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(10920684 - Neurosurgical Focus) Establishing Reconstructive Neurosurgery As A Subspecialty
(10920684 - Neurosurgical Focus) Establishing Reconstructive Neurosurgery As A Subspecialty
(10920684 - Neurosurgical Focus) Establishing Reconstructive Neurosurgery As A Subspecialty
Departments of 1Neurosurgery and 3Neurosciences, University of California, San Diego, California; 2Department of
Neurosurgery, Clinical Neurosciences Center, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah; and 4Department of Neurosurgery,
Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts
Neurosurgery is experiencing the emergence of a new subspecialty focused on function restoration. New, evolving,
and reappraised surgical procedures have provided an opportunity to restore function to many patients with previously
undertreated disorders. Candidates for reconstruction were previously limited to those with peripheral nerve and brachial
plexus injuries, but this has been expanded to include stroke, spinal cord injury, and a host of other paralyzing disorders
affecting both upper and lower motor neurons. Similar to the recent evolution of the well-established subdisciplines of
spinal and vascular neurosurgery, reconstructive neurosurgery requires the adaptation of techniques and skills that were
not traditionally a part of neurosurgical training. Neurosurgeons—as the specialists who already manage this patient
population and possess the requisite surgical skills to master the required techniques—have a unique opportunity to
lead the development of this field. The full development of this subspecialty will lay the foundation for the subsequent
addition of emerging treatments, such as neuroprosthetics and stem cell–based interventions. As such, reconstructive
neurosurgery represents an important aspect of neurosurgical training that can ameliorate many of the deficits encoun-
tered in the traditional practice of neurosurgery.
https://thejns.org/doi/abs/10.3171/2017.5.FOCUS17102
KEY WORDS nerve transfer; tendon transfer; electrodiagnostics; free functional muscle transplant; peripheral nerve
surgery; spinal cord injury; stroke; brachial plexus injury; reconstructive neurosurgery
A
the establishment of neurosurgical subspecialties
s patients. Even in these subspecialties, a paralysis reversal
has become increasingly refined, it has become ap- procedure is typically the exception rather than the rule.
parent that we have been left with a hole in patient Peripheral nerve surgeons are often considered the
care. The subspecialties, as they now exist within neu- “paralysis experts” in a multidisciplinary neurosurgical
rosurgery, include pediatric, vascular, oncologic, spinal, practice. That being the case, most peripheral nerve neu-
functional, peripheral nerve, trauma/critical care, and skull rosurgical practices predominantly treat compressive neu-
base neurosurgery (http://www.societyns.org/fellowships/ ropathies, nerve tumors, and peripheral nerve sources of
index.asp). Each of these specialties encounters disorders pain, with paralyzing nerve injuries comprising the minor-
that result in motor impairment, and each has a procedure ity of the presenting conditions. Admittedly, some centers
(or more) that aids in the recovery of such impairments. do have specialists who treat a preponderance of patients
Such procedures, though, are typically only available in with paralyzing injuries. However, the paralyzing injuries
the acute period after the impairment is realized. Decom- that these practitioners treat are not common entities and
pressing a nerve root in a patient who presents with foot thus these tend to be served by niche practices. Among
drop, resecting a tumor that is abutting the motor strip or paralyzing injuries, the greatest reconstructive challenge
compressing the spinal cord, and reconstructing a severed for peripheral nerve surgeons is a complete brachial plexus
peripheral nerve all have their roles in functional resto- injury with a flail arm.23 While a few high-volume centers
ration. Within neurosurgery, only peripheral nerve and may operate weekly on such patients, most medical cen-
functional neurosurgery have procedures that may pro- ters with such specialists see at most a handful of cases
vide benefits in the subacute or even chronic stage in such per year.
ABBREVIATIONS AFO = ankle-foot orthosis; ASIA = American Spinal Injury Association; AVM = arteriovenous malformation; CMAP = compound motor action potential;
EMG = electromyography; LMN = lower motor neuron; UMN = upper motor neuron; SCI = spinal cord injury; TBI = traumatic brain injury.
SUBMITTED March 1, 2017. ACCEPTED May 9, 2017.
INCLUDE WHEN CITING DOI: 10.3171/2017.5.FOCUS17102.
