Center of Biomedical Engineering

Research Proposal

By Ashenafi H.
 Process in Research Proposal
Development
After completing this chapter you should be able to:
• Know the contents of a research proposal
• Describe how to identify a research topic
• Identify a research problem and formulate a research
question/hypothesis
• Set the objectives/aims
• Develop a research design and methods
• Prepare a review of the literature related to the topic
• Cite references
• Prepare work plan
• Identify resources required and prepare a budget
• Produce a complete research proposal
 What is a Research Proposal?
Introduction
• A research proposal is intended to convince others that you
have a worthwhile research project and that you have the
competence and the work-plan to complete it.
• A research proposal should be compiled before attempting
to start with a research project. It is the most important
aspect of the research project and should be considered
carefully by the researcher. This does not only require
subject knowledge, but also insight into the problem that is
going to be investigated, so as to give logic and structure to
the research envisaged.
 Identifying a research topic

• Defining the problem is the first step and one

of the most difficult in research undertaking.
There is a tendency for the beginner in
research to ask questions that are usually
diffuse or vague. Each topic that is proposed
for research has to be judged according to
certain guidelines or criteria. Before deciding
on a research topic, each proposed topic must
be compared with all other options.
 Criteria for selecting a research topic

• Relevance/Significance
• Avoidance of duplication
• Urgency of data needed (timeliness)
• Feasibility of study
• Applicability of results
• Interest to the researcher
• Ethical acceptability
 What is a research proposal? Contd…
• After proper and complete planning of a research, the plan
should be written down. The research proposal is the
detailed plan of study. The term "research proposal"
indicates that a specific course of action will be followed.
• It is a document which sets out your ideas in an easily
accessible way. The intent of the written research proposal
is to present a focused and scholarly presentation of a
research problem and plan. The early presentation of a
research plan in the post graduate training of students is
intended
• to promote critical and analytical thinking,
• focused research effort, and
• extensive interaction with their thesis advisor throughout the
research.
 Objective of Research proposal
• The objective in writing a proposal is to describe what you will do,
why it should be done, how you will do it and what you expect will
result.
• Being clear about these things from the beginning will help you
complete your research in a timely fashion. A vague, weak or fuzzy
proposal can lead to a long, painful, and often unsuccessful
research writing exercise. A clean, well thought-out, proposal forms
the backbone for the research itself. A good research proposal
hinges on a good idea.
• Getting a good idea hinges on familiarity with the topic. This
assumes a longer preparatory period of reading, observation,
discussion, and incubation. Read everything that you can in your
area of interest. Figure out what are the important and missing
parts of our understanding. Figure out how to build/discover those
pieces.
 Issues to remember:
• Know your area of expertise:
• what are your strengths and what are your weaknesses?
• Play to your strengths, not to your weaknesses.
• Do not assume that,
• because you do not understand an area, no one understands it or
• that there has been no previous research conducted in the area.
• If you want to get into a new area of research, learn something
about the area before you write a proposal.
• Research previous work.
• Be a scholar.
• Before you start work on your research proposal, find out whether
you’re required to produce the proposal in a specific format.
• Most graduate programs at Addis Ababa University have a general
outline and a guide as to how many pages to produce.
 Components of a Research Proposal
• The basic components of a research proposal
are the same in many fields. However, how
they are phrased and staged may vary by
discipline. The following components can be
regarded as steps in the writing of a research
proposal. They are important and should be
followed for the actual composition of the
proposal. The organization of the contents of
a proposal may vary somewhat with the
nature of the activity proposed
 Components of a research proposal:
1. Title page
2. Summary/Abstract
3. Introduction/Background
4. Statement of the problem
5. Literature review
6. Hypotheses /Questions
7. Conceptual framework
8. Objective/Aim of the study
9. Research methods, materials and procedures
• Study area
• Study design
• Study subjects
• Eligibility Criteria (if any)
• Sample size
• Sampling methods
• Method of data collection
• Description of variables
• Data quality assurance
• Operational definitions
• Plan of data analysis
10. Work plan
11. Budget
12. References
13. Appendices/Annexes
 1-Title page
• A title ought to be well studied, and to give, so far as its limits
permit, a definite and concise indication of what is to come. The
title of your research proposal should state your topic exactly in the
smallest possible number of words.
• Put your name, the name of your department/faculty/college, the
name of your advisor (s) and date of delivery under the title.
• All words in the title should be chosen with great care, and
association with one another must be carefully managed.
• The title page identifies the proposal and provides the
endorsement of appropriate body (advisor).
• A good title is defined as the fewest possible words that adequately
describe the contents of the study.
• Title is a label: it is not a sentence. Titles should almost never
contain abbreviations. The title page has no page number and it is
not counted in any page numbering. First impressions are strong
impressions: make your title an attention grabber.
 Exercise
• What do you think of the following the research
topics?
• Discuss on their merits and provide your own
alternative titles.
• How does the human brain work when faced with
stress?
• The workings of the human brain in times of stress.
• Stress and the human brain.
• Effect of stress on short-term memory
• Abebe’s memory function during semester final exams
 2-Summary/Abstract
• “The abstract is a mini version of the proposal.”
• The abstract is a one page brief summary of the thesis
proposal. It needs to show a reasonably informed reader
why a particular topic is important to address and how you
will do it. To that end, it needs to show how your work fits
into what is already known about the topic and what new
contribution your work will make.
In the abstract
• specify the question that your research will answer,
• establish why it is a significant question;
• show how you are going to answer the question.
• Do not put information in the abstract that is not in the main
text of your research proposal.
• Do not put references, figures, or tables in the abstract.
 Issues to remember:

• The abstract is a concise summary of the

material presented in the proposal.
• Though it appears at the front of the proposal, it
is written last.
A well-prepared summary enables the reader to
• Identify the basic content of a document quickly and
accurately,
• Determine its relevance to their interests, and
• Decide whether they need to read the document in its
entirely
 3- Introduction/background
• The introduction is the part of the proposal that provides
readers with the background information for the research
proposal. Its purpose is to establish a framework for the
research, so that readers can understand how it is related
to other research.
• Be sure to include a hook at the beginning of the
introduction. A hook is a statement of something
sufficiently interesting to motivate your reader to read the
rest of the proposal, is an important/interesting scientific
problem that your study either solves or addresses.
• The introduction should cite those who had the idea or
ideas first, and should also cite those who have done the
most recent and relevant work.
 Contd…
• You should then go on to explain why more work is necessary (your work,
of course.)
• The introduction also should address the following points:
• Sufficient background information to allow readers understand the context
and significance of the question you are trying to address.
• Proper acknowledgement of the previous work on which you are building.
• Sufficient references such that a reader could by going to the library, achieve a
sophisticated understanding of the context and significance of the question.
• The introduction should be focused on the research question(s). All cited
work should be directly relevant to the goals of research.
• Explain the scope of your work, what will and what will not be included.
• A verbal "roadmap” or a verbal “Table of contents” guiding the reader to
what lies ahead. Is should be obvious where introductory material (“old
stuff”) ends and your planned contribution ("new stuff") begins.
 Issues to remember:
In summary, the introduction/background section should contain a rationale for your
research.
• Why are you undertaking the project?
• Why is the research needed?

