4-37

Mixing Qlld Other Surface Equipment: The mixing system on nny cementing ooerution
proportions and blends the dry cementing composition with the carrier
ifuid. When this is achieved, tl cementing slurry with predictable properties can be
suoplied to the wellhead. The most widely used mixing. method is the jct-type
mixer (Pigure 4-20). A stream of water mixes with cement by passing through the
mixer tub, creating a vacuum which pulls the dry cement into the tub (per the
illustration) from the hopper immediately above. As the cement enters the
,. Jetstream o.f water, it is thoro•Jghly mixed by the turbulent flow that occurs in the
discharge pipe.
control of mixing speed is regulated by the volume of water forced through the jet
and by the amount of cement in the hopper while mixing, The mixed cement is
pumped from the mixing tub to the cement head and down the casing.
'fhe cementing unit is basically an assembly of spectal-purpose pumps. As the
casing ls sometimes reciprocated or rotated while cement is being pumped, the
pipeline from the cement placement line on the rig floor to the cementing head
must be flexible. This is achieved by use of steel pipe with swivel joints commonly
called "chlckson line" (Figure 4--15, p. 4-28)

Figure 4-20, Typical Cement Mixing and Pumping Operations

4,38 Job Coll9iderations: Cement systems cover a density range
from 10.8 to 22 pounds per gallon. Slurry density is directly related
to the amount of mixing water and additives in the cement and the
amount of slurry contamination from drillinu mud or other foreign
material. In field operations, slurry control is usually maintained
by measuring the density with a standard mud balance with
cement taken from the mixing tub.

The volume of cement required for a specific ffil-up on a casing

job is based 011 field experience and regulatory requirements. In the
absence of specific guides, a volume equal to 1.5 times that
calculated from the wireline caliper survey is
normal
ly
used.

To determine the height of the cement column in the annulus, a

temperature log is run 12 to 24 hours after placement of the cement.
Because cement generates heat when it hydrates, it is possible to
locate the top of the cement bythe anomaly in the temperature log,
as seen in Figure 4-21. This log can also be used to determine the
quality of the bond between the casing and the bore wall.· A poor
bond is shown as a variation in temperature which is out of line
with the normal temperature gradient. A more sophisticated
tool, the Cement _Bond Log, measures the attentuation of acousttc
signals and may determine cement bonding not only to the casing but
to the formation as welL It requires skilled interpretation, but
under favorable conditions even the compressive strength of
the cement may be determined•

Figure 4-21. Temperature Survey Showing Top of Cement.

 4,39 CORING

At various points in a well, and particularly at potential producing horizons,

it may ee necessary to obtain more detailed information concerning the
lithology than can be deduced from cuttings. Cores or 2 to 5 inches in
diameter may be recovered in normal cases and they are II reliable
source of data such as porosity and
�ermeability, both horizontal and vertical. Although the relative
saturations of
gas/oil/water in the rock are altered during coring, information of this
type may also be obtained.
rwo basic types of coring are L1Sed:

• Conventional {at the time of drilling)

• Sidewall (after drilling while wlreline logging)

4.40 ConventiOlllll Coring

Presently, there are four types of conventional coring tools:

• Diamond bit core barrel
• Wireline core barrel (with diamond or roller bit)
• Three-cone roller bit core barrel
• Pressure-sealed core barrel

4.41 Cutting the Core: The diamond tools are best for coring (both
ordinary and wireline) and are used almost exclusively because of the
expense of coring, their long downhole durability, and their reliable cutting
and recovery capability.

Figure 4-Z2 shows a diamond-bit core barrel where the core is retrieved by
pulling the barrel to the surface with the dril.lstriog. This figure also shows
a wireline core barrel where the core is retrieved y;hiJe leaving the bit and
dril!string in the hole, but this is no longer in common use in the oil industry.

Although every .mettiiid·.of coring stresses the necessity for a clean hole,
it is especially true in dlamondcoring opeeaticns because of the expense of
the bit. For this reason most operators run a "boot basket," which Is attached
just above the bit, and circulate for a substantial period or time. Pieces of
metal which would damage Ii diamond bi.t may.then be jetted offbottom and
hopefully collected in the basket.
·��{·
Once Uie'°toJr' is onbottom and before coring commences, circulation is
through the inne(t>irr�C� Just prior to coring, a metal ball dropped down the
drillstring engages a val_v� jn::�e tool and diverts the drilling fluid to the
outside of the inner barrel.
Tile. fiuid._is then discharged through water courses in the face of the bit.
'rhe
'<frd}oary barrel {retrievable with the drlllstring) is made up in 30-ft lengths,
so 30,
60:�r·SO feet can be cored at one time, with diameters up to 5 inches.
·f:::P
When wireline. coring, only 15-ft length.s are retr1eved at a time by use
of an overshot, but when a new barrel is replaced, coring can continue.
This method is often used on deep-sea projects where hole reentry is
difficult. Using this method, however, cores of only 1-1/8 to 1-3/4-inch
diameter are possible. In unconsotldated formations, a rubber sleeved inner
barrel may be used to prevent collapse of the core during drilling and
retrieval.
Figure 4-22. Diamond Bit Core Barrels,
 4-39

Wi:H,1 the core is being cut, the logging gectogtst is primarily concerned with the
dr:ll rate (recorded ever t-It in�ervalsi and gas recorded, but perhaps more
impi)rtaut, he must continue to collect cuttings samples at the shakers because of
t;,(, possibility of incomplete or negligible core recovery,
1 tie drilling rate during coring varies with the type of bit, the pump pressure,
weig:1t, rotary rpm, and formation drilled. Tile gas curves recorded by the mud-
iogging instruments are severely damped since there are fewer cuttings and drilling
is stow.

