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Paralinguistics

1.1 Aspects of Spoken Language that Do Not Involve Words

It’s not only the words that we use in that are important. Read on!

Body language

Body language (non-verbal communication) can play a large part in how successful
your classrooms are. Inside the classroom, your body language will often dictate
your presence and your students will respond accordingly.

Why pay attention to your body language? Because it’s what your students respond
to. Body language will almost always be taken at face value. Non-verbal messages
are very powerful in language classes, especially, where stu​dents may not have all
the skills they need to decipher verbal language; in this situation, their attention is
drawn to non-verbal communication.

Here are some very important practical tips:

Stand near the door when classes arrive: When you stand by the door while
students walk in, they almost always do so more calmly. This is your ‘territory’ and
you’re inviting them in. The calmer you can get your students before a class starts,
the more productive the next hour or so is going to be.

Project your voice: You can’t talk sheepishly in a classroom. That’s the easiest way
to make students put their attention elsewhere. Address your class with a clear and
upbeat voice — that’s how you command your students’ undivided attention. Tone
and pitch are important.

Avoid standing behind the table too long: When you stand behind the teacher’s
table, you establish a physical barrier between yourself and the students.

Use the whole classroom: Walking around the classroom establishes your
ownership of the space, establishing your authority inside it. Doing this keeps
students on their toes.

Stand next to misbehaving students: There’s no need to shout. Just stand next to
their seat — that communicates that you’re keeping an eye on them and they’ll
usually stop whatever they’re doing.

Use facial expressions: Be expressive with your face. Wear an open, excited look
and they’ll take your cue. Smile and they instinctively know that a light-hearted
discussion is afoot. And you can always shoot a darting glance at any misbehaving
student. Work on your gaze – practise it to make sure it’s effective but not
threatening. The more expressive your face is, the more students will pay attention
to cues provided by your facial expressions.
Stoop to their level: When you want to address specific students one by one,
whether you’re chastising a student for misbehaviour or helping him out with a
language item, it helps to physically get down on his level, rather than merely
standing in front of him. Physically adjusting to meet him at eye level makes the
interaction feel more genuine and level-headed. Remember! Follow the conventional
rules of proxemics (distance) and kinesthetics (touching) that apply for the culture(s)
of your students.

Stand tall: Maintain an erect posture when you’re speaking in front. A sagging
posture communicates a lack of confidence, making your students doubt your
credibility in more ways than one. It also encourages misbehavers to start
disruptions in the classroom, since they feel your authority is open to be challenged.

Move slower: Make your movements deliberate, whether you’re walking across the
room, writing on the whiteboard or demonstrating a pose. Be particularly conscious
of slowing down your hand movements. Fast movements, especially ones that
appear nervously rapid, are unsettling for students. Remember, they look towards
you for how they will feel — if you act like you’re nervous, the more likely they are to
respond in a similar manner.

Talk slower: Slowing down your speech demonstrates confidence and helps calm
down your students. Speaking rapidly makes it appear you’re rushing through what
you’re saying because you’re unsure of what you’re talking about.

Keep your hands in plain view: Putting your hands in your pockets signals that
you’re either nervous or hiding something. It doesn’t inspire confidence in your
students, seeing you as closed off and defensive. If you don’t like using your hands
when speaking, either keep them to the side or cup them along the line of your
stomach — both are perfectly acceptable postures when addressing a group of
students.

Don’t be afraid of silence: Silent moments happen — don’t be afraid of it. Pauses
slow down the pace of the lessons, giving students room to absorb
previously-discussed ideas.

Eye contact: Make frequent eye contact with ​all students in the class. Do not bury
yourself in your notes and plans.

Dress: Dress appropriately, considering the expectations of your stu​dents and the
culture in which you are teaching.

1. 2 Gestures and Mime

When teaching a class, on many occasions you can use simple phrases to direct the
learners: ​That’s right. That’s not right. Who’s next?
But you can also convey many instructions, requests, invitations and corrections by
using various types of gestures and mime.