This rationale should be placed within the context of existing research or within your
own experience and/or observation. You need to demonstrate that
• you know what you’re talking about and that you have knowledge of the
literature surrounding this topic.
• If you’re unable to find any other research that deals specifically with your
proposed project, you need to say so, illustrating how your proposed research will
fill this gap.
• If there is other work that has covered this area, you need to show how your
work will build on and add to the existing knowledge.
• Basically, you have to convince people that you know what you’re talking about
and that the research is important.
 Exercise
• Is it appropriate to include in the introduction
theories, hypothesis and findings that go
against your stated hypothesis?
• Is it appropriate to include research works in
progress that offer an alternative hypothesis?
 4- Statement of the problem
“Statement of the problem encapsulates the question you are trying to
answer.”
• Most research proposals, whether designed for master’s thesis or doctoral
dissertations, may be considered as responses to a problem. A problem
might be defined as the issue that exists in the literature, theory, or
practice that leads to a need for the study.
• The research problem should be stated in such a way that it would lead to
analytical thinking on the part of the researcher with the aim of possibly
concluding solutions to the stated problem.
• The problem statement describes the context for the study and it also
identifies the general analysis approach.
• It is important in a proposal that the problem stand out—that the reader
can easily recognize it.
• Effective problem statements answer the question “Why does this
research need to be conducted.”
• If a researcher is unable to answer this question clearly and succinctly, and
without resorting to hyper-speak, then the statement of the problem
will come off as ambiguous and diffuse.
 Exercise
• Formulate a problem statement in your specific area of research
interest
• Evaluate the research questions provided below and answer the
following questions:
• Do the questions offer significant area of research?
• Are they testable (i.e. can you obtain answers to these questions?)
• Are they too broad/narrow?
• Propose alternatives that refine the questions.

• “Does frequent use of mobile phones increase the risk of brain

cancer?”
• “Does capital punishment serve as a deterrent to violent criminals?
 5-Literature review
• “The literature review asks how similar and related questions have been answered before.”
• To conduct research regarding a topic, by implication, means that the researcher has
obtained sound knowledge with regard to the research topic. It is therefore imperative that
the researcher clearly indicates what theoretical knowledge he possesses about the
prospective research at the time of the submission of the research proposal,
• What is a literature review?
• Literature review is not a compilation of every work written about a topic. Or simply a list of
sources reviewed separately for their own merit. A literature review is a description of the
literature relevant to a particular field or topic.
• It gives an overview of what has been said, who the key writers are, what are the prevailing
theories and hypotheses, what questions are being asked, and what methods and
methodologies are appropriate and useful.
• As such, it is not in itself primary research, but rather it reports on other’s findings.
• A literature review uses as its database reports of primary or original scholarship, and does
not report new primary scholarship itself.
• The primary reports used in the literature may be verbal, but in the vast majority of cases
reports are written documents.
• The types of scholarship may be empirical, theoretical, critical/analytic, or methodological in
nature. Second, a literature review seeks to describe, summarize, evaluate, clarify and/or
integrate the content of primary reports.
 The stages of a literature review
Define the problem
• It is important to define the problem or area which you wish to address.
Having a purpose for your literature review will narrow the scope of what
you need to look out for when you read. Carry out a search for relevant
materials. Relevant materials will probably comprise a range of media:
• books (monographs [a scholarly article, paper, or book on a single topic], text
books, reference books);
• articles from journals, whether print or electronic (but make sure electronic
journals have been subject to the peer review process);
• newspaper articles;
• historical records;
• commercial reports and statistical information;
• government reports and statistical information;
• theses and dissertations;
• other types of information which may be relevant to your particular
discipline.
 Contd….
Initial appraisal (evaluation) from raw
bibliographical data:
• What are the authors’ credentials?
• are they experts in the field?
• are they affiliated with a reputable organization?
• What is the date of publication, is it sufficiently
current or will knowledge have moved on?
• If a book, is it the latest edition? Is the publisher a
reputable, scholarly publisher? If it is a journal, is
it a scholarly journal peer reviewed?
 Contd…
Appraisal based on content analysis:
• Is the writer addressing a scholarly audience?
• Do the authors review the relevant literature?
• Do the authors write from an objective viewpoint, and are their
views based on facts rather than opinions?
• If the author uses research, is the design sound?
• Is it primary or secondary material?
• Do the authors have a particular theoretical viewpoint?
• What is the relationship of this work to other material you have
read on the same topic, does it substantiate it or add a different
perspective? Is the author's argument logically organized and clear
to follow? If the author is writing from a practice-based perspective,
what are the implications for practice?
 How to organize a literature review
There are a number of ways of organizing a literature review. Here is one suggestion:
A. Introduction:
• Define the topic,
• together with your reason for selecting the topic. You could also
• point out overall trends, gaps, particular themes that emerge, etc.
B. Body:
• This is where you discuss your sources. Here are some ways in which you could organize your
discussion:
• chronologically: for e.g., if writers' views have tended to change over time, there is little
point in doing the review by order of publication unless this shows a clear trend;
• thematically: take particular themes in the literature;
• methodologically: here, the focus is on the methods of the researcher, for example,
qualitative versus quantitative approaches.
C. Conclusion:
• Summarize the major contributions,
• evaluating the current position, and
• pointing out flaws in methodology,
• gaps in the research,
• contradictions, and
• areas for further study.
 Issues to remember:
A literature review must do the following things:
• be organized around and related directly to the research question you are developing
• synthesize results into a summary of what is and is not known
• identify areas of controversy in the literature
• formulate questions that need further research
Ask yourself the following type of questions:
• What is the specific research question that my literature review helps to define?
• What type of literature review am I conducting?
• Am I looking at issues of theory? methodology? policy? quantitative research? qualitative research ?
• What is the scope of my literature review?
• What types of publications am I using?
• What discipline am I working in?
• How good was my information seeking?
• Has my search been wide enough to ensure I've found all the relevant material?
• Has it been narrow enough to exclude irrelevant material?
• Is the number of sources I've used appropriate for the length of my paper?
• Have I critically analyzed the literature I use?
• Do I follow through a set of concepts and questions, comparing items to each other in the ways
they deal with them?
• instead of just listing and summarizing items, do I assess them, discussing strengths and
weaknesses?
• Have I cited and discussed studies contrary to my perspective?
Will the reader find my literature review relevant, appropriate, and useful?
 Exercise

