta. They felt that the letters
 were not Greek distinctive letters and were merely a feminine derivative of . These
young women had formed a special connection with the founders of the newly organized Omega
Psi Phi Fraternity—one of the Delta Founders, Edna Brown Coleman later married an Omega
Founder, Frank Coleman.54
Nellie Quander was stunned; she contacted every alumnae of Alpha Kappa Alpha. With
the exception of the campus members, all of the alumnae rebuffed the proposed changes. Nellie
gave the 22 members a deadline to cease their efforts to reorganize Alpha Kappa Alpha and to
discontinue using the name, Delta Sigma Theta. On January 13, 1913, the entire 22 women of the
undergraduate chapter withdrew from Alpha Kappa Alpha to become Delta Sigma Theta
Sorority.55
Nellie Quander did agree about expanding the sorority to other campuses. She chaired a
three-person task force that was charged with securing ’s continued existence and to
oversee its expansion. On January 29, 1913, Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority was legally
incorporated by Nellie Quander; founders Norma Boyd and Ethel Jones Mowbray; and Julia
54
(Ross Jr. 2000) (Gliddings 2007) (McKenzie, In the Beginning: The Early History of the Divine Nine 2013)
55
(Gliddings 2007)
21
Brooks, Nellie Pratt Russell, and Minnie Smith in Washington, DC. Nellie Quander became
Alpha Kappa Alpha’s first Supreme Basileus (National President).56
Those women who were part of The Original Group, The Sophomores, and The
Incorporators comprise Alpha Kappa Alpha’s 20 Pearls. They are Ethel Hedgeman Lyle, Norma
Elizabeth Boyd, Julia Evangeline Brooks, Anna Easter Brown, Beulah Elizabeth Burke, Lillie
Burke, Marjorie Hill, Margaret Flagg Holmes, Ethel Jones Mowbray, Alice P. Murray, Lavinia
Norman, Sara Meriweather Nutter, Nellie M. Quander, Nellie Pratt Russell, Joanna Berry
Shields, Lucy Diggs Slowe, Minnie Beatrice Smith, Carrie Elizabeth Snowden, Marie Woolfolk
Taylor, and Harriet Josephine Terry.57
Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority’s 260,000 members in 958 chapters worldwide have been
mission focused on improving the educational, economic, and social development of Black
people throughout the Diaspora. They have been at the forefront of the fight for civil rights
through marches and sit-ins; promoting global human rights by building schools in post-
apartheid South Africa; sponsoring literacy programs for American youth; and raising awareness
of health issues that disproportionately affect African-Americans such as AIDS, breast cancer,
diabetes, heart disease, and sickle cell anemia.58
Delta Sigma Theta Sorority
On January 13, 1913, Delta Sigma Theta Sorority was founded when 22 Howard
University undergraduate women departed Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority: Winona Cargile
Alexander, Madree Penn White, Wertie Blackwell Weaver, Vashti Turley Murphy, Ethel Cuff
56
(Ross Jr. 2000)
57
(Brown, Parks and Phillips 2012)
58
(Parks, Black Greek-Letter Organizations in the Twenty-First Century: Our Fight Has Just Begun 2008) (Brown,
Parks and Phillips 2012)
22
Black, Frederica Chase Dodd, Osceola Macarthy Adams, Pauline Oberdorfer Minor, Edna
Brown Coleman, Edith Mott Young, Marguerite Young Alexander, Naomi Sewell Richardson,
Eliza P. Shippen, Zephyr Chisom Carter, Myra Davis Hemmings, Mamie Reddy Rose, Bertha
Pitts Campbell, Florence Letcher Toms, Olive Jones, Jessie McGuire Dent, Jimmie Bugg
Middleton, and Ethel Carr Watson. Myra Davis Hemmings has the distinction of being President
of both Alpha Kappa Alpha and Delta Sigma Theta Sororities.59
The Founders wanted to use their collective strength to promote scholarship as well as to
provide aid to the needy on a national scope. These women endeavored to be more socially
relevant to their community by concentrating their efforts on political activism and public service
while distancing themselves from the stereotype of a social sorority. The newly formed Delta
Sigma Theta Sorority performed their first public service act on March 3, 1913; they participated
in the Women's Suffrage March in Washington, DC, in defiance of Howard University
administration. They marched side-by-side with the estimated 10,000 women—not behind
them.60
During their developmental years, the Deltas became active participants and a force to be
reckoned with in the fight for equal rights for African-Americans and women. They lobbied for
the exoneration of the Scottsboro Boys, the NAACP anti-lynching campaign, the repeal and
dismantling of Jim Crow laws, and most notably, bringing literacy to historically overlooked
African Americans in the rural South. Through their National Literacy Project, introduced in
1937, local Delta chapters provided books to Black communities to supplement the inferior
59
2003) (Gliddings 2007) (McKenzie, In the Beginning: The Early History of the Divine Nine 2013)
60
(Ross Jr. 2000) (Brown, Parks and Phillips 2012)
23
schools and libraries. They created some libraries and even operated one of the first
bookmobiles, filling buses with books and traveling to rural Black communities in the South.61
In 1955, Delta Sigma Theta established their Five-Point Programmatic Thrust as a means
to realize its objectives of providing public service that benefit the African-American
community:
1. Economic Development
2. Educational Development
3. Physical and Mental Health
4. Political Awareness and Involvement
5. International Awareness and Involvement62.
Since their founding, Delta Sigma Theta Sorority has emerged as the nation’s largest
women’s groups with over 250,000 members in 900 chapters. During their Centennial
Celebration in 2013, more than 40,000 registered Delta sorors attended festivities in Washington,
DC. On their 100th Anniversary on January 13, 2013, President Barack Obama met personally
with Delta leadership in the Oval Office and even illuminated the White House in red light in
honor of their century of public service. Former Senator and Secretary of State, Hillary Clinton
addressed the assembly and summed it up best when she said, “Wherever you see women
advancing, you see Deltas!”63
Zeta Phi Beta Sorority
While taking a stroll through the Howard University campus in 1919, Phi Beta Sigma
member, Charles R.S. Taylor expressed his vision for a sister sorority to Arizona Cleaver and
asked if she would be interested in pursuing this endeavor. There were already two sororities at