Gestures and mime spark interest and encourage participation. So, in addition to
your voice, you could use your hands, your eyes or, more frequently, a combination
of both.

Such gestures and mime can be simple and effective and will encourage the
students to speak, thereby reducing TTT, and they will also save time.

Obviously the set of gestures and mime that you develop will have to be
recognisable to the learners to avoid confusion, so they will need to learn them.

Gestures and mime can be used very effectively in teaching certain words, for
example, the difference between shy and confident would be quite difficult to explain
in simple language to a beginner class but could be demonstrated very simply in a
few seconds with mime.

Students generally enjoy seeing their teacher acting out a word or miming an
expression and it can add a sense of enjoyment to a class. If they laugh at your
mime or gesture, all the better, because it will be more memorable!

Using gestures and mime is important when it comes to vocabulary. You can use
them to elicit certain words and phrases. If you teach very young students, it is also
common to associate gestures with words to help students remember vocabulary
better. Using the same gesture every time you say a particular word or phrase will
help these students associate the two.

Example - Gesture/mime example

If you have just finished a section on feelings, make a list of feelings on the board
and have students choose a slip of paper from a hat.

Each slip of paper should contain a sentence such as ​You are happy ​or ​sad ​or
confused etc.​ Students should keep their sentences a secret.

Have one volunteer at a time mime his/her sentence while the rest of the class tries
to guess it.

To check individual comprehension, you can use the same basic idea but instead
turn it into an interview activity where students have a sheet of paper with all the
emotions listed as well as their secret emotion.

The idea is that students go around the classroom miming and guessing emotions in
pairs and getting a student signature for each emotion.
When you go through the worksheet as a class you can have students read aloud
​ nd ask Jane to mime being sad
from their worksheets sentences like ​Jane is sad a
for the class.

Some gestures you could use to encourage speaking and participation

● Encouraging a response from the student group: with a smiling, open-eyed

look, draw your hands to yourself as you would when asking a group to
come closer to you
● Instructions: Gestures for giving instructions might include, for example, a
finger moved from left to right to show that something is wrong with the
sentence, and that the student should try to correct it. This might be
accompanied by a slight screwing up of the eyes.
● Listen: The gesture for listen might involve cupping a hand around one ear
with a raising of the eyebrows to denote question.
● Quieten down: Quietening the class down could be achieved by moving
both hands up and down with the palms facing downwards, again with the
eyebrows raised.
● Correction: Gestures can be equally useful when giving immediate
corrections to learners’ speaking errors. A letter T made with both hands
can indicate the wrong tense has been used or that the article ​the is
missing. An inverted V made with the index and middle fingers of one
hand with the index of the other used as a bar across it to form an A could
mean wrong subject-verb agreement (e.g. he live here). One very
common set of gestures is used by teachers to show the required tense –
pointing forwards with one finger means a future tense, pointing down to
one’s feet means present tense, while indicating over one shoulder with
the thumb means past tense.

All of these different gestures can initially be taught by giving the instruction orally
along with the gesture – learners will soon get the point.

Of course, you can add to these and develop your own catalogue of gestures.

Be careful with some gestures

Very few gestures are universally understood and interpreted. What is perfectly
acceptable in the UK may be rude, frowned upon, or misleading in other cultures.
Here are some useful examples:

Beckoning with your index finger. This means ​come here in the UK but not in the
Middle or Far East, Portugal, Spain, Latin America, Japan, Indonesia and Hong
Kong. It is more acceptable to beckon with the palm down, with fingers or whole
hand waving.

Pointing at something in the room using your index finger. It is impolite to point with
the index finger in the Middle and Far East. Using an open hand or your thumb is
more acceptable.

Making a V sign. This means ​Victory in most of Europe when you make this sign with
your palm facing away from you. If you face your palm in, the same gesture means
get​ lost​ or worse.