• Is Wikipedia an authoritative scholarly source

of information?
• Assume You are studying the impact of
malaria on loss of lives in a region of
Ethiopia. Would the Ethiopian Herald
newspaper be a reliable source of information
for such a study?
 Characteristics of
Effective Literature Reviews

• Outlining important research trends

• Assessing the strengths and weaknesses of
existing research
• Identifying potential gaps in knowledge
• Establishing a need for current and/or future
research projects
 Steps for Writing a Lit Review

• Planning
• Reading and Research
• Analyzing
• Drafting
• Revising
 Planning
What Type of Literature Review
Am I Writing?
 Planning
• Focus
– What is the specific thesis, problem, or research
question that my literature review helps to define?
– Identifying a focus that allows you to:
• Sort and categorize information
• Eliminate irrelevant information
• Type
– What type of literature review am I conducting?
– Theory; Methodology; Policy; Quantitative;
Qualitative
 Planning
• Scope
– What is the scope of my literature review?
– What types of sources am I using?
• Academic Discipline
– What field(s) am I working in?
 Reflection
Take a moment to answer each of the questions
in the “Planning” section of your packet about
a literature review you are currently working
on or plan to work on.
• How many of the questions could you answer?
• What questions did this short exercise raise for
you?
Reading and Researching

What Materials
Am I Going to Use?
 Reading and Researching
• Collect and read material.
• Summarize sources.
– Who is the author?
– What is the author's main purpose?
– What is the author’s theoretical perspective? Research
methodology?
– Who is the intended audience?
– What is the principal point, conclusion, thesis, contention, or
question?
– How is the author’s position supported?
– How does this study relate to other studies of the problem or topic?
– What does this study add to your project?
• Select only relevant books and articles.
Analyzing
How Do I Assess
Existing Research?
 Analyzing Sources
• A literature review is never just a list of
studies—it always offers an argument
about a body of research

• Analysis occurs on two levels:

– Individual sources
– Body of research
Four Analysis Tasks of the Literature
Review

TASKS OF
LITERATURE
REVIEW

SUMMARIZE SYNTHESIZE CRITIQUE COMPARE

 Summary and Synthesis
In your own words, summarize and/or
synthesize the key findings relevant to
your study.
• What do we know about the immediate area?

• What are the key arguments, key characteristics,

key concepts or key figures?

• What are the existing debates/theories?

• What common methodologies are used?

 Sample Language for
Summary and Synthesis
• Normadin has demonstrated…
• Early work by Hausman, Schwarz, and
Graves was concerned with…
• Elsayed and Stern compared algorithms
for handling…
• Additional work by Karasawa et. al,
Azadivar, and Parry et. al deals with…
Example: Summary and Synthesis
Under the restriction of small populations, four
possible ways [to avoid premature convergence]
were presented. The first one is to revise the
gene operators. . . .Griffiths and Miles applied
advanced two-dimensional gene operators to
search the optimal cross-section of a beam and
significantly improve results. The second way is
to adjust gene probability. Leite and Topping
adopted a variable mutation probability and
obtained an outperformed result.
Example: Summary and Synthesis
Piaget’s theory of stages of cognitive
development and Erikson’s stages of
psychosocial development are commonly used
for educational psychology courses (Borich &
Tombari, 1997; LeFrancois, 1997; Slavin, 1997).
Piaget described characteristic behaviors,
including artistic ones such as drawing, as
evidence of how children think and what
children do as they progress beyond
developmental milestones into and through
stages of development.
 Comparison and Critique
Evaluates the strength and weaknesses of the
work:
• How do the different studies relate? What is new, different,
or controversial?
• What views need further testing?
• What evidence is lacking, inconclusive, contradicting, or
too limited?
• What research designs or methods seem unsatisfactory?
 Sample Language for
Comparison and Critique
• In this ambitious but flawed study, Jones
and Wang…
• These general results, reflecting the
stochastic nature of the flow of goods, are
similar to those reported by Rosenblatt and
Roll…
 Example: Comparison and Critique

• The critical response to the poetry of Phillis Wheatley often

registers disappointment or surprise. Some critics have
complained that the verse of this African American slave is
insecure (Collins 1975, 78), imitative (Richmond 1974, 54-
66), and incapacitated (Burke 1991, 33, 38)—at worst, the
product of a “White mind” (Jameson 1974, 414-15). Others,
in contrast, have applauded Wheatley’s critique of Anglo-
American discourse(Kendrick 1993,222-23), her revision of
literary models…
Example: Comparison and Critique

• The situationist model has also received its

share of criticism. One of the most frequently
cited shortcomings of this approach centers
around the assumption that individuals enter
into the work context tabula rasa.
 Evaluative Adjectives
• Unusual • Complex
• Small • Competent
• Simple • Important
• Exploratory • Innovative
• Limited • Impressive
• Restricted • Useful
• Flawed • Careful
Analyzing: Putting It All Together
Once you have summarized, synthesized,
compared, and critiqued your chosen material,
you may consider whether these studies
• Demonstrate the topic’s chronological development.
• Show different approaches to the problem.
• Show an ongoing debate.
• Center on a “seminal” study or studies.
• Demonstrate a “paradigm shift.”
 Analyzing: Putting It All Together

• What do researchers KNOW about this

field?

• What do researchers NOT KNOW?

• Why should we (further) study this topic?

• What will my study contribute?