Statistically, brachial plexus injuries that require sur- centers across the US, perhaps in large part because there
gery have been found to occur in the range of 2 injuries per are few surgeons with the appropriate skill set and inter-
1 million persons annually.25 Of those, almost 75% are up- est. With these statistics alone, it is clear that such a spe-
per plexus injuries that involve relatively straightforward cialist would have more than enough cases from a single
management. The remaining 25%, or roughly 0.5 injuries hospital to keep busy full time, simply from performing
per 1 million persons, comprise the flail limb cases that paralysis-reversing reconstructive procedures. The surgi-
are notably more complex to adequately reconstruct, mak- cal procedures referred to above, which apply to complete
ing it unreasonable to imagine that every center will have brachial plexus injuries, have broad application across
a team with the requisite expertise in this entity. Addition- each of these disorders, as would the associated services
ally, the optimal management of these injuries often in- including neurophysiology, imaging, rehabilitation, and
volves procedures that fall outside of the typical expertise orthotics (Table 1).
of a peripheral nerve neurosurgical specialist. As a result, Neurosurgeons have often been at the forefront of basic
there are a number of clinicians treating these injuries on research into future modalities for functional restoration
an infrequent basis and without the full armamentarium in the setting of neurological injury, and appropriately so.
of applicable surgical procedures at their disposal. Such modalities include stem cell–based therapies and
It is becoming well established in the literature that other biological interventions that encourage CNS regen-
high-volume centers of any given pathology tend to have eration.13,32,38,45 Similarly, our advances in neuromodula-
better outcomes and fewer complications than lower vol- tion and neuroprosthetics have been significant in recent
ume centers.34,35,46 While this does speak directly to both years.36,39,49 Even now, some options for severe injuries are
surgical decision-making and surgical skill, we would emerging as promising treatments. However, as we delve
suggest that this can also be extrapolated to ancillary ser- into these new arenas, what is frequently missing is an
vices such as electrodiagnostic skills, the quality of the understanding of the current clinical “state of the art” in
peripheral nerve imaging available, intraoperative neuro- paralysis reversal, which is necessary so that we can un-
physiological capabilities, and the associated rehabilita- derstand where readily available options end and where
tion programs, to name a few. future interventions would be best implemented.
FIG. 1. Case 1. A brachial plexus injury primarily affecting the posterior FIG. 2. Case 1. Restoration of function to these muscles is shown with
cord and musculocutaneous nerves is shown with atrophy and paralysis normal bulk and good strength in the biceps muscle after reinnervation
of the deltoid, biceps, triceps, and wrist and finger extensors. with axons originally destined for the wrist and hand.
ly decompress the nerve and the restoration of function wrist or hand to activate. Copyright Justin Brown. Published with
will ensue as remyelination progresses.2,44,51 Alternatively, permission. Click here to view.
if those axons are predominantly severed, the function of What is commonly overlooked is that LMN injuries are
the original muscles can only be restored by the regrowth not confined to extravertebral peripheral nerve pathology,
of the axons back to those denervated muscles. It is es- as in the cases above. In fact, thoracolumbar spinal inju-
sential to understand that there is a time window within ries are predominantly LMN in nature. Even cervical SCIs
which reinnervation must be established. There are 2 typically result in a significant amount of LMN damage at
primary strategies for restoring innervation. Anatomical the site of trauma because the alpha motor neurons them-
reconstructions (using grafts to reconstruct the originally selves are destroyed and their associated axons therefore
damaged nerves) are favored when they appear likely to degenerate (Fig. 3).5 This also occurs with brainstem pa-
restore function effectively and in a timely fashion. When thology that affects the facial nucleus, for example. These
alternative axon sources appear to offer more rapid and injuries, when recognized appropriately, are also ame-
robust reinnervation, nerve transfer often becomes a bet- nable to the previously discussed interventions. Likewise,
ter choice.6 When choosing among potential nerve trans- when sufficient time has passed, alternative methods must
fers, we are careful to avoid causing a new deficit. There- be employed because the original muscle and nerve are no
fore, selection is between a fascicle of another nerve, thus longer amenable to receiving axons and recovering func-
preserving the donor nerve’s primary function, or using tion. The alternative methods most commonly involve ten-
don transfer or muscle transplant. See Illustrative Case 2.
the entire nerve branch if we confirm there is another in-
tact muscle that is redundant in function to the one being Illustrative Case 2: Muscle Transfers for an LMN Injury With a
transferred. When selecting between these strategies, con- Central Source
siderations include the number of axons available from the A 22-year-old female patient presented with history of
source nerve, the distance to the reinnervation target, and a Chiari malformation and an associated syrinx. She un-
whether the source is functionally synergistic.6 If exces- derwent decompression, but the cyst continued to expand,
sive time has transpired and this window closes, effective and she experienced progressive weakness in her arms.