Forming a circle with fingers to indicate OK. Although this gesture may mean OK in
the U.S.A. and other countries around the world, there are some notable exceptions:
In Brazil and Germany, this gesture is obscene. In Japan, this means money. In
France, it has the additional meaning of zero or worthless.

Patting a student on the head. This is very upsetting for Asian students. The head is
the repository of the soul in the Buddhist religion. Children from cultures which are
influenced by Buddhism will feel uncomfortable if their head is touched.

Passing an item to someone with one hand. In some Far East countries this is very
rude. Even a very small item such as a pencil or business card must be passed with
two hands. In many Middle and Far Eastern countries it is rude to pass something
with your left hand which is considered unclean.

Nodding your head up and down to say ​Yes​. In Bulgaria and Greece, nodding your
head up and down means ‘No’.

1.3 Tone and Pitch

Tone is shown or heard in how something is being said. It is more like an attitude
rather than being a voice pattern. It is somebody’s general sound; this could be
happy, upset, excited, angry or ecstatic etc. Emotion has a great deal of influence
over one’s tone. Also, by using different tones, the words in a sentence may have
other meanings aside from the real original meaning of those words.

Take care with your tone. We’ve already mentioned that the ‘whole person comes to
school’. You may have had some personal issue before coming to class. Try not to
let that emotional event affect the happy tone that your learners are accustomed to.
It would be unfair to them.

Pitch is the degree of highness or lowness with which one speaks. For example,
some people naturally have a high-pitched voice.

Emotional factors can also affect the pitch of someone's voice. For example, people
may speak in a lower pitch when they are tired. Surprise may make them speak in a
higher pitch than usual. There may be little one can do with a continuous
high-pitched voice which may (or may not) become a slight distraction for learners, at
least until they are used to it. However, changes in pitch due to tiredness may be
resolved, if they are the result of tiredness - if the tiredness can be alleviated in some
way.

Teachers should reflect on their pitch and consider how they can adapt (if
necessary) to a more balanced pitch.

Section 3. Grouping Learners

3. Grouping Learners

3.1 Various Learner Interaction Patterns

This section explores the different ways in which learners can be grouped in the
classroom. In today’s classrooms, many are largely based on the student-centred
approach of Communicative Language Teaching. The classroom as a ‘community’
becomes a central concept.

This community is most effectively created by effective grouping of learners in pairs

and larger groups.

This is very important for the smooth-running and management of your classroom.
There’s no best arrangement but some are much better than others.

When selecting a learning exercise or activity, you must take into consideration the
learning dynamic and determine how to group learners. You will need to consider:

● the learners' proficiency level, particularly if the class is a mixed-level class

● learning styles
● learner needs
● student personalities and relationships with others in the class

And you will need to be aware of which learners will work together best in order to
learn more effectively.

The great majority of the learning exercises and activities in CLT classrooms are
designed to be done in pairs or groups.

A whole class pattern would be one in which all of the students take part in an
activity collectively. Examples of such activities include chain stories, or a class
game, such as vocabulary tic-tac-toe.

Other patterns include individual or ‘solo’ work, which can include taking tests or the
reviewing of personal performance. Of course, the individual work could be carried
out in any seating arrangement. Putting students to work on their own can allow
learners to work at their own speed and give them time to think and work on their
own individual needs and progress.

3.2 Strategies to Ensure that Pair and Group Learning Is Effective

The following are some guidelines to consider when organising pair and group work
to ensure that groups are learning and using language effectively:

Context:​ Give the students a clear context for the activity to increase motivation.

Explain: The instructions that are given at the beginning are crucial. If the students
do not understand exactly what they have to do, there will be time-wasting,
confusion, lack of effective practice, and possible loss of control.

Model: After explaining, demonstrate clearly what students are to do. Use a
volunteer student to participate, if possible.