Drafting
What Am I
Going to Write?
 Drafting: An Overview
To help you approach your draft in a
manageable fashion, this section addresses
the following topics:
• Exigency-urgent need
• Thesis Statement
• Organization
• Introduction and conclusion
• Citations
 Thesis Statements
The thesis statement offers an argument about
the literature. It may do any of or a
combination of the following:
• Offer an argument and critical assessment of the literature (i.e.
topic + claim).
• Provide an overview of current scholarly conversations.
• Point out gaps or weaknesses in the literature.
• Relate the literature to the larger aim of the study.
 Examples: Thesis Statements
1) In spite of these difficulties we believe that preservice elementary art
teachers and classroom teachers need some knowledge of stage
theories of children’s development…[then goes on to review theories
of development]

2) Research on the meaning and experience of home has proliferated

over the past two decades, particularly within the disciplines of
sociology, anthropology, psychology, human geography, history,
architecture and philosophy. . . . Many researchers now understand
home as a multidimensional concept and acknowledge the presence
of and need for multidisciplinary research in the field. However, with
the exception of two exemplary articles by Després (1991) and
Somerville (1997) few have translated this awareness into genuinely,
interdisciplinary studies of the meaning of home.
 Examples: Thesis Statements
3) Polyvalency refers to the simultaneous binding of multiple ligands on
one entity to multiple receptors on another. Polyvalent interactions are
ubiquitous in nature, with examples including the attachment of
viruses to target cells, bacteria to cells, cells to other cells, and the
binding of antibodies to pathogens. . . . In this article, I review recent
developments in polyvalency and discuss the numerous opportunities
for chemical engineers to make contributions to this exciting field,
whose applications include drug discovery, tissue engineering, and
nanofabrication.
4) In this article, we review and critique scholarship on place-based
education in order to consider the ingredients of a critical place-based
pedagogy for the arts and humanities. . . We begin by reviewing
ecohumanism's call for a more locally responsive education in light of
the marginalization of place and community…
 Organization
Five common approaches to organizing the body
of your paper include:
• Topical
• Distant to close
• Debate
• Chronological
• Seminal Study
 Topical: Characteristics
• Most common approach
• Breaks the field into a number of subfields,
subject areas, or approaches
• Discusses each subsection individually,
sometimes with critiques of each
• Most useful for organizing a large body of
literature that does not have one or two studies
that stand out as most important or a clear
chronological development
 Topical: Typical Language
• Three important areas of this field have
received attention: A, B, C.
• A has been approached from two perspectives
F and G.
• The most important developments in terms of B
have been…
• C has also been an important area of study in
this field.
 Distant to Close: Characteristics

• A type of topical organization, with studies

grouped by their relevance to current research.
• Starts by describing studies with general
similarities to current research and ends with
studies most relevant to the specific topic.
• Most useful for studies of methods or models.
 Distant to Close: Typical Language

• Method/Model M (slightly similar to current

research) addresses …
• Drawing upon method/model N (more similar
to current research) can help . . .
• This study applies the procedure used in
method/model O (most similar to current
research) to . . .
 Debate: Characteristics

• Another type of topical approach, with a

chronological component.
• Emphasizes various strands of research in
which proponents of various models openly
criticize one another.
• Most useful when clear opposing positions are
present in the literature.
 Debate: Typical Language

• There have been two (three, four, etc.) distinct

approaches this problem.
• The first model posits…
• The second model argues that the first model is
wrong for three reasons. Instead, the second
model claims…
 Chronological: Characteristics

• Lists studies in terms of chronological

development

• Useful when the field displays clear

development over a period of time
– Linear progression

– Paradigm shift
 Chronological: Typical Language

• This subject was first studied by X, who

argued/found…
• In (date), Y modified/extended/contradicted X’s
work by…
• Today, research by Z represents the current
state of the field.
 Seminal Study: Characteristics

• Begins with detailed description of

extremely important study.

• Later work is organized using another

pattern.

• Most useful when one study is clearly most

important or central in laying the
groundwork for future research.
 Seminal Study: Typical Language

• The most important research on this topic

was the study by X in (date).
• Following X’s study, research fell into two
camps (extended X’s work, etc.)
 Lit. Introductions

• Indicate scope of the literature review.

• Provide some background to the topic.
• Demonstrate the importance or need for
research.
• Make a claim.
• Offer an overview/map of the ensuing
discussion.
 Example: Introduction
• There is currently much controversy over how nonhuman primates
understand the behavior of other animate beings. On the one hand, they
might simply attend to and recall the specific actions of others in particular
contexts, and therefore, when that context recurs, be able to predict their
behavior (Tomasello & Call, 1994, 1997). On the other hand, they might
be able to understand something of the goals or intentions of others and
thus be able to predict others’ behaviors in a host of novel circumstances.
Several lines of evidence (e.g., involving processes of social learning;
Tomasello, 1997) and a number of anecdotal observations (e.g., Savage-
Rumbaugh, 1984) have been adduced on both sides of the question, but
few studies directly address the question: Do nonhuman primates
understand the intentions of others?
 Lit Conclusions

• Summarize the main findings of your review.

• Provide closure.
• Explain “so what?”
• Implications for future research.
OR
• Connections to the current study.
 Example: Conclusion
• In summary, although there is some suggestive evidence that
chimpanzees may understand others’ intentions, there are also negative
findings (e.g., Povinelli et al., 1998) and a host of alternative
explanations. As a consequence, currently it is not clear whether
chimpanzees (or other nonhuman primates) distinguish between
intentional and accidental actions performed by others. In contrast,
there are several studies indicating that children as young as 14 months
of age have some understanding of others’ intentions, but the lack of
comparative studies makes it difficult to know how children compare
to apes. This study is the first to directly compare children,
chimpanzees, and orangutans with the use of a nonverbal task in which
the subjects were to discriminate between the experimenter’s
intentional and accidental actions.
 Citing Sources
If it’s not your own idea (and not common
knowledge)—DOCUMENT IT!
• Paraphrase key ideas.

• Use quotations sparingly.

• Introduce quotations effectively.

• Use proper in-text citation to document the source of ideas.

• Maintain accurate bibliographic records.