61
(Ross Jr. 2000)
62
(Delta Sigma Theta Sorority, New Orleans Alumnae Chapter 2009)
63
(Dillard 2013)
24
Howard and Arizona had to resolve if there was enough interest to support another. After
thoughtful contemplation, Arizona presented her plans to 14 hopefuls at an interest meeting—
four of them committed to this undertaking. With the assistance of Charles Taylor and Sigma
Founder, A. Langston Taylor, Arizona Cleaver, Pearl Neal, Myrtle Tyler, Viola Tyler, and
Fannie Pettie (referred to as the Five Pearls) met in the dorm rooms of Miner Hall where they
finalized the structure of their new sorority. After receiving approval from the Deans at Howard
University, Zeta Phi Beta Sorority was founded on January 16, 1920.64
Zeta Phi Beta was founded on the principles of Scholarship, Service, Sisterly Love, and
Finer Womanhood and the precepts that "elitism and socializing had overshadowed the
real mission of sororities-to address and correct the problems of society, particularly,
those plaguing the African-American community. (Mission & Vision of Zeta Phi Beta
Sorority, Inc.) 65
The Five Pearls chose the Greek letters , which was derived from  to “seal and
signify the relationship between the two organizations”.66 They also constructed the sorority’s
constitution from Phi Beta Sigma’s constitution. They adapted the Sigma’s ritual and adopted
many of their symbols, therefore making them the only official Brother and Sister organization
in the NPHC—constitutionally bound for eternity.67
Phi Beta Sigma members Charles Taylor and A. Langston Taylor formally introduced
Zeta Phi Beta Sorority during a social held at the Whitelaw Hotel. They were well received by
the campus. Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority and Delta Sigma Theta Sorority hosted a “Welcome to
64
(Harrison 1998)
65
(Zeta Phi Beta Sorority, Inc. 2013) (McKenzie, In the Beginning: The Early History of the Divine Nine 2013)
(Parks, Black Greek-Letter Organizations in the Twenty-First Century: Our Fight Has Just Begun 2008)
66
(Harrison 1998, 2)
67
(Harrison 1998)
25
Campus” reception for the Zetas in the assembly room in Miner Hall. In December of that year,
Zeta Phi Beta held its first Boule (convention) with Phi Beta Sigma at Howard University.68
Since its inception, Zeta has continued its steady climb into the national spotlight with
programs designed to demonstrate concern for the human condition both nationally and
internationally . . . The sorority takes pride in its continued participation in transforming
communities through volunteer services from members and its auxiliaries. Zeta Phi Beta
has chartered hundreds of chapters worldwide and has a membership of 100,000+69
Sigma Gamma Rho
The hostile, racist atmosphere in Indiana as described during the early days of Kappa
Alpha Psi Fraternity had actually escalated. By the 1920s, the Ku Klux Klan had a surge of
almost 4 million members and Indiana became their base of operation. Nearly 30% of the white
male population in Indiana was initiated klansmen; this earned Indiana the unofficial nickname,
Klandiana. This was the environment that seven young Black schoolteachers found themselves
emerged in during 1922.70
As the only historically Black sorority that was founded at a predominately-White
institution and not Howard University; their mission was simple—help young Black women to
succeed so that they could help others through service, leadership development, and education of
youth. The Seven Pearls: Mary Lou Allison Gardner Little, Dorothy Hanley Whiteside, Vivian
White Marbury, Nannie Mae Gahn Johnson, Hattie Mae Annette Dulin Redford, Bessie Mae
68
(Harrison 1998) (McKenzie, In the Beginning: The Early History of the Divine Nine 2013)
69
(Zeta Phi Beta Sorority, Inc. 2013)
70
(Ross Jr. 2000) (Parks, Black Greek-Letter Organizations in the Twenty-First Century: Our Fight Has Just Begun
2008)
26
Downey Rhoades Martin, and Cubena McClure organized Sigma Gamma Rho Sorority on the
campus of Butler University in Indianapolis, IN on November 12, 1922.71
Sigma Gamma Rho's commitment to service is expressed in its slogan, Greater Service,
Greater Progress. The sorority has a proud history of offering service wherever chapters
exist, including OPERATION BigBookBag, a program designed to address the needs,
challenges and issues that face school-aged children who are educationally at-risk in local
homeless shelters and extended care hospitals. The objective is for chapters to provide
their local homeless shelters and children hospitals with educational materials, equipment
and supplies.72
During its formative years, Sigma Gamma Rho concentrated on establishing the
fundamentals of their sisterhood and building their infrastructure instead of hosting conventions.
They held their first Boule in 1925. Since 1922, Sigma Gamma Rho Sorority has expanded to
more than 85,000 sisters in over 500 college and alumni chapters in North America, Bahamas,
Bermuda, US Virgin Islands, Germany, and Korea.73
Top 25 Sororities
Sororities are emerging in surprising force at campuses not usually associated with the
Greek tradition. Students raised on Facebook and fears about post-college careers view sororities
as the ultimate social network and an extension of the community service begun in high school.
Nationwide, membership is up, growing a bit more than 15 percent from 2008 to 2011, to
285,543 undergraduates.74 Annually, undergraduate sorority members provide more than 1.3
million hours of community service and donate over $5 million for philanthropic endeavors.75
71
2003) (Sigma Gamma Rho Sorority, Inc. 2013)
72
(Sigma Gamma Rho Sorority, Inc. 2013)
73
(Ross Jr. 2000) (Parks, Black Greek-Letter Organizations in the Twenty-First Century: Our Fight Has Just Begun
2008) (Sigma Gamma Rho Sorority, Inc. 2013)
74
(Moore 2012)
7575
(Anderson. 2009) (San Jose State University 2013)
27
The NPC has 26 organizations with constituencies and traditions that vary by campus
(the NPHC sororities are not part of the NPC). Newsweek analyzed the sororities based on
number of chapters, social media popularity, and the amount of donated to philanthropic
endeavors as indicated in public filings. Newsweek contacted all 26 sororities to confirm that the
information was accurate. The NPC and several sororities declined comment. The following is
Newsweek sorority rankings76:
25. Theta Phi Alpha