reinnervation may be precluded and other strategies must She then underwent shunting of the syrinx, and her mo-
be sought to approximate the lost function. See Illustrative tor status stabilized. Two years later, her bilateral biceps
Case 1. strength remained at Grade 2/5 (Fig. 4). Electrodiagnos-
tics determined that her strongest local muscle group was
Illustrative Case 1: Nerve Transfers in Brachial Plexus Injury the latissimus muscles bilaterally. She underwent bipedicle
A 21-year-old male patient presented following a mo- transfer of the bilateral latissimus muscles to reconstruct
torcycle accident that resulted in injuries to the musculo- elbow flexion with good recovery of Grade 4/5 elbow flex-
cutaneous nerve and posterior cord of the brachial plexus ion strength bilaterally (Fig. 5). See Video 2.
(Fig. 1). He underwent fascicular transfers from the me- VIDEO 2. Case 2. After 2 years of ineffective elbow flexion, the
dian and ulnar nerves to the musculocutaneous nerve patient had this function restored through the use of bilateral trans-
branches that innervate the biceps and brachialis muscles, ferred latissimus dorsi muscles. She is now able to transfer a heavy
as well as transfer of the lower subscapular nerve to the purse between her arms and accomplish tasks that she had been
long head of the triceps branch of the radial nerve. He re- unable to perform previously. Copyright Justin Brown. Published
with permission. Click here to view.
covered good strength in both of these muscle groups with
antigravity function at 3 months and on to an essentially
full recovery by 1 year (Fig. 2). See Video 1. Upper Motor Neuron Injuries
VIDEO 1. Case 1. Restoration of function to the biceps and bra- In contrast to LMN injuries, when the injury is pre-
chialis muscles from axons that originally contributed to median and dominantly of a UMN source, reconstruction is undertak-
ulnar nerve function in wrist and finger flexion is demonstrated. The en after a significant delay following injury. Because CNS
patient recovered muscle bulk, tone, and strength. Movement has plasticity frequently achieves impressive rewiring, partic-
also become intuitive and does not require “trick maneuvers” of the ularly in the context of appropriate therapy, it is imperative
to remain patient and allow for such spontaneous recovery siasm for a procedure that has been commonly reported
over at least 6–12 months.14,27,28 When a functional plateau on in the functional neurosurgery literature—selective
has been reached, there are a number of interventions that peripheral neurotomy.33,40,42,43 Peripheral nerve surgeons
may optimize the new functional status. Prior to proceed- have been quick to adopt this procedure, as it involves
ing, it is important to ensure that the patient has received anatomy with which they are already quite familiar. See
appropriate therapy and has been compliant with that ther- Illustrative Cases 3 and 4.
apy.
Recent advances in the implementation of nerve trans- Illustrative Case 3: Nerve Transfers for UMN Paralysis in SCI
fer surgery have laid the groundwork for peripheral nerve A 30-year-old female patient presented 3 years after a
surgeons to venture outside of peripheral nerve paralysis fall down a staircase that resulted in a C-5, American Spi-
sources to CNS sources that result in similar deficits. Ad- nal Injury Association (ASIA) Impairment Scale Grade
dressing cervical SCI with nerve transfers was found to A SCI. As is typical for a C-5 injury, she was found to
be a natural extension of the strategies for restoring lower have good control of the external rotators of her shoulder
brachial plexus injuries where the C7–T1 nerve roots are but with paralyzed yet innervated triceps as determined
lost.3,4,8,19 The deficits encountered in each of these injuries by electrodiagnostic studies. Three years following her in-
are essentially identical. In both cases, there is loss of con- jury, she underwent an axillary-to-radial nerve transfer us-
trol of the hands and triceps. However, in brachial plexus ing the teres minor branch of the axillary nerve to reinner-
injuries, the LMNs are lost. In cervical SCI, LMNs often vate the triceps branch of the radial nerve. By 12 months
remain, just without connecting to the UMNs (Fig. 3). The after the surgery, she had recovered Grade 4/5 strength in
loss of UMN input leads to another problem—spasticity. her triceps (Fig. 6). She secondarily underwent transfer of
The problem of focal spasticity has led to renewed enthu- the brachialis branch of the musculocutaneous nerve via
FIG. 3. CNS injuries often present with aspects of both UMN and LMN injuries. A: At the region of the impacted spinal cord there
is damage to both the traversing white matter tracts and central gray matter. The spinal cord caudal to this injury is essentially
normal (B), while the cord at the level of impact shows injury to its gray matter and associated motoneurons (C). When these are
injured, their peripheral axons degenerate in a similar manner as a peripheral nerve injury. D: The spinal cord below the injury
has healthy gray matter with normal axons emanating from the cord. However, these motoneurons are deprived of supraspinal
input because of disruption of the white matter tracts rostral to this site and thus remain without function. Such nerves are ame-
nable to reinnervation, even years after such an injury. From Brown JM: The reconstructive neurosurgery of spinal cord injury, in
Dimitrijevic MR, Kakulas BA, McKay WB, Vrbova G (eds): Restorative Neurology of Spinal Cord Injury. 2012, p 134, reproduced
by permission of Oxford University Press (http://global.oup.com/academic/product/restorative-neurology-of-spinal-cord-injury-
9780199746507).