 Citing Sources: Things to Avoid

• Plagiarism
• Irrelevant quotations.
• Un-introduced quotations.
 Writing the Literature Review
Plagiarism includes (Galvan, pg. 89) :
1. Using another writer’s words without proper citation
2. Using another writer’s ideas without proper citation
3. Citing a source but reproducing the exact word without
quotation marks
4. Borrowing the structure of another author’s
phrases/sentences without giving the source
5. Borrowing all or part of another student’s paper
6. Using paper-writing service or having a friend write the
paper
 Citation in the text

In the text, references should be cited with author’s name

and year of publication in parenthesis as shown in
examples below:
• When only one author
– The study conducted by NRTI reveals that there are more than
thirteen lines of indigenous chickens in Bhutan (Nidup, 2005)
– Nidup (2005) revealed that there are more than thirteen lines of
indigenous chickens in Bhutan
 Citation in the text (Contd.)
• Two authors
– The poultry development programme initiated in
Bhutan since 1961 has not made any tangible
impact (Nidup & Dorji, 2005)
– Nidup and Dorji (2005) argued that Bhutan has
not made any tangible impact in the areas of
poultry development even after four decades.
 Citation in the text (Contd.)
• More than two authors
– The poultry development programme initiated in
Bhutan since 1961 has not made any tangible
impact (Nidup et al., 2005)
- Nidup et al. (2005) stated that poultry
development programme in Bhutan started in
1961.
 Citation in the text (Contd.)
• Where there are two or more papers by the same
author in one year: distinguishing letter (a, b, c…)
should be added to the year. For example:
– The mitochondrial DNA sequences suggest that Bhutanese
chickens are genetically diverse (Nidup et al., 2005a; Nidup et
al., 2005b).
– Nidup et al. (2005a; 2005b) showed that Bhutanese chickens are
genetically diverse.
 Contd…
Citing edited items
• If an item is edited rather than having authors, use the editors and year in the same way as for authors:
• (Crouch, Jackson and Thompson, 2005) or Crouch, Jackson and Thompson (2005) provide evidence that ...
• You do not need to indicate that they are editors in your citation, but you do need to do this in the full reference in your
reference list.
Citing organization, company or government authors
• If an item is written by an organisation, company or government body, use their name and the year in your citation and list
the item under it in your reference list:
• (British Airways, 2003) or In the report by British Airways (2003) it can be seen that ...
• For some government publications the citation will include the jurisdiction, e.g. Great Britain. See the examples of
referencing and citing Parliamentary and government publications.
Citing more than one item by the same author(s)
If you are citing more than one item by the same author(s) you need to be able to distinguish between them. It is not a problem
if they were published in different years:
• In his book, Gregory (2004) …
• Gregory (2008) describes …
• The items are distinguished in the citation and reference by the year.
• Gregory, P. (2004) Computer viruses for dummies. Hoboken: Wiley.
• Gregory, P. (2008) IT disaster recovery planning for dummies. Hoboken: Wiley.
However, if you have used items written by the same author(s) and which were published in the same year, you need to
distinguish these using letters after the year:
• (Nielsen, 1993a) describes …
• (Nielsen, 1993b) shows how …
These letters must also appear in your bibliography or reference list to distinguish the two items there as well:
• Nielsen, J. (1993a) Hypertext and hypermedia. London: Academic Press.
• Nielsen, J. (1993b) Usability engineering. London: Academic Press.
 Contd…
Citing when you cannot identify the author(s) of an item
• If you cannot identify the author(s) of an item, cite it by
title and list it under the title in your bibliography or
reference list. If it is a book, the title is usually in
italics, so maintain this in your citation and reference:
• (Dictionary of biology, 2004) or In the Dictionary of
biology (2004) ...
Citing when you cannot identify the year
• If you cannot identify the date of publication of an
item, indicate that there is no date with the
abbreviation n.d.:
• (Collins, n.d.) or Collins (n. d.) describes ...
 Contd…
Citing several sources together
• Sometimes several sources can be cited together.
• This can be appropriate in a sentence where the
citations are not related directly to specific
information in the sentence but are all sources of
further information. For example:
• There has been much debate about this issue
(Fleming, 2002; Smythe and Herbert, 2005;
McGregor et al., 2007).
• In the above example, the citations are given in
chronological order, with the oldest item first.
 Quoting
• Quoting is copying or repeating exactly a sentence, passage,
statement, etc. from a book or other resource. When quoting, it is
necessary to indicate that you are using someone else's words by
enclosing the quote in quotation marks or by indenting the quote.
You also need to
For example:
• It has been argued that, ‘The findings indicate that there has been
great confusion in Government on this issue’ (Robertson, 1996: 34).
• As Blasé (1991:1) indicates:
Micropolitics is about power and how people use it to influence others
and to protect themselves. It is about conflict and how people compete
with each other to get what they want. It is about cooperation and how
people build support among themselves to achieve their ends
 Contd….
• What's the difference between a bibliography and a
reference list?
• A bibliography lists all the works you have used in
preparing your assignment. This would include all the
sources you have cited and any background reading,
even works not cited or directly referred to in your
text.
• A reference list should include only items actually cited
in your work. This is what you are normally required to
produce at the end of each assignment and
dissertation, unless your tutor specifies otherwise.
 The format of the reference list
• In the Harvard system, items should be arranged in one alphabetical sequence by
name of the author. You should not break down the list by types of material
(books, internet sources, etc.) unless you are specifically asked to do so.
• If a number of references have the same first author, but the subsequent authors
are different, the references should be listed under the first author and then in
alphabetical order by the next author(s).
• If a number of references have the same author(s) put the references in order by
year, with the oldest first.
• If a number of references have the same author(s) and were published in the same
year, you should use letters (a, b, c, etc.) after the year in your citations and in your
reference list to distinguish the items.
• If there is no author, the item should be listed in the sequence under the first
significant word of the title (not under "The" or "A").
• If a reference begins with a number in numerals (not spelled out in letters), this
should be listed at the beginning of the bibliography/reference list, before the
alphabetical sequence.
 Example
• Churchill, G. A. and Peter, J. P. (1998) Marketing: creating value for
customers. 2nd ed., Boston: Irwin/McGraw Hill.
• Churchill, G. A. et al. (1999) Sales force management. 6th ed., Boston:
Irwin/McGraw-Hill.
• Ellis, J. (1992) Visible fictions: cinema, television, video. Rev. ed., London:
Routledge.
• Ellis, J. (2000) Seeing things: television in the age of uncertainty. London:
Tauris.
• Johnson, D. W. and Johnson, F. P. (1994) Joining together: group theory
and group skills. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
• Mallier, T. and Bailey, M. (1997) How students search for vacation
employment. International journal of manpower, 18 (8), 702-714.
• Nielsen, J. (1993a) Hypertext and hypermedia. London: Academic Press.
• Nielsen, J. (1993b) Usability engineering. London: Academic Press
 About Vancouver (2)
Revised on a regular basis – most recent revision
2005
ICMJE still operates as a small working group
Most biomedical journals today use Vancouver
Vancouver -accredited journals are encouraged to
state the use of the technique in their Instructions to
Authors
 In-text citing
A number is allocated to a source in the order in
which it is cited in the text
If the source is referred to again, the same number is
used.
Example:...as one author has put it "the darkest days
were still ahead" [1]: which is well documented in
the literature. [2-5] This proves that "the darkest
days were still ahead". [1]
 References
References are listed in numerical order in the
Reference List at the end of the paper
• Example:
1. Smith SD, Jones, AD. Organ donation. N
Engl J Med. 2001;657:230-5.
2. Brown JG. Asphyxiation. Med J Aust. 2003;
432:120-4.
 Learning Activity
Assignment
• On your chosen topic, carry out a literature review of
about 300 words
• Submission date :
• Evaluation : Out of 20 Marks.