Set limits: Before giving the sign to start, tell the class what the arrangements are
for stopping. If there is a time limit, or a set signal for stopping, say what it is. If the
groups simply stop when they have finished, tell them what they will have to do next.
It is wise to have a reserve task planned to occupy members of groups who finish
earlier than expected.

Monitor: Your most important job once you get the exercise or activity going is to go
from group to group (or pair) and actively monitor, which entails either contributing to
give help or keeping a distance (though still listening in) – whichever is apt at that
time.

Ending: Having a set a time limit will help you draw the activity to a close at a certain
point. In principle, try to finish the activity while the students are still enjoying it and
interested, or are at the point where their energy and interest levels are just
beginning to wane.

Feedback: A feedback session usually takes place in the context of full-class

interaction after the end of the group work. Feedback on the task may take many
forms: giving the right solution, if there is one; listening to and evaluating
suggestions; pooling ideas on the board; displaying materials the groups have
produced; and so on. Your main objective here is to express appreciation for the
effort that has been invested so that students feel there was a purpose to their work.

Section 4. Using the Board

4. Using the Board

Let’s have a look at the most common teaching aid in classrooms – the
whiteboard/blackboard.
4.1 Effective Board Work

When you step into the classroom, you will quickly realise that the board is perhaps
the most useful of all teaching aids. It is always available and can be used for
various purposes without any kind of special preparation.

Remember that in many schools and colleges in developing countries, there may
only be a blackboard.

Whether it's a blackboard or a whiteboard, or an interactive whiteboard, learn to write

on it clearly.

This is particularly important if the students are young, and also where the students'
first language has a different script, such as Arabic or Chinese. Your writing should
be large enough to read from the back of the class.

Arrange your board carefully. Some teachers divide their board into two with a line
down the centre. On one side they write important words or phrases that they want
the students to see throughout the lesson. On the other side, they write individual
words as they arise in the lesson and which they might rub out. Or, you might list key
vocabulary items on the left and lexical items that might present issues for students
on the right.

Lots of beginner/elementary teachers don’t use joined writing, or if they do in the last
years of primary school, it will be very clearly and neatly written.

Stand in a way that does not hide the board. You should stand sideways, half facing
the board and half facing the class, with arm extended. In this way, students can see
what you are writing, and you can see the students. This will make you aware of
what they are doing while you are writing.

Remember! Writing always takes longer than you think it will. If you are busy writing
for a long time, your students are more than likely sitting there with nothing to do.

Talk as you write. Teachers should say aloud what they are writing, phrase by
phrase. To involve the class even more, you could ask students what to write. For
example, you could prompt your students by asking: ​What’s the next word?; How do
I spell that? In all cases, you’ll want to keep students involved so they don’t grow
bored or restless or start working on something else.

Do not write up too much information. Consider whether some items could be
presented orally, or written on the board and then erased soon afterwards.

Use colours to emphasise, for example, the differences in a structure, such as the
difference between the simple past and past perfect.

Draw arrows or write numbers to show a change in word order or form.

A good way of showing different forms of a structure together is to draw a table (e.g.
a substitution table). To keep the attention of the class, you could have students
suggest what to write in each column (e.g.by writing ​I’m… and then getting students
to give the other forms). If the table is too long or too complex to write quickly, it
would be better to write it on the board before the lesson and cover it with cloth or
paper until it is needed.

Simple drawings can help to increase the interest of a lesson and are often a good
way of showing meaning and conveying situations to the class. A lot of information
can be conveyed by means of very simple line drawings and stick figures, which are
easy to draw.

The board is one of the teacher’s most important classroom tools. Teachers can use
the board to present new words, show spelling, write prompts for practice, and
organise different sets of information covered in the lesson. The board can also
serve as a written record of what was taught in class. The board is almost always
available, there are no technical issues that can plague other teaching aids, and it
can be used for various purposes without special preparation.

Most importantly, effective use of the board can make both the presentation and
practice of learning items more engaging and clear to learners.