24. Alpha Epsilon Phi
23. Sigma Delta Tau
22. Alpha Sigma Alpha
21. Alpha Sigma Tau
20. Phi Sigma Sigma
19. Sigma Sigma Sigma
18. Alpha Xi Delta
17. Alpha Gamma Delta
16. Sigma Kappa
15. Phi Mu
14. Gamma Phi Beta
13. Alpha Chi Omega
12. Delta Zeta
11. Kappa Alpha Theta
10. Alpha Phi
9. Alpha Omicron Pi
8. Delta Delta Delta
7. Kappa Delta
6. Pi Beta Phi
5. Chi Omega
4. Alpha Delta Pi
3. Kappa Kappa Gamma
2. Delta Gamma
1. Zeta Tau Alpha77
Latino-Oriented Fraternities & Sororities and Other Cultural Interest Organizations
Latino Greek-Lettered Organizations
76
The NPHC sororities are not members of the NPC so they are not listed.
77
(Newsweek 2012b)
28
The roots of Latino-oriented collegiate secret societies can be traced back even further
than historically Black fraternities and sororities, to the late 1800s. Similarly, the first Latino-
oriented associations were based on a need for Latino students to have a support system when
their social and personal development needs were not being met as a minority on a
predominately-White campus.78
Union Hispano Americana was founded at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI) in
Troy, NY in 1890. It is regarded as the first known collegiate fraternal association for Latin
American students. It was an intellectual, cultural secret society for Latin American and Spanish
students that were based on principles of Pan-Americanism. This society was one of the four
organizations—Sigma Iota at Louisiana State University in 1904; Pi Delta Phi at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1916; and Phi Lambda Alpha at UC Berkeley in
1919—that merged to form Phi Iota Alpha Fraternity, Inc. on December 26, 1931, the nation’s
oldest existing Latino fraternity.79
The wars, the Great Depression, and the declining number of Latino college students lead
to a drastic drop in membership for Phi Iota Alpha Fraternity until 1973 when it was completely
inactive. The mid 1970s through late 1990s saw a resurgence of Latino students returning to
college campuses as many predominately-White institutions started using ethnicity and open
enrollment policies as part of their admission strategies to increase diversity on their campuses.
In addition, political and social activism increased on campus toward the end of the Vietnam
War. These factors lead to the emergence of several new Latino-oriented fraternities and
78
(Association of Fraternity/Sorority Advisors, Inc. 2009)
79
2003) (Association of Fraternity/Sorority Advisors, Inc. 2009)
29
sororities being founded on campuses across the United States. Phi Iota Alpha Fraternity
returned to RPI in 1984.80
Although it is difficult to pinpoint the exact number, Walter Kimbrough has identified
over 75 Latino-oriented fraternities and sororities. Only 21 are members of the National
Association of Latino Fraternal Organizations, Inc. (NALFO), the primary umbrella association
representing Latino organizations since 1998. The group was incorporated on August 12, 1999.81
NAFLO Member Organizations82
Organization Letters Type Founding Date University
Phi Iota Alpha ΦΙΑ Fraternity December 26, 1931 Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Lambda Theta Alpha ΛΘΑ Sorority December 1975 Kean College
Lambda Theta Phi ΛΘΦ Fraternity December 1, 1975 Kean College
Lambda Sigma Upsilon ΛΣΥ Fraternity April 5, 1979 Rutgers University
Chi Upsilon Sigma ΧΥΣ Sorority April 29, 1980 Rutgers University
Lambda Upsilon Lambda ΛΥΛ Fraternity February 19, 1982 Cornell University
Alpha Psi Lambda ΑΨΛ Coed February 11, 1985 Ohio State University
Lambda Alpha Upsilon ΛΑΥ Fraternity December 10, 1985 SUNY Buffalo
Lambda Theta Nu ΛΘΝ Sorority March 11, 1986 California State University, Chico
Kappa Delta Chi ΚΔΧ Sorority April 6, 1987 Texas Tech University
Sigma Lambda Upsilon ΣΛΥ Sorority December 1, 1987 SUNY Binghamton
Gamma Zeta Alpha ΓZΑ Fraternity December 3, 1987 California State University, Chico
Lambda Pi Chi ΛΠΧ Sorority April 16, 1988 Cornell University
Omega Phi Beta ΩΦΒ Sorority March 15, 1989 SUNY Albany
Alpha Pi Sigma ΑΠΣ Sorority March 10, 1990 San Diego State University
SUNY-Albany, SUNY-Stony
Sigma Iota Alpha ΣΙΑ Sorority September 29, 1990
Brook , SUNY-New Paltz & RPI
Gamma Phi Omega ΓΦΩ Sorority April 17, 1991 Indiana University
Sigma Lambda Alpha ΣΛΑ Sorority October 5, 1992 Texas Woman's University
Lambda Pi Upsilon ΛΠΥ Sorority November 6, 1992 SUNY-Geneseo
Gamma Alpha Omega ΓΑΩ Sorority January 25, 1993 Arizona State University
80
81
82
30
Spotlight on Sigma Lambda Beta Fraternity
After months of exploration and research, Baltazar Mendoza-Madrigal, a member of Phi
Beta Sigma Fraternity visualized a Latino-oriented fraternity with many of the cardinal principles
of Phi Beta Sigma but with a focus on Latino culture. During the spring of 1986, Mendoza-
Madrigal took his proposal to the Board of Directors of Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity and was given
their blessing to pursue his plan while still maintaining his membership.83
He returned to the University of Iowa in Iowa City and put in motion his plans for a
Latino-based fraternity with a multicultural membership that would promote a positive image of
the Latino community.84
‘The Latino community was divided among several social groups at the time,’ said
Mendoza-Madrigal. The enthusiasm in favor of establishing a social fraternity that could
help in unifying the community was so great that word started to spread quickly across
the University of Iowa campus. Everyone knew that something great was about to take
place.85
On Monday, March 7, 1986, Baltazar held an interest meeting at University of Iowa’s
Chicano-Indian American Cultural Center (currently the Latino Native American Cultural
Center). He related his intentions of establishing a Latino-oriented fraternity that would unite all
underrepresented minority students at University of Iowa while promoting cultural understanding
and academic excellence. They discussed the need and feasibility of such an organization. On
April 4th, 1986, the 18 men at this meeting—Mario Buendia, Enrique Carbajal, Thomas
Carrasquillo, Manuel Chavarria, Jose Fong, Rudolfo Garza, Luis Jimenez, Luis Marquez,
Baltazar Mendoza-Madrigal, Eric Montes, Kuy Ou, Olakunle Oyeyemi, Jaime Ramirez, Olivero
83
(Parks and Toberson, Brothers and Sister: Diversity in College Fraternities and Sororities. 2009) (Sigma Lambda
Beta International Fraternity, Inc. 2014)
84
(Sigma Lambda Beta International Fraternity, Inc. 2014) (Parks and Toberson, Brothers and Sister: Diversity in
College Fraternities and Sororities. 2009)
85
(Sigma Lambda Beta International Fraternity, Inc. 2014, ¶3)
31
Rivera, Eugenio Soria, Juan Valdez, and Ricardo Zamudio—became the Founding Fathers of
Sigma Lambda Beta International Fraternity. They represented such diverse continents as North
America, South America, Africa, and Asia.86
Founded on the principles of Brotherhood, Scholarship, Cultural Awareness, and
Community Service, Sigma Lambda Beta has emerged as the largest Latino-oriented fraternity
with over 500 college brothers and 10,000 alumni of all races and ethnicities in 150 college
chapters, colonies, and alumni associations in 29 states. As a testament to their inclusionary and
diverse aims, they even have chapters located on the campuses of two historically Black
universities in Texas, Prairie View A&M University and Huston-Tillotson University.87
Spotlight on Sigma Lambda Gamma Sorority
Three years following the historic meeting at University of Iowa’s Chicano-Indian
American Cultural Center, that gave birth to Sigma Lambda Beta Fraternity, a group of 19
women met at the same location on October 22, 1989 for a similar purpose—the establishment of
a Latino-oriented sorority that would provide social and academic support for Latinas and
women of all cultures.88 With support and guidance from their adviser, Esther Materon Arum,
and Greek Affairs Coordinator, Mary Peterson, the women met once a week to continue
establishing a sisterhood that promoted academic access and excellence and the social
development of Latina women.
86
(Sigma Lambda Beta International Fraternity, Inc. 2014)
87
Beta International Fraternity, Inc. 2014)
88
Gamma National Sorority, Inc. 2014)
32
A retreat was held where the women developed their mission, purpose, and started
drafting their constitution. Through the course of time only five young women remained Gloria
Cuevas, Julieta Maria Miller, Maria Ester Pineda, Danell Marie Riojas, and Guadalupe
Temiquel. These five Founding Mothers continued to meet and work on their constitution and
establish its ideals and became committed to seeing their dream through its completion. The
Founding Mothers chose five guiding principles: academics, community service, cultural
awareness, social interaction, and morals and ethics to unite their members as hermanas por vida
(sisters for life). On April 9, 1990, the University of Iowa Panhellenic Council rewarded their
efforts when they officially recognized Sigma Lambda Gamma as a sorority.89
The Founding Mothers quickly began work on the expansion of the sorority to other
campuses. Since its founding, Sigma Lambda Gamma has become the largest, Latina-oriented
national sorority with sisters from more than 110 nationalities. Boasting more than 3,000
multicultural members in 168 college chapters, colonies, and alumni associations across the
nation, Sigma Lambda Gamma is one of the fastest growing fraternal organizations gaining more
than 100 chapters in less than 20 years.90
Traditions and Customs
Latino-oriented fraternities and sororities share more characteristics with NPHC
organizations than they do with traditional fraternities and sororities. Like NPHC fraternities and
sororities, they do not accept first-semester freshman and require a minimum of 12 earned credit
hours and at least a 2.5 GPA. Their two to fifteen-week pledge processes bring to mind those that
89
(Sigma Lambda Gamma National Sorority, Inc. 2014)
90
2003) (Parks and Toberson, Brothers and Sister: Diversity in College Fraternities and Sororities. 2009) (Sigma
Lambda Gamma National Sorority, Inc. 2014)
33
the Elite 8 fraternities and sororities practiced before the membership intake movement. Most
host informationals/rushes/smokers, have pledge lines, line numbers, organizational calls, hand
signs, and perform strolls and step routines (Association of Fraternity/Sorority Advisors, Inc.
2009). Some other customs and traditions include:
*Artifacts: Artifacts are objects that represent the history and traditions of the
organization and can be either nationally recognized or adopted by the individual
chapters. Commonly used artifacts include small pins, staffs, items related to native Latin
American culture, and Spaniard and native images.
*Calls: Calls are used to acknowledge other chapter members in an audible tone
(Kimbrough, 2003). Each organization has its own distinct call used by members at
various events and venues. Calls are often conducted in a way that prompts another
chapter to respond. It can be seen as disrespectful to use the call of an organization to
which you do not belong.
*Colors: Colors are used by organizations to distinguish themselves from each other and
can range anywhere from two to five different colors. Sometimes an organization’s colors
have significant meaning related to its founding or culture. Interested individuals should
avoid conspicuously wearing these distinctive colors until you are a member.
*Hand Signs: Hand signs are used as an outward expression of pride in the member’s
organization. Hand signs can have significant meaning related to the organization’s
founding and culture. These signs also indicate unity among the membership. It can be
seen as disrespectful to use the hand sign of an organization to which you do not belong.
*Marching: The custom of marching was influenced by their founders, some of whom
were military men and/or Masons. As many Latin American countries require all men
who reach eight years of age to serve in the military, marching is seen as a nod to Latin
American countries and their emphasis on the military and discipline. Marching in a line
was once part of many NPHC pledge programs as well.
*Public Ceremonies (Probate/Neophyte Shows, Coming Out, New Member Introduction,