• Reading Assignment
Read More about Harvard and Vancouver Style of
Referencing
 Examples: Citing Sources
• Quoting: Despite pleasant depictions of home life in art, the fact remains
that for most Seventeenth-century Dutch women, the home represented a
curtailment of some degree of independence. Art historian Laurinda Dixon
writes that “for the majority of women, however, home was a prison,
though a prison made bearable by love and approval” (1995, p. 136 ).
• Paraphrasing: Despite pleasant depictions of home life in art, the fact
remains that for most Seventeenth-century Dutch women, the home
represented a curtailment of some degree of independence. Art historian
Laurinda Dixon argues that the home actually imprisoned most women.
She adds that this prison was made attractive by three things: the
prescriptions of doctors of the day against idleness, the praise given diligent
housewives, and the romantic ideal based on love and respect (1995, p.
136).
 Revising

How Can I
Fine-tune My Draft?
 Some Tips on Revising
• Title: Is my title consistent with the content of my paper?
• Introduction: Do I appropriately introduce my review?
• Thesis: Does my review have a clear claim?
• Body: Is the organization clear? Have I provided headings?
• Topic sentences: Have I clearly indicated the major idea(s) of
each paragraph?
• Transitions: Does my writing flow?
• Conclusion: Do I provide sufficient closure?
• Spelling and Grammar: Are there any major spelling or
grammatical mistakes?
 Writing a Literature Review:
In Summary
• As you read, try to see the “big picture”—your literature
review should provide an overview of the state of research.
• Include only those source materials that help you shape
your argument. Resist the temptation to include everything
you’ve read!
• Balance summary and analysis as you write.
• Keep in mind your purpose for writing:
– How will this review benefit readers?
– How does this review contribute to your study?
• Be meticulous about citations.
 Common Technical Matters
• Poor presentation,
• faulty syntax,
• typographical errors and
• inconsistencies of style all detract from the reader's
appreciation of any paper, however scientifically strong.
– Use a spell-checker!
– Avoid slang or colloquialisms.
– It's ~ It is; Its ~ possessive.
– Reread sentences (aloud, if necessary) for structure and sense.
– Where possible, use short, concise sentences. Use paragraphs
to separate ideas.
 6- Questions and/or Hypotheses
• Hypotheses and questions are linked to the speculative proposition of the
problem statement, can be inferred from the overall conceptual
framework of a study, and are of critical importance to data analysis and
interpretation.
• The hypothesis is subject to test, i.e., to confirmation or rejection on
empirical grounds.
• The term question implies an interrogative statement that can be
answered by data, which is logically related to the same conceptual
framework, but which does not necessarily stem from that framework
through logical deduction.
• Questions are most often used in qualitative inquiry, although their use in
quantitative inquiry is becoming more prominent.
• Hypotheses are relevant to theoretical research and are typically used only
in quantitative inquiry
 Issues to remember:

• A research hypothesis is usually stated in an

explanatory form, because it indicates the expected
reference of the difference between two variables.
• In other words it verifies the reference that the
researcher expects by means of incorporating selected
research procedures.
• The research hypothesis may be stated in a directional
or non-directional form.
• A directional hypothesis statement indicates the
expected direction of results, while a non directional
one indicates no difference or no relationship.
 7- Conceptual framework

• Every research activity is conceptualized and will be carried out

within some contextual framework. This contextual framework is in
part conceptual, in part valuational, and in part practical (or
operational), and all of these factors must typically be considered.
A conceptual framework is described as a set of broad ideas &
principles taken from relevant fields of enquiry and used to
structure a subsequent presentation.
• When clearly articulated, a conceptual framework has potential
usefulness as a tool to scaffold research and therefore, to assist a
researcher to make meaning of subsequent findings.
• Such a framework should be intended as a starting point for
reflection about the research and its context. The framework is a
research tool intended to assist a researcher to develop awareness
and understanding of the situation under scrutiny and to
communicate this.
 8- Objective/aim of the study
• An objective may be thought of as either a solution to a
problem or a step along the way toward achieving a
solution; an end state to be achieved in relation to the
problem. The objectives of a research project summarize
what is to be achieved by the study. Objectives should be
closely related to the statement of the problem.
• [SMART: Specific Measurable Achievable Realistic &
Time-bounded]
• Commonly, research objectives are classified into general
objectives and specific objectives. The general and specific
objectives are logically connected to each other and the
specific objectives are commonly considered as smaller
portions of the general objectives.
• It is important to ascertain that the general objective is
closely related to the statement of the problem.
 Contd…
General objective
– What exactly will be studied?
– General statements specifying the desired outcomes of the proposed project

Specific objectives
• Specific statements summarizing the proposed activities and including
description of the outcomes and their assessment in measurable
terms
• It identifies in greater detail the specific aims of the research project,
often breaking down what is to be accomplished into smaller logical
components
• Specific objectives should systematically address the various aspects of
the problem as defined under ‘Statement of the Problem’ and the key
factors that are assumed to influence or cause the problem.
• They should specify what you will do in your study, where and for what
purpose.
 Issues to remember:
• Keep in mind that when a proposal is evaluated, the
anticipated results will be compared to the objectives.
• If the objectives have not been spelled out clearly, the
proposal cannot be evaluated.