Section 5. Eliciting, Concept Checking and Giving

Instructions

5. Eliciting, Concept Checking and Giving Instructions

5.1 Teacher Talking Time (TTT)

We’ve mentioned before that under the communicative student-centred approach it’s
important that the teacher doesn’t take over the show. Teacher Talking Time (TTT)
should be reduced as much as possible. The reduction of TTT is accomplished
through the execution of student-centred activities.

Conversely, Student Talking Time (STT) should be maximised in the student-centred

classroom.

Of course, the teacher needs to talk when greeting the class, when presenting new
items for learning in the Presentation stage of the PPP format, when managing and
facilitating classroom activities and when there is no alternative but to talk to help
students in difficulty.

There are, though, three other important times when teacher talking time is important
and necessary:
 ● when eliciting information from students
● when giving instructions as to what students are required to do in a
learning activity
● when concept checking to ensure that students have understood the
learning material

Let’s have a look at these important events.

5.2 How to Elicit Effectively

Eliciting is a term which describes a range of techniques which enable the teacher to
get learners to provide information rather than giving the information to them.

Commonly, eliciting is used to ask learners to come up with vocabulary and

language forms and rules, and to brainstorm a topic at the start of a skills lesson.

You can almost guarantee that even in a class of so-called beginners there will be at
least one student, probably more, with a smattering of English and possibly a little
knowledge of the grammar drawn from previous study, their parents, travel, watching
films etc.

Collectively, students have a great deal of knowledge, both of the language and of
the real world. This knowledge needs to be activated and used constructively.

Eliciting helps to develop a learner-centred classroom and a stimulating

environment, while making learning memorable by linking new and old information.

So, instead of slowly explaining the meaning and use of the language item, you may
be able to elicit this information from the learners themselves.

The technique of elicitation involves drawing out of the learners those pieces of
concealed knowledge.

Elicitation can cover not only grammar items, but ideas, opinions, feelings, situations,
contexts and words/phrases, among other things.

How to do it

Set up a situation, topic or idea by using pictures, board drawings, mime or a very
short explanation.

Encourage the learners to provide the sought-after vocabulary, tense, opinions,

information or whatever, showing rejection or acceptance through gestures, facial
expressions or mime.
The teacher writes up the elicited information on to the board as necessary and this
can then be used in the next stage of the lesson e.g. pronunciation work, concept
questions, or selecting an idea/topic for a debate.

Example-eliciting vocabulary

You are teaching overseas. You have already’ introduced’ your UK friend to your
class via photographs and little stories. For the past two weeks your friend has been
visiting you. You were very happy to see her. Today she is leaving and you will be
sad.

This lesson could start with you showing photos of your friend to your class. They will
remember her. You tell them:

She has visited me for 2 weeks. (Demonstrate this via a timeline or calendar). During
this time (gesturing the timeline) I was. ..(Mime ​happy-​ smiling, clasping hands to
chest etc.)

T: ​How was I? (They know this structure) (Gesture for an answer, while pointing to
your ‘happy’ face)

An: ​Happy.

T: ​Very good, An. I was happy (write word on left of board and repeat it).​Today
(show timeline) ​she has gone away. (Gesture an aeroplane; show the UK on the
world wall-map). ​How am I? (Gesture to the group for an answer, while pointing to
your ‘sad’ face)

Bang: ​Unhappy.

T: ​Very good, Bang (write word on right of board and repeat it) (checking if this is a
new word for some in the group, ensuring pronunciation, a little bit of drilling)
(gesture to the group for any other word)

Enlai: ​Sad

T: ​Very good, Enlai (write word on right of board and repeat it) (checking if this is a
new word for some in the group, ensuring pronunciation, a little bit of drilling)

T: (to group) ​When were you happy?​ (Gesturing to your ‘happy’ face)

Fang: ​When I winned races.