etc.): The fraternity or sorority introduces new members to the campus; parents, friends,
and other relatives are invited. Usually, the new members’ identities are concealed by
masks, hoods, sunglasses, hats, etc. and typically, they perform a step routine and
“salute” or “greet” the active members and other chapters. At the show’s conclusion, the
new members are unmasked, their identities are revealed, they are formally introduced to
the campus, and often their pledge/line names and numbers are shared. Most times, after
the show, established members present gifts bearing the fraternity or sorority letters
and/or colors to their pledge son/daughter or little brother/sister. Family and friends also
have the opportunity to present gifts.
34
*Saluting: A salute involves a line of members performing motions and greetings in

tribute to other members. Members tend to write salutes and incorporate modern day
songs . . . Saluting “is a means by which members of an organization can praise a
particular member within their organization or to honor the organization’s past and
current accomplishments”. In NPHC fraternities and sororities, this is usually referred to
as “greeting”.
*Stepping: Stepping, a tradition closely associated with NPHC organizations, is also

performed by many NALFO organizations . . . Some elements adopted by Latino-
oriented fraternal organizations incorporate customs related to Latino culture, including
the addition of salsa and merengue music in the step routines. The adoption of stepping
varies among NALFO member organizations.
*Strolling: Strolling or party walking is a synchronized routine often done in a line

formation, which incorporates moves and various expressions to music. Among Latino-
oriented fraternal organizations, music associated with strolls is often based in Latino
culture, such as salsa, merengue, bachata, reggaeton, etc.
*Tiki or lavaliere: A tiki or lavaliere is a necklace often made of wood or plastic worn by
active members on a string or leather rope that usually display the organization’s colors
and letters. Lavalieres that are more formal include jewelry consisting of the fraternity
and sorority’s letters or symbols worn on a chain. In traditional fraternities, a lavaliere
may be presented to a girlfriend as a token of commitment and often precedes an
engagement; much like a pinning ceremony. However, in NAFLO and NPHC
organizations, the Greek letters are restricted to members only and when non-members
consciously wear the letters (called perpetrating), it is viewed as a trademark/copyright
infringement.
*Traditional attire: In recent years, the acceptance and approval of specialized attire such
as professional dress, uniforms, or other cultural/ceremonial attire has significantly
changed due to organizationally driven actions and/or campus policies. Historically,
many organizations’ new members customarily wore uniforms as a public ritual of their
organization. It is important for advisors to direct any questions about this particular
practice to specific organizations.91 92
Other Cultural Interest Fraternities and Sororities
The late 1980s through 1990s saw an unprecedented amount of first-generation minority
college students, most of whom were on predominately-White campuses. Even though all Greek
organizations had abolished all racial, cultural, and religious restrictions, several of these
91
92
*Also used or practiced in NPHC organizations
35
students represented cultures that were outside the primary constituencies of traditionally White
fraternities and sororities, historically Black Greek-lettered organizations, and Latino-oriented
fraternal organizations. The basic need to belong and seek comfort from the familiar ushered in a
new era of cultural-interest and multicultural fraternities and sororities that served those students
that were underrepresented in the existing Greek systems. New fraternities and sororities seemed
to appear almost monthly from coast to coast. Some were local or regional entities while others
had aspirations of being national organizations.93
A cursory exploration reveals such diverse organizations as an Armenian fraternity, 39
Asian-American fraternities and sororities, 22 Christian-based fraternities and sororities, an
Italian-American fraternity, 7 Jewish-oriented fraternities and sororities, 8 fraternities and
sororities for LGBQT students, 3 Muslim-based fraternities and sororities, 5 Native American
fraternities and sororities, a Persian-oriented fraternity and sorority, 12 South Asian-based
fraternities and sororities, and 66 fraternities and sororities that identify themselves as multi-
cultural and pride themselves on being inclusive of all cultures, races, religions, and creeds.94
With such a wide range of fraternities and sororities, you would be hard-pressed not to find one
that suits you, if you would like to participate in Greek life.
Removing the Blindfold: Criticisms and Controversies Associated with Greek Life
Hazing incidents have long tainted the reputation of fraternities and sororities. Hazing in
Greek life includes but is not limited to impelled immobility for several hours, forced drinking,
humiliation, paddling, hitting, racist activities/racial mockery, sleep deprivation, forced
93
(Maslow 1943) (Parks and Toberson, Brothers and Sister: Diversity in College Fraternities and Sororities. 2009)
94
(Parks and Toberson, Brothers and Sister: Diversity in College Fraternities and Sororities. 2009)
36
servitude, and mandatory calisthenics.95 These types of hazing activities are believed to have
their origins after World War I, when soldiers entered college campuses bringing with them
many of the tactics that they learned in boot camp used to promote unity.96
Between 1984 and 2013, there has been 30 deaths that are directly attributed to fraternity
hazing activities. Fortunately, hazing of this nature seems to be less a problem in sororities.
Among those 30 deaths, two were from water intoxication (consumption of water in large
amounts that resulted in unintentional electrolyte imbalance and brain swelling); six were of
physical nature—one student died of cardiac arrest from a congenital heart disorder and another
died of suicide after being beaten after informing his college about hazing in his fraternity.
Disturbingly, 22 deaths were caused by alcohol poisoning from binge drinking, including one
active member being compelled to drink by pledges; members charged with minor alcohol and
drug misdemeanors even though the police emphasized that these individuals had no actual links
to the death; two accidental drownings where alcohol were contributing factors; and one student
who died after spending a night bar hopping with his friends to celebrate his 21st birthday.
Although there appeared to be a lack of culpability in this latter instance, nonetheless the college
president suspended the entire Greek system.97 Administrators, researchers, and law enforcement
had never ascribed the all too common birthday binge-drinking activities to hazing. This
association may be undeserved and an incident of scapegoating.
Due to the publicity that often surrounds misfortunes, the public often do not understand
these hazing abuses are isolated incidents perpetrated by a handful of rogue members out of
95
(Associated Press 1989) (Allan and Madden 2008) (Applebom December 21, 1994) (Jones 2000) (W. M.
Kimbrough, The Membership Intake Movement of Historically Black Greek-Letter Organizations 1997) (W. M.
Kimbrough, Black Greek 101: The Culture, Customs, and Challenges of Black Fraternities and Sororities 2003)
(McKenzie, Fraters: Black Greek-Letter Fraternities at Four Historically Black Colleges, 1920-1960 1986) (Shaw, et
al. 1993)
96
(Jones 2000) (Allan and Madden 2008)
97
(Nuwer 2013)
37
millions. Nor do they differentiate between hazing incidents that are unrelated to Greek life and
therefore tend to impeach the entire Greek system whenever they think of hazing. In the same
manner how the term bullying conjures up images of schoolyard fights and stolen lunch money.
Dr. Walter Kimbrough elaborates, “The abuses associated with hazing . . . gave members, as
well as the national organizations, a terrible reputation”.98
One of the most significant hazing incidents took place at a historically Black college in
1989. A young sophomore died from cardiac arrest during unsanctioned, pre-pledging activities
held at an off-campus apartment. Dr. Joseph Burton, the medical examiner, attributed the death
to an irregular heart rhythm, the result of a congenital heart defect that he had since age 2.
Although, the autopsy failed to reveal any bruises or visible injuries99, this tragedy
prompted the Elite 8 to abolish pledging altogether during a NPHC Conference in July of 1990.
At that time, the Elite 8 voted to replace pledging with membership intake. However, this may
have been ill conceived. By not consulting their more than one million members or offering a
viable process to replace pledging, they had limited member buy-in. Many members found the
membership intake process unsatisfying and argued that the organizations had thrown the baby
out with the bathwater and did not actually tackle the core motives behind hazing.
Almost immediately following the membership intake movement, hazing incidents
actually seemed to increase as many chapters and members continued conducting prohibited
pledge activities, taking them underground with considerably less oversight and public scrutiny.
All of the NPHC organizations have tinkered with their membership intake process dramatically
98
(W. M. Kimbrough, The Membership Intake Movement of Historically Black Greek-Letter Organizations 1997,
232)
99
(Associated Press 1989)
38
over the last quarter century with some even returning to quasi-pledge programs but with much
greater supervision.100
While physical hazing occurs more in cultural-interest fraternities, substantial anecdotal
data corroborates that most hazing incidents involving alcohol abuse are nearly exclusive to
traditional fraternities101. Most sororities are unburdened by these stigmas. Traditional fraternity
members are more prone to binge drinking and alcohol related incidents—including accidental
drownings, household accidents, vehicular accidents, and assaults. The pledge experience and
the fraternity house environment were cited as major contributing factors to hazardous use of
alcohol.102 Most fraternity and university leadership have set strict policies and sanctions
restricting the use of alcohol at Greek houses and events and most colleges require all Greeks to
attend alcohol education and risk management classes about the dangers of binge drinking. When
hazing occurs in a local chapter, it was without the knowledge or consent of the national
organization and the university and in direct conflict with the policies set by both entities. When
discovered, hazing usually results in the suspension of that chapter's charter and possible
expulsion of members from the organization and university. It is imperative that students—
especially underage students—obey existing alcohol laws, follow school and fraternity risk
management policies, and drink responsibly to decrease these alcohol related misfortunes.
In several articles, Dr. Molly Stombler103 and others have been extremely critical of
gender role perceptions in traditional fraternities. There are accusations that fraternities still
maintain an oppressive attitude toward women and allegations that young women are often
100
(W. M. Kimbrough, The Membership Intake Movement of Historically Black Greek-Letter Organizations 1997)
101
(Borsari and Carey 1999) (Jones 2000) (Kuh and Arnold 1993) (Shaw, et al. 1993) (Weshler, Kuh and Davenport
2009)
102
(Allan and Madden 2008) (Weshler, Kuh and Davenport 2009)
103
(Stombler, "Buddies" or "Slutties": The Collective Sexual Reputation of Fraternity Little Sisters 1994) (Stombler
and Padavic, Sister Acts: Resisting Men's Domination in Black and White Fraternity Little Sister Programs 1997)
39
exploited, subordinated, and sexually objectified by fraternity members104. Using inflammatory
pejoratives such as “slut”, she also contends that many of the women perpetuate this
objectification by associating with the fraternity for access to potential sex partners or
prospective boyfriends (maybe even husbands) and condoning immoral behavior. Others have
also condemned fraternity house lifestyles as a potent mix of loose morals (in both genders),
testosterone, sexually charged hormones, negative peer pressure, and alcohol to create a perfect
storm for female exploitation. A 2013 article exposed an internal email from a fraternity member
in Georgia to his chapter brothers, describing his seven-point strategy on how to use alcohol
effectively to take advantage of women at the fraternity house. The chapter denounced and
expelled that member from their house; the Fraternity and university expelled the student and
suspended the chapter.105 The Fraternity wanted to send a clear message that this type of
behavior is not acceptable and completely conflicts with their core values and that it would not
be tolerated.
Traditional fraternities also have had a checkered history with discriminatory practices.
This was the incentive for the founding of cultural-interest fraternities.
Although discriminatory quotas traditionally guided collegiate admissions, many