Take care that the objectives of your study:

– Cover the different aspects of the problem and its contributing
factors in a coherent way and in a logical sequence;
– Are clearly phrased in operational terms, specifying exactly
what you are going to do, where, and for what purpose;
– Are feasible;
– Are realistic considering local conditions;
– Are phrased to clearly meet the purpose of the study; and
– Use action verbs that are specific enough to be evaluated.
 9- Methods, material and procedures
• “Methods/procedures show how you will achieve the
objectives, answer the questions.”
• The methods or procedures section is really the heart of
the research proposal. You must decide exactly how you
are going to achieve your stated objectives: i.e., what new
data you need in order to shed light on the problem you
have selected and how you are going to collect and process
this data.
• The activities (in methods) should be described with as
much detail as possible, and the continuity between them
should be apparent.
• Indicate the methodological steps you will take to answer
every question, to test every hypothesis illustrated in the
Questions/Hypotheses section or address the objectives
you set.
 Contd…
What belongs in the "methods" section of a
research proposal?
– Information to allow the reader to assess the
believability of your approach.
– Information needed by another researcher to
replicate your experiment.
– Description of your materials, procedure, theory.
– Calculations, technique, procedure, equipment, and
calibration plots.
– Limitations, assumptions, and range of validity.
– Description of your analytical methods, including
reference to any specialized statistical software.
 Contd..
The proposal should describe in detail the general research plan. (may
not necessarily be true for all types of research)
– Description of study area
– Description of study design
– Description of study participants
– Eligibility criteria ( if any)
– Description of selection process (sampling method)
– Determination of sample size (if any)
– Methods of data collection
– Description of the expected outcome and explanatory variables… (if
any)
– How data quality is ensured
– Operational definition
– Presentation of the data analysis methods
 Issues to remember:
• Be aware of possible sources of error to which
your design exposes you.
• You will not produce a perfect, error free design
(no one can).
• However, you should anticipate possible sources
of error and attempt to overcome them or take
them into account in your analysis.
• Important components of the materials and
methods section are described in detail below.
 Study design

• The study type may dictate certain research designs. More

commonly, the study objectives can be achieved through a number
of alternative designs. Researchers have to select the most
appropriate and most feasible design. The type of research design
chosen depends on: the type of problem; the knowledge already
available about the problem; and the resources available for the
study.
• Generally, there are two main categories of research design:
observational study, and experimental or intervention study.
• In the observational study, the researchers stand apart from events
taking place in the study. They simply observe and record.
• In the experimental or intervention study, the researches introduce
an intervention and observe the events which take place in the
study.
 Contd…
Observational studies
• An observational study may be exploratory, descriptive or analytical.
• An exploratory study is a small-scale study of relatively short duration, is carried
out when little is known about a situation or a problem. If the problem and its
contributing factors are not well defined, it is always advisable to do an
exploratory study before embarking on a large-scale descriptive or analytic study.
• A descriptive study is an observational study that simply describes the distribution
of a characteristic. An analytical study (correlation in some disciplines) is an
observational study that describes associations and analyses them for possible
cause and effect.
• An observational study may be cross-sectional or longitudinal. In cross-sectional
study, measurements are made on a single occasion. In a longitudinal study,
measurements are made over a period of time. A longitudinal observational study
may be retrospective [applying to things that happened in the past as well as the
present] or prospective [likely or expected to happen].
• In a retrospective study, the researchers study present and past events. In a
longitudinal prospective study, the researchers follow subjects for future events
 Contd…
Experimental or intervention studies
• In the experimental or intervention study, the investigators test the
effect of an intervention on the events taking place in the study.
• An experimental or intervention study may be controlled or non-
controlled. A controlled experimental study may be randomized or
non-randomized. Randomized controlled trials are intervention
studies characterized by the prospective assignment of subjects,
through a random method, into an experimental group and a
control group.
• Controlled trails without randomization are intervention studies.
Here, allocation to either experimental or control groups is not
based on randomization, making assignment subject to possible
biases influence study results.
 Sampling

• “A sample is a representative of the population under study. “

• Sampling for quantitative studies
• Sampling is the process of selecting a number of study units from a
defined study population. Often research focuses on a large
population that, for practical reasons, it is only possible to include
some of its members in the investigation. You then have to draw a
sample from the total population. In such cases you must consider
the following questions:
• What is the study population you are interested in from which we
want to draw a sample?
• How many subjects do you need in your sample?
• How will these subjects be selected?
 Reading Assignment
Examples of probability sampling
These include:
• Simple random sampling
• Systematic sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Multistage sampling
 Sample Size

Sample size in quantitative studies

• Having decided how to select sample, you have to determine the
sample size. A research proposal should provide information &
justification about sample size. It is not necessarily true that the
bigger the sample, the better the study. Beyond a certain point, an
increase in sample size will not improve the study. In fact, it may do
the opposite if the quality of the measurement or data collection is
adversely affected by the large size of the study.
Sample size in qualitative studies
• There are no fixed rules for sample size in qualitative research. The
size of the sample depends on what you try to find out, and from
what different informants or perspectives you try to find that out.
• You can start with two or four Focus Group Discussions (FGDs)
depending on the complexity of the research objectives.
 Analysis Plan
• Specify the analysis procedures you will use, and label them
accurately. The analysis plan should be described in detail. If coding
procedures are to be used, describe reasonable detail. If you are
triangulating, carefully explain how you are going to do it. Each
research question will usually require its own analysis. Thus, the
research questions should be addressed one at a time followed by a
description of the type of statistical tests (if necessary) that will be
performed to answer that research question.
Be specific.
• State what variables will be included in the analyses and identify
the dependent and independent variables if such a relationship
exists. Decision making criteria (e.g., the critical alpha level) should
also be stated, as well as the computer software that will be used (if
there is a need to use one). These help you and the reader evaluate
the choices you made and procedures you followed.
 10- Work plan
• “A work plan informs the reader how long it will take to achieve the
objectives/answer the questions. ”
• Work plan is a schedule, chart or graph that summarizes the
different components of a research proposal and how they will be
implemented in a coherent way within a specific time-span.
• It may include the tasks to be performed; When and where the
tasks will be performed; Who will perform the tasks and the time
each person will spend on them;
• It describes the plan of assessing the ongoing progress toward
achieving the research objectives;
• The plan specifies how each project activity is to be measured in
terms of completion, the time line for its completion;
• A good work time plan enables both the investigators and the
advisors to monitor project progress and provide timely feedback
for research modification or adjustments
 The GANTT Chart