Incorporating Non–Nerve-Based
Reconstructive Procedures
Without the additional procedures more typically un-
dertaken by plastic or orthopedic surgeons, our recon-
structive repertoire is limited. Having nerve-based proce-
dures alone in our armamentarium often leads to a myopic
view of reconstructive options: if a nerve transfer will not
accomplish the needed function restoration, the patient is
either “out of luck” or maybe there is a surgeon in another
specialty who can tackle the case.
This situation is reminiscent of the recent history of
both vascular and spinal neurosurgery. It was not long ago
when our treatment of cerebral aneurysms was limited to
craniotomies with clip application. When it became clear FIG. 8. Case 4. Following an incomplete SCI with good recovery of func-
that a given lesion might be readily addressed via an endo- tion, this patient remained with notable impairments due to high left-side
spasticity in comparison with the right side. A: His ability to reach his
vascular approach, neurosurgeons had to rely on our radi- mouth was impaired due to spasticity of the triceps. B: After selective
ologist colleagues. When neurosurgeons adopted that skill peripheral neurotomy of the branches to all 3 heads of the triceps, he
set, we advanced vascular neurosurgery tremendously.11,22 rapidly recovered his ability to reach his mouth and it persisted.
Similarly, less than 20 years ago, neurosurgeons common-
ly approached complex spine cases with an orthopedist ogy—from the better appreciation of deformity in single-
colleague. In this scenario, the neurosurgeon would ad- level spondylolisthesis to complex tumor resections.
dress the neurological aspect of the intervention and then Currently, peripheral nerve neurosurgeons employ the
call for orthopedist colleagues to instrument and stabilize same approach as the spine neurosurgeons of a generation
the spine. This deficit limited neurosurgery’s role in even ago. We offer nerve grafting and transfers to those who
basic degenerative cases. Such a handicap at times resulted we believe are candidates, but when tendon transfers or
in significant intervention bias and taking stability risks. other options may be superior, we frequently refer patients
Once that skill set and accompanying understanding of to others with the hope that they have both the requisite
spinal biomechanics were adopted by neurosurgeons, we expertise and share our passion to provide the best care
evolved in our management of all forms of spinal pathol- possible to our patients.
6 Neurosurg Focus Volume 43 • July 2017
Reconstructive neurosurgery
TABLE 1. Sampling of reconstructive procedures and their relative utility in treating different paralysis sources involving upper- and/or
lower-extremity impairments
Nerve Root Total Brachial Partial Plexus/ Complete Incomplete/ Hemiparesis/
Intervention Injury Plexus Injury Peripheral Nerve Injury SCI Spastic SCI Hemiplegia
Nerve-based procedure
Nerve graft No Yes Yes No No No
Nerve transfer Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes* Yes*
Neurotomy No No No Occasional Yes Yes
Muscle/tendon-based procedure
Upper extremity
Tendon lengthening or release Occasional Occasional Occasional Yes Yes Yes
Latissimus transfer Yes Yes Occasional Yes Yes Yes
Trapezius transfer Yes Yes Occasional Yes Yes Yes
Intrinsic reconstruction of the hand Yes Yes Occasional Occasional Occasional Yes
Lower extremity
Split anterior tibial tendon transfer Yes No No Yes Yes Yes
Tibialis posterior tendon transfer Yes No Yes No No No
Bony fusion
Wrist fusion Yes Yes Occasional Yes Yes Yes
Thumb carpometacarpal fusion Yes Yes Occasional Yes Yes Yes
Glenohumeral arthrodesis Occasional Yes Occasional Yes Occasional Occasional
Muscle transplantation
Free functional muscle transplant Occasional Yes Occasional Yes* No No
No = no role for this procedure in this clinical scenario; occasional = the procedure would be uncommon, but might be considered in specific cases; yes = there is a role
for this procedure in this clinical scenario.