northern institutions removed or rewrote racial and religious quotas to allow minority
students greater access to higher education and the social milieu that accompanied
college life. While the incorporation of racial and religious minorities into the
extracurricular life of American campuses guaranteed fundamental civil rights, it also
challenged accepted patterns of interpersonal relationships. Integrated dining,
dancing, and other social relations were perceived as threatening to many whites, who
feared even greater intimacy, including intermarriage, might result. In addition, some
whites connected anti-discrimination activity with communism and feared the
undermining of the democratic process.
From 1945 to 1949, fraternity life became a testing ground for how blacks, whites,
Protestants, Catholics, and Jews would relate (to each other) on the postwar
104
(Davis and Liddell 2002) (Kalof and Cargill 1991) (Kiesling 1998) (Sanday 2007)
105
(Kingkade 2013)
40
campus. . . . A small number of fraternity members, working locally or through their

national fraternal organizations, attempted to remove discriminatory clauses in Greek-
letter societies. While they were moderately successful, their achievements were
limited.106
Presently, all NIC fraternities and PHC sororities abolished all racial, religious, and cultural
restrictions decades ago.
The Black community has maintained long-held assumptions about the practices of
historically Black fraternities and sororities with claims of elitism, exclusionism, and classism.
Charges of being color-struck, the unspoken practice of favoring members who were of light
complexion, persisted through most of the 20th century. A leading motivation for the founding of
Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity and Zeta Phi Beta Sorority was to create historically Black
organizations that rejected exclusivity and did not discriminate on the darkness of a person’s
complexion.107 Fortunately, this practice is a relic of the past, historically Black fraternities and
sororities consist of members in all different hues from around the world, many of which are
non-Black.
What Can Greek Life Do for Me? Positive Attributes Associated with Being Greek
There have been relatively few positive depictions of Greek life in media and films.
Fraternity and sorority members are usually stock characters that are depicted stereotypically as
drunken, destructive, arrogant, shallow, empty-headed, promiscuous, and unrefined; they seldom
show any possible attributes. These criticisms may leave students questioning why they would be
a part of Greek life. This is an inaccurate portrayal; there are several benefits to Greek life, both
tangible and intangible.
106
(James 2000, 303-304)
107
(Graham 2000) (Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity, Inc. 2013) (Harrison 1998)
41
Numerous studies link membership in fraternities and sororities to higher levels of self-
confidence, college satisfaction, increased alumni college donations, and community
involvement.108 In addition, there are indications that over time fraternity members have higher
overall ratings in leadership, teamwork, loyalty, helping, duty, equality, collaborative learning,
appealing educational experiences, and more positive student-faculty interaction. Greeks have
higher levels of degree/graduate degree attainment and self-reported leadership abilities.109 Dr.
Walter Kimbrough reiterates, “Greek organizations are able to assist in the development of
students’ leadership and social skills, as well as provide a balanced collegiate experience”.110
Students who belong to a fraternity (or sorority) . . . are (1) more likely to stay in college
than other students; (2) Even after factoring out confounding variables, college graduates
who belong to a fraternity (or sorority) . . . tend to become more successfully financially
than other college graduates; (3) Colleges receive more gifts, and in greater amounts,
from Greek alumni than non-Greek alumni; (4) (Greeks) . . . tend to participate more
fully in extracurricular campus activities than do other students; and (5) in later years,
(Greek) . . . alumni took part more fully in volunteer organizations, charitable activities
and nonprofits than did non-member alumni.111
Many positive features of Greek life are not usually reported by the media or depicted on screen.
Conversely, the following extensive list of remarkable Greek facts paints s a more accurate and
balanced representation of Greek life:
1. Nationally, 71% of all fraternity and sorority member graduate, while only 50% of
non-members graduate.
2. The overall fraternity and sorority members’ GPA is higher than non-members’ GPA.
3. 85% of Fortune 500 Companies are run by Greeks—43 out of the Top 50
4. 76% of the listings in Who's Who in America are fraternity or sorority members.
5. The first African-American attorney, Violette Anderson was Greek ().
6. The first African-American Rhodes Scholar, Alain Locke was Greek 
7. The first African-American to receive the Nobel Peace Prize, Ralph Bunche was
Greek 
108
(Jelke and Kuh 2003)
109
(Hayek, et al. 2002) (Asel, Seifert and Pascarella 2009) (Pascarella and Terenzini 2005)
110
(Kimbrough and Hutcheson 1998, 4)
111
(Jelke and Kuh 2003, 29)
42
8. All but five US Presidents since fraternities came into existence have been fraternity
members (Presidents Herbert Hoover, Lyndon B. Johnson, Richard Nixon, Jimmy
Carter and Barack Obama are the exceptions)112.
9. 70% of the US Presidents' cabinet members since 1900 have been fraternity or
sorority members.
10. 75% of Congress is Greek
11. Since 1910, 85% of the Supreme Court Justices have been fraternity or sorority
members.
12. The first African-American Supreme Court Justice, Thurgood Marshall was
Greek
13. The first two women appointed to the US Supreme Court are sorority members113.
14. 63% of U.S. Cabinet Members since 1900 are Greek
15. The first African-American US Senator since Reconstruction, Edward Brook is Greek
(.
16. The first female Senator was Greek
17. The first and only African-American female US Senator, Carol Mosely Braun is
Greek 
18. The first African-American Governor since Reconstruction, L. Douglas Wilder is
Greek 
19. The first elected female head of state in Africa, Ellen Johnson Sirleaf is Greek
(AKA).
20. The first elected female head of state in the Americas, Eugenia Charles is Greek