T: ​Excellent, Fang. When you won races. (Ignoring the error). ​Well done! (Gesture
for other examples)

Ho: ​Chinese New Year.

T: ​Excellent, Ho. It’s a very nice time.

And so on. Elicitation could continue on to a discussion about further happy and sad
moments-noting new vocabulary for the whole group, leading to a lesson on
synonyms or antonyms, other feelings (lively/tired), a short written paragraph of why
they were happy, a discussion in pairs about when they were happy and sad (maybe
based on the structure ​I was happy when…But I was sad when…

This is learner-centred elicitation. This is, clearly, much more beneficial than just
telling them the words.

Example-eliciting what’s coming next

When you are teaching words and phrases to the class prior to a reading or listening
exercise, you can elicit from the learners what they feel the subject of the reading
passage or conversation is likely to be. This sets up a sense of expectation in the
learners giving them a stronger motivation for reading or listening.

Eliciting via brainstorming

One common technique used in the classroom is brainstorming. The teacher writes
up the name of a topic or situation on the board and elicits suggestions associated
with it.

Advantages of elicitation

● It keeps the students alert.

● The learners are actively involved in the lesson immediately and this has a
motivating effect.
● It gives the teacher a chance to diagnose where the weaknesses of the
learners lie and then to take corrective action immediately.
● It does away with the need for often unwieldy teacher explanations. This
enables the teacher to relax and enjoy the lesson more.
● The amount of teacher talk time (TTT) is reduced to a basic minimum,
while offering more opportunities for the learners to speak.
● It helps you find out what they already know.
● It helps reduce some students’ fear of guessing – the more you do this,
the more the barriers will be eliminated.
● The lesson is likely to be more memorable.
● It increases the confidence of the students, via participation and more
speaking.

Remember the following!

● Don’t overdo elicitation in a lesson-ensure there is ample time left for

practising in pairs etc.
 ● If they don’t know a word or idea, you’ll need to tell them – don’t go on and
on trying to get something which is not there.
● It should be used regularly, not only at the beginning of a lesson but
whenever it is necessary and appropriate.
● Provide sufficient context or information. Eliciting is designed to find out
what the learners know rather than to lead them to a conclusion which
only the teacher knows.
● Learners can elicit from each other, particularly during brainstorming
activities. This helps to build confidence and group cohesion as well as
shifting the focus away from the teacher.
● At lower levels, more guided questioning is needed. Open-ended
questions should be avoided as the learners are unlikely to have the
language to answer them to their own satisfaction.

Here are a few situations where you can imagine using elicitation instead of just
telling them:

Full/half-full/empty​ (ensure you have a jug of water and 3 glasses)

Different situations where we use the word ​sorry

Different degrees of surprise, e.g. ​a little bit surprised – surprises –

flabbergasted/astounded

Good/better/best (this could be done simply with three drawings on the board) or 3
pencils.

5.3 Giving Instructions

You need to give crystal-clear instructions. Giving clear instructions will have a
crucial impact on the success of your lesson. Lots of teachers have still not grasped
this, but you will if you follow our guidance below.

Here is a wholly practical route to follow when giving instructions:

1. Plan your instructions in advance: Think about the words you will use, the
illustrations you will provide, and so on, to ensure that your instructions facilitate an
effective exercise or activity. Written instructions can even be included in your lesson
plan.

2. Get their attention: If your students miss even small amounts of what you are
explaining, they may find themselves having problems later. For a pair or group work
task, give the instructions before you divide the class into pairs or groups. Don’t give
out materials until you have finished your instructions. Once students are in pairs or
groups, the learners' attention will be naturally directed at each other rather than at
you. If students are looking down at their activity or task material, they will look at the
materials and will not listen actively and fully to you.

3. Present the information more than once: ​A student’s attention can wander
occasionally, so it is important to give the student more than one chance to
understand what they have to do. A good tip is to present the information in different
modes; for example, say it and also write it on the board.