* Indicates a current area of investigation. Case reports have been published, but not yet accepted as a standard approach.
dation will be replaced. For example, should success in ent backgrounds, and a team approach is ideal. We would
SCI be achieved in consistently regenerating white mat- strongly assert, though, that the neurosurgeon should be a
ter tracts across a lesion, it remains highly unlikely that key player in this field. The goal of adopting these addi-
the technology would transform a patient with an ASIA tional procedures is not to obviate the need for our plastic
Grade B injury into someone with deficit-free motor con- and orthopedic colleagues, but to be able to expand our
trol. Most likely, formerly paralyzed patients would then practice to depend upon them to provide the procedures
improve into a category of impaired control and spastic- that are within the scope of their typical practices. This
ity that would still require optimization by the previously concept would apply to the practitioners of other special-
described procedures. Similarly, neuroprosthetics would ties who want to take on this field as well. We should be
likely find their highest yield in patients without transfer- willing to lean on our hand surgeon colleagues when prox-
rable tendons or nerves, including C-3 SCI, amyotrophic imal row carpectomy is required to optimize wrist position
lateral sclerosis, and locked-in syndrome. As this spe- for improved grasp. We likewise would be wise to team
cialty matures, it may serve to push the goals of our ba- up with a competent plastic surgeon when undertaking a
sic research. For example, stem cell–based research that free functional muscle transplant, as any microsurgery-
is aimed at converting ASIA Grade A SCI at C-5 into a trained plastic surgeon should be relatively proficient in
ASIA Grade A SCI at C-7 becomes much less relevant tissue transplantation and will make a good teammate in
because this can be safely accomplished with current sur- this technically challenging endeavor. Similarly, at times
gical techniques and without the risks of losing additional these traumatic injuries result in notable heterotopic ossi-
function from direct spinal cord manipulation. Additional- fications, joint deformities, and even tissue defects in the
ly, the opportunities for neuroprosthetics and exoskeleton area to be reanimated. A neurosurgeon would be foolish to
technology will be better defined, as the boundaries where not call on their orthopedic and plastic surgery colleagues
the surgical options end and the consideration of these al- in these cases.
ternatives should begin are further defined.
Multidisciplinary Team Approach
Why Neurosurgeons? Therefore, while we believe that a properly trained re-
constructive neurosurgeon would be central to such a dis-
It has been questioned whether neurosurgeons are the cipline, ideally this practice would be approached using
appropriate specialists to manage these disorders. The the “cancer center model.” Surgery accounts for only a
same discussions have been held regarding certain pa- portion of the effort involved in a patient’s recovery from
thologies of the cerebral vasculature, skull base, spine, a paralyzing injury and would not be optimally imple-
and peripheral nerves. Other specialties, including radiol- mented in isolation. It would be optimal to approach pa-
ogy, otolaryngology, orthopedics, and plastic surgery, have tients with motor control impairments as part of a multi-
competed for portions of these arenas. While specialists in disciplinary team. Such a team might include specialists
plastic and reconstructive surgery, as well as orthopedics, in physical medicine and rehabilitation, physical and oc-
have played a very important role in the development of this cupational therapy, neurophysiology, neurology, radiology,
field, in the case of a paralysis practice neurosurgeons hold and orthotics, as well as orthopedics and plastic surgery,
an important position for a number of reasons. First, we are who could all contribute their expertise in order to achieve
the surgeons who best understand the pathologies that re- optimal outcomes and ensure that all avenues for recovery
sult in these paralyzing conditions and can best determine have been considered.
whether the original pathology has been adequately ad- The source injury would be defined by a review of the
dressed and whether there may be future concerns related patient’s history, prior interventions, and the findings pro-
to such pathology; if they have not been appropriately ad- vided by neuroradiology and neurophysiology. Once the
dressed, we have the capacity to do so. In some cases, this source has been adequately addressed and its potential
may obviate the need for reconstruction. Second, while we for progression has been minimized, elucidation of the
overlap with other specialties in the ability to master many primary function-limiting deficit would be undertaken.