21. The first female astronaut was Greek
22. The first African-American astronaut in space, Guion “Guy” Bluford is Greek

23. The first Black female astronaut in space, Mae Jemison is Greek 
24. All of the Apollo 11 astronauts were fraternity men
25. The first African-American woman accepted into membership in the Screen Writer's
Guild (SAG), Mary E. Vroman was Greek 
26. The first African-American to be nominated and the first to win an Academy Award,
Hattie McDaniel was Greek 
27. Over 85% of the student leaders on 730 campuses are members of Greek-letter
organizations.
28. Less than 2% of average college student annual expenses go towards membership
expenses.
29. Greeks throughout the US and Canada are more involved on their campuses and rate
their overall college experience more enriching.
112
Dr. Fran Becque (2013), a fraternal history scholar, notes that the usually cited statistic that all but two US
presidents have been fraternity men is outdated and her research revealed additional non-Greek American
presidents since the statistic first emerged.
113
This statistic is before the appointment of Justices Sonia Sotomayor and Elena Kagan, who to my knowledge are
not sorority members.
43
30. Fraternity or sorority members form the largest network of volunteers in the US.
Nationally, fraternity and sorority members volunteer over 10 million hours of
community service every year.
31. Fraternity or sorority membership strongly encourages its members to uphold the
ideals that they were founded upon: sisterhood/brotherhood, scholarship, leadership,
philanthropy, service, and becoming better citizens of society.114
Many studies support that membership in Black Greek-lettered organizations may yield
some distinctive qualities. In Black students, membership in Greek-lettered organizations may
have an even more positive influence over their members than with White fraternities and
sororities. While membership in traditionally White fraternities was believed to be associated
with decreased levels of academic achievement and intellectual growth among members, the
converse occurred in historically Black organizations.115 Kimbrough added, “Black Greeks were
more motivated to earn (good) grades. . . . On the intellectual values scale, Black Greeks differed
significantly with respect to being more independent, more liberal, and more socially conscious
than their White counterparts”.116 Other attributes that Black Greeks may contrast with
traditional organizations includes strong organizational expectations to exert a constructive
influence, reflect a positive image, serve as role models in their communities, encouraging
graduate studies, stimulate greater intellectual growth, accountability, and support the
empowerment of Black women.117
After publishing several inflammatory condemnations of traditional fraternities and
sexual misconduct, Dr. Molly Stombler resolved that the so-called little sisters in historically
Black fraternities, sometimes called sweethearts, were empowered through the structure of the
114
(Smith 1994) (Williams-Scurlock 2005) (Asel, Seifert and Pascarella 2009) (F. Becque 2013) (University of
Wisconsin Madison 2013) (George Mason University, Office of Student Involvement 2013) (Cornell University
2014) (University of Missouri-Kansas City, Curators of the University of Missouri 2014)
115
(Pascarella and Terenzini 2005)
116
(Kimbrough and Hutcheson 1998, 37)
117
(Parks, Black Greek-Letter Organizations in the Twenty-First Century: Our Fight Has Just Begun 2008) (Brown,
Parks and Phillips 2012) (Graham 2000) (Stombler and Padavic, Sister Acts: Resisting Men's Domination in Black
and White Fraternity Little Sister Programs 1997)
44
sweetheart programs. Unlike their counterparts in traditional fraternities, these women made
meeting eligible, single men a secondary motive to performing community service, leadership
development and experience, and ultimately gaining access to sorority life:
Because black little sister organizations offered them more room to maneuver than white
little sisters—by giving them a say in recruitment and endorsing sisterhood—they created
a space for actions on their own behalf. Their emphasis on sisterhood bonds and the
desirability of strength in women allowed them to collectively protest injustices with
some success.118
Role modeling and mentoring are strong components of Black-Greek lettered
organizations (BGLOs). Members are regularly reminded that they are always wearing their
letters and not to do anything that would tarnish the impeccable reputation and legacies of their
organizations; positive representation is relentlessly reinforced. Members police each other and
hold one another accountable for breaches. These qualities attracted most of the members to their
organization. This also was the most common reason given from non-Black members who joined
BGLOs over traditional fraternities and sororities. Therefore, organizational and peer controls
are used to preserve this distinction and this is what primarily influences member selection
decisions in BGLOs.119
Making the Cut: Successfully Joining Your Preferred Fraternity or Sorority
Finally, you have made up your mind to go Greek! What should you do now? First, you
should make sure you are a good fit with your selected organization, that your values are
complimentary, and that you can live up to the responsibilities and expectations. Do not choose a
118
(Stombler and Padavic, Sister Acts: Resisting Men's Domination in Black and White Fraternity Little Sister
Programs 1997, 37)
119
(Williams-Scurlock 2005) (Parks, Black Greek-Letter Organizations in the Twenty-First Century: Our Fight Has
Just Begun 2008) (Parks and Toberson, Brothers and Sister: Diversity in College Fraternities and Sororities. 2009)
(Graham 2000)
45
fraternity or sorority just because your mom, dad, or best friend is a member—it might suit their
personalities but may clash with yours. Research all available organizations and consider what
they do nationally. Generally, a student can pledge only one fraternity or sorority, precluding
professional, service, or honorary fraternities and sororities. Make sure you select the right
fraternity or sorority for you because you are making a lifetime commitment that extends past
your campus and your college years.
How should you research the organization? Go to the fraternity or sorority websites and
learn the basic facts and history of that organization, their national programs and initiatives,
partnerships and philanthropies, and get a sense of the “personality” and reputation of that
organization. Also, ask questions of members to gain greater knowledge of the organization,
most would be pleased to tell you why they joined. Please be honest with yourself. If you are just
looking for fun and social activities then I select an organization that provides this because you
would not be happy in a highly structured organization that focuses on studying, self-
development, and public service—and the active members will not be happy with you either.
You have now made your decision about the fraternity or sorority you wish to join. How
should you show your interest in joining? Most schools hold activity fairs within the first weeks
of the school year, most fraternities and sororities will participate and have someone available to
answer questions about their recruitment process—attend the fair and look for the organization
that interests you. If you are still undecided about which one is best for you, this is an ideal time
to introduce yourself and start getting a feel for the different organizations. Please remember that
these individuals may not be indicative of the chapter—for better or for worse. So, if you do not
feel a connection with that person, do not let them deter you from seeking more information. In