4. Keep your instructions brief: Most of us have limited attention spans. Make your
explanation as brief and clear as you can. Thus the need for planning and thinking
them through in advance.

5. Give examples: Very often a careful theoretical explanation only comes together
for an audience when made real through an example, or preferably several. You may
explain, for instance, the meaning of a word, illustrating your explanation with
examples of its use in various contexts, relating these as far as possible to the
learners' own lives and experiences.

6. Model the activity: Modelling is a mock run through of the activity, usually with a
volunteer student, before inviting learners to tackle the task on their own.

7. Get feedback: When you have finished explaining, check with your class that they
have understood. Don’t ask: ​Do you understand? After all, learners will sometimes
say they do even if they in fact did not, out of politeness or unwillingness to lose
face, or because they think they know what they have to do, when in reality they
have completely misunderstood. Get them to paraphrase in their own words, or to
provide further examples of their own.

8. Teacher language: When giving instructions, teachers should avoid using

advanced vocabulary, idioms or phrasal verbs, complex verb tenses such as the
future perfect, and long sentences. The clearer and more concise your instructions,
the more effective they will be.

Being able to give clear instructions is an essential classroom skill for teachers. As
you will be giving lots of learner instructions, the success of tasks and activities can
be entirely dependent on the clarity of your instructions.

5.4 Effective Concept Checking to Ensure Understanding

Concept checking questions are important for teachers because they make sure that
students understand and can use the language you have taught them. Concept
checking is not only handy for grammar points and structures, but also for
vocabulary, functions and idiomatic expressions.

Here are some tips to follow, when asking concept check questions.
As we have mentioned several times, don’t say Do you understand? because you
will more than often get a ​Yes response and you won’t have any real insight into the
student's understanding.

Preparation of the question is very important. Use questions that involve thinking
about the meaning.

Effective concept checking questions ask for very specific information, which can be
achieved by the open wh-type questions (why, where, when, which), by using how,
and also by using modals such as can, do, and did.

Like, elicitation, concept checking can be accomplished through a variety of verbal

and non-verbal techniques, e.g. gestures, miming, realia, timelines

Example – concept checking mustn’t

A sign says: ​You mustn’t walk on the grass.

Teacher to students: ​The sign says: You mustn’t walk on the grass.

Teacher asks effective concept questions:

Is it ok if I walk on the grass?​ (Response-​no)​ ​Good!

​ esponse-​no)​ ​That’s correct!

Can I decide if I want to or not? (R

Note these two important points:

1. The questions shouldn’t use the target language.

For example, to check understanding of past progressive (past continuous) used to

interrupt another action in the past:

Example of the target language: ​I was eating dinner when the phone rang.

Teacher asks: ​Was I eating dinner before the phone rang?

The question attempts to address one of the aspects of the meaning (the action
started before the phone rang) but it uses the very same language (​I was eating;
Was I eating)​ of which we are trying to check the understanding. This is a poor
concept checking question.

So the teacher needs to formulate his questions in a better way:

Target language: ​I was eating dinner when the phone rang.

Teacher asks effective concept questions:

Did I start eating my dinner before the phone rang? (yes)

Did I stop eating my dinner when the phone rang? (maybe)

Note that verb forms like this lend themselves very well to having their understanding
checked with timelines.

2. Concept questions should check the understanding of the language item, not of
the situation.

Let’s go back to ​mustn’t.

Teacher says: ​You mustn’t walk on the grass.

Teacher asks concept question: ​Why mustn’t I walk on the grass?

This is a poor concept question. First, he uses the target language in his question
(​mustn’t​), as explained above. But his question is checking understanding of the
situation – the reasons why it is forbidden to walk on the grass – which is not the
point of the exercise. It is not checking the meaning of mustn’t. Instead, he needs to
ask effective concept questions:

Is it ok if I walk on the grass? (no) Good!

Can I decide if I want to or not? (no) That’s correct!