of the reconstructive procedures outlined above, addition- This would be primarily ascertained from the physical
ally we are uniquely positioned to adopt more proximal examinations of the physiatrists, therapists, and the sur-
interventions. To this end, in recent years reconstructive geon, and supported by neurophysiological findings as de-
interventions that have migrated proximally include nerve scribed above. With the deficits and assets fully defined,
root reimplantation9 and contralateral nerve root transfer the primary functional goals would be agreed upon by the
via the prevertebral route,48 and clinical studies are already team. Next, potential conservative interventions, includ-
introducing the intraparenchymal injection of stem cells,12 ing physical therapy, bracing, medications, and neurolytic
neuromodulation with epidural stimulation,37 and brain- options, would be reviewed. Finally, the available recon-
computer interfaces.31 Finally, it is important that we as a structive options to achieve that goal would be presented
specialty are fully equipped to address the consequences and discussed. Psychological fitness to undergo major in-
of the interventions that we regularly undertake. As such, terventions would be provided by psychology. If the team
a typical neurosurgery morbidity and mortality conference agrees that the patient is a good candidate, preoperative
provides cases amenable to the interventions described in considerations such as optimizing joint range of motion
this communication. and strengthening donor muscles, for example, are deter-
We are not arguing that other disciplines should not be a mined. Similarly, a postoperative retraining regimen can
part of such a program. Quite the contrary, these disorders be determined with physiatry and therapy, with input re-
can often benefit from input from specialists with differ- garding the bracing needs provided by orthotics in concert
10 Neurosurg Focus Volume 43 • July 2017
Reconstructive neurosurgery
with the surgical team. As a consequence, all members of at a single medical center is more than enough to keep
the team are on board as reconstruction is pursued and the a reconstructive neurosurgeon, or even a team of recon-
outcomes are more objectively assessed. When things do structive surgeons, quite busy with a surgical neuroreha-
not go as planned, the team reviews the execution of the bilitation practice. The field is ripe for development given
previously devised plans and troubleshoots to arrive at the the number of new interventions being brought forth,
best reconstructive plan for a given deficit. our current research programs, and the opportunity to
combine the current state of the art of different domains
Training into a comprehensive program. Successful incorporation
Given the above requirements, and in addition to recap- of multiple techniques will lay an important foundation
turing the art of the complete neurological examination, upon which to build future restorative procedures.
subspecialty training in reconstructive neurosurgery must Reconstructive interventions that are not traditionally
include developing mastery of extremity anatomy, both performed by neurosurgeons but augment functional re-
surgical and functional, as well as a solid understanding of covery include tendon transfers, free functional muscle
neurophysiological principles and how these can be used transplants, and, for spasticity, tendon lengthening. Occa-
to guide interventions. It is also useful to develop an un- sionally, bony fusions are required to fixate a limb or digit
derstanding of the basics of the physical and occupational in a more functionally optimal position when limited de-
therapy principles involved in these cases and, finally, an grees of freedom remain to be optimized. Marrying these
understanding of the roles of medications and nonopera- interventions with the rapidly expanding options in periph-
tive interventions, including botulinum toxin, in managing eral nerve transfer and reconstruction, as well as emerging
these disabilities. neuromodulation and neuroprosthetic options, provides a
We strongly advocate for a joint neurophysiology clinic robust repertoire with which to achieve a high degree of
in which a decision tree is navigated to provide dynamic sophistication in the development of reconstructive strate-
responses to new findings as they arise. This would involve gies. Ideally, such a practice would take advantage of the
a discussion that works through the algorithm of potential numerous specialists within such a medical center that
interventions as the investigation proceeds. It should be overlap in the treatment of such patients. We advocate for
noted that the experience and interest of the neurophysi- a cancer center model to arrive at the best outcome and fa-
ologist is critical, as classic electrodiagnostic studies are cilitate open communication among the different special-
limited in answering the many questions required to di- ists contributing to this care.
rect these interventions. Indeed, most neurophysiologists
are not trained to address the questions that are typically Acknowledgments
the focus of such a clinic. Even those who are technically We would like to thank Dr. Madhawi Mitwalli for her critical
competent and interested would be unlikely to guess how assistance in manuscript and media preparation.
to approach the patient electrodiagnostically without di-
rect communication in real time and a basic understanding References
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J: Nerve root recovery in complete injuries of the cervical Videos
spine. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 16 (10 Suppl):S518–S521, 1991 Video 1. https://vimeo.com/216831749.
Video 2. https://vimeo.com/216831882.
Video 3. https://vimeo.com/216831963.
Disclosures Video 4. https://vimeo.com/216832069.
The authors report no conflict of interest concerning the materi- Video 5. https://vimeo.com/216832168.
als or methods used in this study or the findings specified in this Video 6. https://vimeo.com/216832266.
paper. Video Abstract. https://vimeo.com/220787253.