addition, usually during the first few weeks of school, most fraternities and sororities will host
46
rushes, smokers, socials, informationals or other similarly styled interest meetings. Attend these
events, if you are unsure; go to more than one organization. You are not committing to anything;
you are merely showing interest or seeking additional information.
Please note, first semester freshman are not eligible to apply for membership in the
BGLOs and many of the Latino organizations. Most require you to have a minimum 2.5 – 2.75
GPA and 12 - 24 earned credit hours. This is to ensure that you have adjusted to college life;
have had time to make an informed decision; developed some self-identity independent of your
family; have taken advantage of the time to get to know members and the organization better and
vice versa; have demonstrated academic success; and also to give you the time and opportunity
to get involved in other aspects of campus life.
If you decide to join one of these fraternities or sororities, use this time to develop good
study habits, improve time management skills, attend chapter-sponsored activities, get to know
members of the organization and decide which member would be the ideal sponsor, get involved
with other campus groups, perform community service, and take on some leadership
responsibilities. Scholarship and service are the core values of these organizations so you must
demonstrate that they are important to you as well. Additionally, you should use this time to save
money for your initiation fees. Joining fraternities and sororities require a significant, upfront
financial commitment of about $500 - $1500.
How should you prepare for the interest meeting, what should you wear, how should you
behave? The selection process for fraternities and sororities can be extremely competitive and
you want to make the best impression possible so you should take it seriously. There is a
historically Black fraternity chapter at a prestigious college in the South; the school has placed a
47
cap of 25 new members per year. As many as 200 young men vie for these 25 spots—with
almost half being legacies and a quarter of those being legacies from the same school.
“Sorority recruitment is like no other experience that you will ever have for the rest of
your life , , , It’s like speed dating meets interviewing meets beauty pageant meets upscale
academic summer camp”.120 Some parents have gone as far as to enlist the aid of professional
consultants and services to give their children an edge during the selection process, costing
anywhere from $125 an hour to $8000 for an intensive three-day workshop.
Samantha von Sperling is an image consultant in New York, but lately her bread-and-
butter Wall Street clients have asked her to help their daughters get ready for rush at
schools like Harvard; the University of Wisconsin, Madison; and New York
University . . .‘It’s the same kind of coaching I do on Wall Street,’ Ms. von Sperling says.
Sororities are emerging in surprising force at campuses not usually associated with the
Greek tradition. Students raised on Facebook and fears about post-college careers view
sororities as the ultimate social network and an extension of the community service
begun in high school.121
Most fraternities and sororities expect at least business casual attire to attend interest
meetings, when no guidelines are specified. Women would do well in a conservative but stylish,
seasonal sundress or skirt and blouse. Men can wear khakis/chinos, oxford shirt, blazer (or
sweater/vest), and non-athletic casual shoes if the invitation calls for business casual attire. If you
do not have a blazer or V-neck sweater or vest, you should wear a tie in a muted color with the
oxford shirt—do not roll the sleeves.
If the event calls for business attire, men are ALWAYS expected to wear a conservative
tie with a white or neutral colored dress shirt, dark suit (or dark dress slacks with a blazer or V-
neck sweater), plain dark dress socks, and polished dress shoes. Women are expected to be more
120
(Moore 2012)
121
(Moore 2012)
48
formal with a cocktail dress or women’s suit in muted colors. The “little black dress” with simple
accessories is always appropriate. Heels are appropriate with neutral stockings—not tights; try to
stay away from flats and “kitten” heels. Accessories should be simple, tasteful, and minimal.
Take extra care in your grooming—attractive hairstyle, neutral manicure and pedicure if wearing
open-toe shoes (French tips are usually a good choice), tasteful subtle makeup, and very light-
scented perfume. If possible, avoid wearing the fraternity or sorority’s unique colors or those of
their rivals. This may seem really trivial or petty but selection in these organizations can be very
subjective in nature so why risk offending a member by appearing presumptuous.
Most chapters will hold interviews, treat them as you would a business interview—look
the part, speak the part, be prompt, and follow directions. A well-prepared candidate will have a
résumé stressing their community service involvement, leadership experience, academic
highlights and teamwork involvement; letters of recommendation from alumni of each chapter,
preferably on the campus in question; and reference letters or list.122 Like college applications, be
prepared to provide a well-written letter of interest stating why you seek membership and a
biography.
It is beneficial to prepare possible responses to typical interview questions beforehand.
They will certainly ask why you wish to join. Make your responses honest, genuine, and avoid
cliché and stock answers. Although, you may feel some anxiety, keep nervous tics in check
(saying uhh, foot tapping, hair twisting, etc.). Let your personality shine through without being
too familiar. Demonstrate your acquaintance with their history and service projects. Do not be
afraid to ask intelligent, non-intrusive questions of the members—inquiries that might clarify
122
(Moore 2012)
49
something you did not understand fully during your research. Practice in front of a mirror, or
record yourself to critique the quality of your responses, the clarity of your delivery, and your
physical posture. If possible, have a friend conduct mock interviews with you. By all means
practice, practice, PRACTICE—you want to leave members with the best impression of you
possible. Be poised and confident; make them feel that their organization would be missing out if
they did not select you.
Some chapters may hold informal social events like an Open House or tea for prospective
candidates. This is an opportunity for them to discern how you behave in a social environment so
you are being observed. Good manners, self-confidence, approachability, humility and
interesting stimulating conversation will serve you well. Think before you speak and analyze
what you say so you do not accidentally say something that can be perceived as offensive. Stay
away from divisive topics like politics and religion—whatever your beliefs, inevitably there will
be some who share them and some who will not. Finally, do not babble, gush, or lavish them
with insincere platitudes; it is not a good look.
Conclusion & Discussion
It is my hope that this might alleviate some of the negativity associated with Greek life
and increase public awareness of their positive attributes. Moreover, that it piques the interest of
non-Greeks to seek more information with an open mind and start recognizing these
organizations as vessels for positive student development rather than frivolous college clubs. In
addition, I am optimistic that this will inspire future college students to heed the fraternal call to
leadership and service that uplifts their communities and encourages others.
1. What was your perception of Greek life before reading this? Did they change and why?
2. Which characteristics of Greek life described surprised you?