4.42 Receiving the Core: When the core barrel arrives at the surface it is often
the logging geologist's responsibility to supervise the collection et. the core from
the barrel. The barrel is usually hung in the derrick whi1e special tongs, designed
to grip the core, permit recovery of the core in sections. Core boxes are arranged
on the d�illfloor in the order in which they are to be filled.

To speed up the manipulation of the core and ensure its correct orientation, the
boxes should be prernarkcc. The system for marking the boxes varies from
company to company and operation to operation, but they are generally marked on
the end with the core number and box number written underneath, starting with
number l. On the side of the box an arrow Is used to show the orientation (top to
bottom) of the core in the box, and sometimes a "T'' for top and a "B" for bottom on
the other end. As the pieces of core arc removed from the barrel they should be
placed Immediately into the boxes. (While collecting the· core, never place your
hands directly under the barrel, es a sudden dr<>p of the core may cause injury.)
Box 1 will contain the lower three feet of the core, as illustrated in Figure 4-23.

Figure 4-23. Suggested Method of Boxing Cores

4-40

When a.II the core has been removed from the barrel, the length recovered should bo
measured accurately, If the recovery docs not equal the cored interval, it must be
assumed that the missing portion was lost at the bottom unless there are
circumstances indicating otherwise. At this same time, any adjustments necessarv
to fill the boxes can be mace so that any partialty filled box will be at the top 0°f
the core.

4..43 Sampling the Core for Special Purposes: Immediately upon removal from
the core barrel, the core is wiped (not washed) free of drilling mud; the wellsitc
geologist then conducts an initial examination to decide whether core analysis is
warranted. If the core appears to be of a potential reservoir rook, analysis will
almost certainly be necessary, If the equipment for this is ayailable onsite,
the logging geologist may be required to perform this servtce. There isa manual
that accompanies all core analysis equipment, and you should. 'consuit 'thts manual
for
further details. However, for a brief outline of core,�alysis.,procedures, review
the flowchart in Appendix B. . '•c-. '·
. '
Even with cote analysis equipment onsite, the client. m·a.y,;wish to have the analysis
performed in a laboratory where more detailed and pre9ise determinations can be
made, Generally, analysis includes .fluid saturation, por,.osity nnd permeability. But
no ma.tter where the analysts is perform.ed, samples for measurement of fluid
saturation must be taken before the core is washed.
�-t;;fl:I"· -�··: s.
Normally, one sample P.e.r foot is s<i!_�cteo, ;chosen on .either side of changes in
lithology· (if detectable under the mµd!�co.ating). lf the analysis is not performed
onsite, the samples are either pla�ed iri.ingiyidual·plastic bags and "earmed" or they
are wrapped in foil and dipped in wa.,x for·.sllipment.
:· 1,, ;

When the saturation samples have be!jn taken or when samples of the core arc to be
taken only for porosity anq_pe�.IJleability measurements, the core may be washed
clean of mud. As a rule,' samples for porosity and permeability measurements
should be taken at t):\e top and bottom of several porous beds and at 1-ft intervals
between. When 00��-irial:{sis equipment IS available onsite, the entire core may be
sampled by "plugging" ·which involves using a diamond-edge drill press; hut when
analysis of tbesemeasurements are to be performed elsewhere, the core is usually
left intact. . ,.. ·· ". :\.,: ;. .

4,44 Ex'inf�·:ui;· Core: After the· core has be'en washed or wiped clean, a
geological lfefscription can be performed. This is mainly. the responsibility of the
wells,iteJ:e.9logist, but the logging geologist is advised to make a description also to
be includeil,·on the mud log and/or attached to the bottom on a supplemental log
(iliustrate�fin Appendix A). .
·:: ��:�:��{;, .•. �.. · :
G'r'cii;s);haracteristics such us dip, fractures, bedd.iI1g irregularities, mottling, etc.,
should be noted first, along with the thickness of each bed measured to the nearest
inch. A more detailed description is made from examination under the microscope
for lithological alterations and under ultraviolet light (Section 5) for evidence of oil
fluorescence, The description of cores of potential reservoir rocks should of course
be more detailed than those of cores with no prospects.
 4-41

4f.�45 Packing and Shipping: Cores are cornrnonly vr:t•y hcav�: and must he· core-
ullY ,,prepared for shipment so tnat t'�c-y cannot break 01• fotl out of their boxes,
s.o:rir.' forrn of pnoking inside tl"'.e box, ��j.0.'."1 as rags or p2�er, witl prevent the core
frtllll moving around durtng shipment 2.r�0. help prP.vent bre�k;.1.(rc. Once the core is
,c.�Jed inside, each box must be cle�l':y ,::urkcd witr. the followin� inforrnuuon,
roughly in the order given here (also see l'igut•e 4-
23):

• \\.'ell na:r.e
•· Core number (in the sequence. of cores taken in tl.e well)
• Box number
• Total number of boxes containing the whole core

A copy o: the fie!(I .description of tne core· should accompany the shipment.
The outside of boxes should never display ceptn, unless specified hy the client,
as tris information is proprietary ann secret.