• A GANTT chart is a planning tool that depicts

graphically the order in which various tasks must
be completed and the duration of each activity.
The GANTT chart indicates: the tasks to be
performed; who is responsible for each task; and
the time each task is expected to take.
• The length of each task is shown by a bar that
extends over the number of days, weeks or
months the task is expected to take.
 11-Budget and funding
• “The Budget section will show how much it will cost to answer the
question. ”
• Most often than not, you will require to secure funds from a
funding organization to cover the cost of conducting a research
project. It is also important to remember the funding agency will
invariably also read through the whole proposal (not just the
budget requirement).
• Therefore, it is critical that the entire proposal document is well
thought out and written to effectively communicate the aim of the
research and how you plan to achieve it.
• The items to consider when drawing up a budget requirement are
outlined below. Budget items need to be explicitly stated. Cost for
every budget item should be quantitatively shown. There might be
a need for budget
• justification of certain costs whose requirement is not obvious.
Typically, a proposal budget reflects direct and indirect costs.
 Costs
Direct costs:
• Personnel: Salaries and wages of all participants of the study: Principal
investigator; supervisor; data collector; drivers; guards; data entry clerks,
data analysis, report writing, etc
• Consumable supplies: office supplies (stationeries), chemicals, and
educational materials
• Equipments: computers, properties which are expensive
• Travel: cost of project-related travel
• Communications: postage, telephone, telegram, fax, e-mail charges
associated with a project
• Publication: the cost incurred of preparing and publishing the results of
the research. It includes: technical reports, manuscripts, illustrations,
graphics, photography, slides, and overheads
• Other direct costs: costs of all items that do not fit into any of the above
direct costs
 Cont…
Indirect costs:
• Those costs incurred in support and management of the proposed
activities that can not be readily determined by direct measurement.
• Examples include: Overhead costs for institutions or associations; General
administrative cost; Operational and maintenance; Depreciation and use
allowance
Budget justification
• It is not sufficient to present a budget without explanation. The budget
justification follows the budget as an explanatory note justifying briefly, in
the context of the proposal, why the various items in the budget are
required.
• Make sure you give clear explanations concerning why items that may
seem questionable or that are particularly costly are needed and discuss
how complicated expenses have been calculated.
• If a strong budget justification is presented, it is less likely that essential
items will be cut during proposal review.
 Obtaining funding for research
projects
To conduct research, it is usually necessary to obtain funding for the research project. Such funding may
be available from local, national or international agencies.
In addition to preparing a good research proposal, the following strategies are useful for researchers to
increase the chances of securing adequate funds:
A. Familiarize yourself with the policies and priorities of funding agencies.
• Such policies and priorities may be: implicit, i.e. known to officials in the agency and to other local
researchers who have previously been funded by that agency. Obtain the names of such persons
and make direct contact with them.
• Or, explicit, i.e. available from policy documents issued by the agency. The funding policies of many
agencies may emphasize:
• * a priority given to research aimed at strengthening a particular program
• * institution building (i.e. building the capacity of an institution to do research)
• * targeted to a specific thematic area of research (for e.g. health, family planning, etc.)
B. Identify the procedures, deadlines and formats that are relevant to each agency.
C. Obtain written approval and support from relevant local and national authorities and submit together
with your proposal.
D. If you are a beginning researcher, associate yourself with an established researcher/advisor.
•
Host agencies scrutinize the ‘credibility’ of the researcher to whom funds are allocated.
• Such credibility is based on previous projects that were successfully completed.
E. Build up your own list of successfully completed projects (i.e. your own reports, publications, etc.)
 Issues to remember:

• When drawing up a budget, be realistic.

• Do not attempt to be too frugal to
demonstrate how cheaply you can run the
project.
• At the same time, do not be too expensive so
as not to deter the fund providers.
 12- References

• You must give references to all the information that you obtain from
books, papers in journals, and other sources.
• References may be made in the main text using index numbers in brackets
(Vancouver style) or authors name (Harvard style).
• You will also need to place a list of references, numbered as in the main
text (or alphabetically ordered), at the end of your research proposal.
• The exact format for depicting references within the body of the text and
as well as the end of the proposal varies from one discipline to another.
• It is best that you consult with someone who is familiar with the format in
your particular area of research.
• The information you give in the reference list must be enough for readers
to find the books and papers in a library or a database.
• It also demonstrates to those interested in your proposal how well versed
you are on the particular area of research.
 Contd…
As a general guideline, there are certain items that must be included from each source
reference. As mentioned above, the exact format applicable to your particular area of
study will be left for you to find out.
For a journal paper give:
• the names of the authors,
• the year of publication,
• the title of the paper,
• the title of the journal,
• the volume number of the journal,
• the first and last page numbers of the paper.
Examples:
• [13] Cognitive Networks, Ryan W. Thomas, Luiz A. DaSilva, Allen B. MacKenzie The
Bradley Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Virginia Tech,
Blacksburg, VA, 1-4244-0013-9/05/©2005 IEEE 352
• [4] Toward Power-Sensitive Network Architectures in Wireless Communications:
Concepts, Issues, and Design Aspects, Nicholas Bambos, IEEE Personal
Communications, June 1998
 Contd…
For a book give:
• the author,
• the year of publication,
• the title, and the edition number if there is one,
• the name of the publisher,
• the page numbers for your reference.
Example:
• [1] Frank H. P. Fitzek, Marcos D. Katz, Cooperation
in wireless networks: Principles and Applications,
Springer, Netherlands, 2006 ISBN 1-4020-4710-X
 Contd…
For an internet reference give:
• the author of the web page,
• the title of the item on the web page,
• the date the item was posted on the web page
• the date the item was accessed from the web page
• the complete and exact URL.
Particularly with references obtained from websites, it is
important to establish the reputability and reliability of the
website you are making reference to.
• Every reference in your main text must appear in the list at
the end of your proposal, and every reference in the list
must be mentioned in your main text
 13- Appendices/Annexes

• Include in the appendices of your proposal any additional

information you think might be helpful to a proposal reviewer. For
example, include: Questionnaire & other collection forms; Dummy
tables; Biographical data on the principal investigator; The consent
form (if any).
Exercise
• Would it be appropriate to draw your sample only from AAU
graduate students to study the incidence of seasonal flu in Addis
Ababa? Why?
• Can you obtain a complete and accurate list of residents in Addis
Ababa? If not, how would you proceed to gather your sample?
• In a study that investigates the rise of sea levels due to global
warming, is it meaningful to try and detect millimeter level
differences every week? How about if your measurement is done
every decade?
• Project One : Be in a group of Four
• Write a research Proposal in the field of study
and interest area.
• Follow all the necessary steps , Submit a hard
copy and defend your proposal.
• Thank you