50
3. If you wanted to join a fraternity or sorority, what qualities could you bring? What
attributes would benefit you most?
4. What features about Greek life appeal to you most? What type of fraternity or sorority is
most consistent with your values and personality?
5. What do your parents think of Greek life? If you wanted to join, would they agree with
your decision and what could you tell them to get their support?
6. What should you do if you encounter hazing?
7. Do you obey existing alcohol laws and would you be prone to binge drinking? What could
you do to avoid binge drinking and promote drinking responsibly?

51
Operational Definitions, Key Terms, and Abbreviations123
Associate Members: Individuals who are participating in a membership intake process;

other terms used include “Caballeros,” “Damas,” and “Hshinulan” (NAFLO)
Associate Member Educator: Member who oversees the membership intake process (may
also be called a Dean).
BGLO or Black Greek-lettered organizations: Any of the historically or predominately-
Black fraternities or sororities.
Chant: Reciting choruses describing different aspects of the organization; the art of
reciting words in unison (NPHC; NAFLO)
Chapters: Organizational divisions within fraternities and sororities, separating different
units based on college affiliation or city/area.
College fraternity: Any of the male-only, Greek-lettered, social/service student
organizations on college campuses. Initially, “fraternity” also referred to the women societies
since “sorority” had not been coined yet.
Crossing the “Burning Sands” or Crossing Over: Being initiated as a fully recognized
and active member of a Black Greek-lettered organization (NPHC/NAFLO).
Divine Nine: The nine predominately Black fraternities or sororities that has comprised
the National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC) since 1996: Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity, Alpha
Kappa Alpha Sorority, Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternity, Omega Psi Phi Fraternity, Delta Sigma Theta
Sorority, Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity, Zeta Phi Beta Sorority, Sigma Gamma Rho Sorority, and
Iota Phi Theta Fraternity.
Elite 8 or Great 8 or Original 8: The original eight historically Black fraternities and
sororities that comprised the National Pan-Hellenic Council from 1930-1996 and were
established exclusively for African-American students prior to integration and the modern civil-
rights movement. These BGLOs include Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity, Alpha Kappa Alpha
Sorority, Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternity, Omega Psi Phi Fraternity, Delta Sigma Theta Sorority, Phi
Beta Sigma Fraternity, Zeta Phi Beta Sorority, and Sigma Gamma Rho Sorority.
Final Review: Final interview of the membership intake process.
Formal Tea: In-depth meeting about the membership intake process for women who are
interested in joining a sorority.
Frat: Brother or shortened term of fraternity.
123
(Williams-Scurlock 2005) (Association of Fraternity/Sorority Advisors, Inc. 2009) (National Panhellenic
Council, Inc. 2010) (Brown, Parks and Phillips 2012) (Parks, Black Greek-Letter Organizations in the Twenty-First
Century: Our Fight Has Just Begun 2008) (W. M. Kimbrough, Black Greek 101: The Culture, Customs, and
Challenges of Black Fraternities and Sororities 2003)
52
Graduate or Alumni Chapters (also referred to as “grad” chapters): This is distinctive to

BGLO and NAFLO fraternities and sororities; these chapters are formed by and for members
beyond their college years. While the majority of alumni members were initiated into their
respective fraternity or sorority while in college, members can be initiated directly into graduate
chapters after they have obtained a baccalaureate degree.
Greek(s): “Greek” and “Greeks” pertains to members of Greek-lettered organizations—-
both individually (as in “Greek”) and collectively (as in “Greeks”).
Hermana(s): Sister(s) (NAFLO)
Hermano(s): Brother(s) (NAFLO)
Iñaca: Individual participating in an IÑACAS Program, (Individuals Networking for the
Advancement of Community, Academics, and Service) (NAFLO).
Informal Tea: Meeting at which a potential member of a sorority receives her first
introduction to the organization.
Informational: Meeting held by a chapter for prospective members who are seeking
general information about the organization.
Intake Process: Process through which an individual becomes a member of the
organization; also called a membership recruitment process or leadership development process
Interest: individual interested in joining an organization
Membership Intake: In BGLO and some NAFLO fraternities and sororities, the period
during which fraternity and sorority aspirants are educated, acclimated, and appraised for
membership. If the aspirant is successful, initiation takes place at the conclusion. In BGLOs, this
process has officially replaced pledging.
Mid-Review: Midpoint interview during the membership intake process
National Pan-Hellenic Council or NPHC: The umbrella organization comprised of the
nine predominately Black Greek-lettered collegiate organizations that provides programming and
development. The mission of NPHC is to promote interaction through forums, meetings and
other mediums for the exchange of information and engages in cooperative programming and
initiatives through various activities and functions.
Nationals: Popular expression for the national bodies that governs NPHC and NAFLO
fraternities and sororities.
Neophyte: Newly initiated member
New Member Educator: See “Associate Member Educator”; also known as a “Dean”.
Open House: Program that provides information on a fraternity or sorority.
Pledge Mom/Dad or Sponsor: Mentor with whom new/associate members work with
throughout the membership; accompanies new/associate member at all activities, library hours,
etc.; similar to a Big Brother/Big Sister for most organizations..
Pinning: Ceremony that begins the membership intake process.
53
Prophyte: Member that has participated in the membership intake process of their chapter
and is no longer the newest member in the chapter.
Prospective: Individual interested in becoming a member; may also be called an Aspirant
or Candidate or Interest.
Pledging: The process, by which aspiring fraternities and sororities members were
considered, educated, familiarized, appraised, and ultimately initiated. In 1990, the national
executive leadership of the Elite 8 attended a NPHC and unanimously voted to abolish their
pledge processes after an initiate died from a pre-existing heart condition while pledging Alpha
Phi Alpha. The membership intake process replaced pledging. However, many NPHC chapters
and individuals continue to engage in unsanctioned, illegal “underground” pledge activities, a
direct violation of the official policies of their national organizations.
Sand(s): In BGLO chapters, members may refer to those whom were initiated during the
same semester as “sands”.
Ship(s): In some BGLOs, specifically in the Midwest, a pledge class may be referred to
as a ship (historical origin is most likely derived from the slave ships that brought Africans
across the middle passage to America). In addition, the members of a pledge class may refer to
each other as ship(s), as a shortened form of shipmate(s) (see also Line Brothers & Line Sisters).
Sweethearts or Little Sisters: Members of women’s auxiliary groups formally or
informally affiliated or associated with college fraternities.
Soror(s): Sister(s)
Traditionally White fraternities and sororities or Predominately White fraternities and
sororities: Any of the Greek-lettered collegiate organizations originally founded for White
students and currently maintain a predominately-White membership.
Underground: As in pledging “underground;” in BGLOs, an unsanctioned, unauthorized
pledge process that often involves illegal hazing activities.
54
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Behind The Letters: College Greek Life

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Greek Life:

Behind the Letters

Michael C. Williams-Scurlock, Ph.D.

Greek Life: Behind the Letters

White associations, historically Black Greek-lettered organizations (BGLOs), Latino-oriented

Brotherly Bonds: A History of American Fraternities

based on religious, occupational, or philosophical grounds. Many of these organizations were

fraternity has distinctive features from their European predecessors.3

On Thursday evening, December 5, 1776, five undergraduates—John Heath, Thomas

and Harvard endured.5

known as the “Miami Triad”.7

historically Black fraternities were founded during this period.

Most American fraternities are members of the North-American Interfraternity

leadership, service, and fellowship among all of the fraternal organizations.10

The Historically Black Fraternities

privilege was not initially extended to Black students.

National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)

extreme racial discrimination, segregation, and sometimes, outright hostility in a post-

Reconstruction/Jim Crow-era America. In historical context, many were the children or

organizations were founded in northern states.

Fraternity completed the list of member organizations in 199713.

Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity

are known as the Seven Jewels”.19

Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternity

On another predominately-White campus in 1910, the only 10 Black students that

Racial prejudice, hostility, and outright violence towards African-Americans were

logo and Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternity was so designated.24

Omega Psi Phi Fraternity

the campus years earlier”.26

On Friday evening, November 17, 1911, three Howard University undergraduate

existence of the fraternity.29

consideration if they removed the card postings.30

Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity

to assist in his endeavor.32

Sigma describes their Founders’ sentiment in establishing the Fraternity:

Iota Phi Theta Fraternity

are members of the North-American Interfraternity Conference (NIC).

24. Phi Beta Sigma (ΦBΣ)

Inside the Sister Circle: A History of American Sororities

college women’s groups are referred to as the “Macon Magnolias”.43

used this pronunciation because they felt it sounded more feminine.46.

masculine term; soror meant sister in Latin.47

serve as a resource to the different chapters.49

The Historically Black Sororities

Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority

disentrancement of African Americans by rewriting their state constitutions. Twenty million

were only a nominal percentage of women enrolled.50

women spent fall 1907 creating the foundation of their sisterhood.51

Founder, Frank Coleman.54

Alpha Kappa Alpha’s first Supreme Basileus (National President).56

Taylor, and Harriet Josephine Terry.57

diabetes, heart disease, and sickle cell anemia.58

Delta Sigma Theta Sorority

of both Alpha Kappa Alpha and Delta Sigma Theta Sororities.59

in the Women's Suffrage March in Washington, DC, in defiance of Howard University

advancing, you see Deltas!”63

Zeta Phi Beta Sorority

thoughtful contemplation, Arizona presented her plans to 14 hopefuls at an interest meeting—

in the NPHC—constitutionally bound for eternity.67

Sigma Gamma Rho

emerged in during 1922.70

As the only historically Black sorority that was founded at a predominately-White

campus of Butler University in Indianapolis, IN on November 12, 1922.71