4.46 Sidcw·all Coring

Sidewall coring is a supplementary coring method used in zones where core

recovery by conventional methods was small or where cores were not obtained
as drilling 'progressed. Sidewall coring is useful in paleontotogicat work, for
it is possible to get shale samples for rnicropaleo analysis at definite ccpths.

The sidewall coring device, a OST (chronological sample taker) tool, is lowered
into the hole on a "w.ireline cable" and a ·sam!)le of the formation is taken at the
desired depth. This is cone by shooting a hollow "bullet" into and pulling it out
of the wall or the hole. Usually there are as many as· thirty bullets per gun.
Since two guns
can be used, up to sixty cores can. be obtained during one. run, If an electric log
has been obteineo previously, a spontaneous potential (SP) or gamma-ray (GH)
curve run in conjuneuon with the samples can position the samples by direct
log corrclatlon. (See Section 5 on Wi1:clinc Logs.)

Sidewnll cores taken _with CSTs are small (l x 2-1/2 Inches), -and in s,ome cases
the recovered material consists largely of mud cake. Sidewall coring .is
usually unsuccessful in very hard rocks. Nevertheless, cores of this tyoe provide
a means of examining the rock in porlions of the section on which information
mav be
.extrernely scanty. ·,Sicfowall cores ere sometimes taken witn the intention of
evaluating. the· porosity, perrneabillty anc saturriucn characteristics .of the rock.
Howevery· because compaction occurs as fr,c bullet enters, the results are
inevitably less reliable than those from a conventional core.
In som� cases 'the IOJgin(:' geologist may be rP.(JIH"Sted to perform gas. analysis.
on sidewall cores. The CST gas analysis procedure is·icentie!al to that performed
on eas samples from DSTs and wireline formauon test tools except for the method
of
r,�!fel!tlng
.,..
the
sample.
\' .

The .esc11pc of gases when CST.s ,ire transported to the surface and when removed
from tne core oharnbers influences the glls reR<iings somewhat, but with proper
allowances, CST gas analysis can provide useful mforrnation, The' test is
conducted aftel' the. cores have been re.moved from the' core chambers and placed
into srne ll glass containers. The procedure is as follows:
·4 21. For each sample, make. a hole large enough for free movement of a syringe needle
through the lid of the glass container, and seal the hole immediately with tape.

2. With a syringe, take 10 cc of the gas sample from .the contatner-ane seat
the hole again.

3. Follow the Formation Test Gas Analysis procedure in Appendix E as of

Step 2.

4.47 VERTICAL CONTROL AND DIRECTIONAL DRILLING

Controlled directional drilling Is the science of oirectlng a wellbore along a predetermined

course to a target located a given distance from the vertical. Regardless of whether
it is used to to hold a wellbore as close as possible to the vertical, or to deliberately
deviate from the vertical, the principles of application are basically the same.
..,

4.48 Vertical Control

No hole is drilled exactly vertically from top to bottom. It is desirable on most wells,
however, to drill as near to verttcalas possible to ensure that vertical depth is close to
measured depth and restrict .the 'hole problems that can occur with deviated holes.
·

It is generally aeeepted that a-�traigl\t.or vertical hcleIs one that

.... . ·.'· '

• Stays wJthin tho bo�ndary of a "cone," as specified by the client (usually

about 3 ) · .
·'-'<:-, •• •

• In order for the �d Does not .change direction rapidly (no more than 3 degrees
per 100 ft of

riller;:.to be sure he is maintaining a vertical hole within the llmits

set out in the drilli!Jt. contract, periodic measurements must be taken by the
drilling crew: )f af1y deviation has occurred, it must be. recorded and eornpared with
the arriourii::6f deviation permissible in that part of the hole. In straight-hole drilling, tile
measuring device is used only to determine inclination or drift, as compass· nee.dings
of hole direction are not necessary. Deviation surveys are
usually includ� in the Remarks Column of Exlog's Mud Log.
·.-:.�,:.;?, . .:'..!:';{!,{,,
t'_ ��·-: ·,-

·4.49 ·. Measuring Inclination: The drift survey instrument (Figure 4-24) can be (1)
run Anto and pulled out of the drillptpe on a "sand line," (2) dropped into the pipe and
·r�trieved with an overshot assembly, or (3) dropped into the pipe and recovered
by removing the drillstring (tripping) from the hole. The record of the inclination angle
is made when a paper disc is punched by a pendulum-balanced stylus inside the instrument.
Concentric circles printed on the discs are marked to show theangle of inclination from
the vertical. In this example the hole inclination is 4°.