5.5 Questioning Strategies

This section is all about using your common sense from the first day you teach. We
have already mentioned the mnemonic KASH used to remind you of your
knowledge, ability, skills and habits.

Questioning is a good example of a ‘habit’ element.

Sometimes we pick up habits and we’re not aware of them. In particular, here, we
are thinking of a habit or habits you could pick up when asking questions. Some
teachers ask the question: ​Who can answer this?

The less motivated students, after grasping that this is the regular (and sometimes
the only) way the teacher will ask questions, can just sit there and not respond and
check their phone messages surreptitiously. These teachers have picked up a very
bad habit.

In addition to knowing what questions to ask, teachers need to know how to organise
question-and-answer work in class. There are different ways of asking questions.
These are called ​questioning strategies​. For example:

● You can ask each student one-by-one around the class

● You could let any student call out the answer
● You choose the student to answer (perhaps after asking for a show of
hands)
● You could get the class to answer in unison
 ● You could get one student to present a question to another student

When employing these questioning strategies, try to think of any advantages or

disadvantages. Specifically, think about which strategies:

● Help you to manage and control the class

● Help to keep the attention of the whole class
● Give good students a chance to show their knowledge
● Give weak or shy students a chance to answer
● Give lazy students a chance not to answer

Keep in mind that there is no single ‘best’ strategy. Rather, some strategies may be
more effective depending on the classroom dynamic, such as class size, students’
proficiency level, and type of learning material.

Our advice to you is simply to be aware of this and don’t fall into a habit which can
become a barrier to successful learning for all.

If you have never taught before, in any shape or form, reflect on this well before you
start your teaching.

Section 7. Feedback and Correction

7. Feedback and Correction

7.1 What Do We Mean by the Term ‘Feedback’?

Feedback is information that is given to the learner about his or her performance of a
learning task, usually with the objective of improving this performance. While such
feedback is generally verbal, body language can also provide the student clues
about his or her performance.

Some examples of feedback in language teaching might be: ​Yes, right! to a learner
who has answered a question; an arched eyebrow in response to a mistake in
grammar; comments written in the margin of an essay; or an ​Almost; do you want to
try again?​ to a student who may not have provided a correct answer to an exercise.

Feedback can focus on learners' language or skills, the ideas in their work, their
behaviour, their attitude towards learning, or their progress. Sometimes we give
feedback to the whole class, while at other times we give feedback to small groups
or individual learners. The primary purpose of feedback is to motivate learners when
they are doing well and to help them understand what their problems are and how
they can improve.
7.2 Importance of Constructive Feedback

It’s critical that your feedback is constructive and not destructive.

Principles of constructive feedback

Feedback is a way of learning more about ourselves and the effect our behaviour
has on others.

Constructive feedback increases self-awareness, offers guidance and encourages

development, so it is important to learn how to give it. Constructive feedback does
not mean only giving positive feedback (praise). Negative or critical feedback given
skilfully can be very important and useful,

Destructive feedback, negative feedback given in an unskilled way, generally leaves

the recipient feeling bad with seemingly nothing on which to build and no useful
information to use for learning.

There are some general principles of giving feedback which, if followed, will help you
achieve a positive outcome.

Start with the positive

Most people need encouragement, to be told when they are doing something well.
When offering feedback it can really help the receiver to hear first what they have
done well. It is often common for individuals to emphasise the negative, therefore the
focus is likely to be on mistakes more often than successes. In a rush to criticise, we
may overlook the things we liked. If the positive is registered first, any negative is
more likely to be listened to and acted upon.

Be specific

Try to avoid general comments which are not useful when it comes to developing
skills. Statements such as ​you were brilliant! or ​it was awful! may be pleasant or
dreadful to hear, but they don't give enough detail to be useful sources of learning.
Try to pin-point what the person did that led you to use the label of "brilliant" or
"awful' e.g. ​The way you asked that question just at that moment was really helpful
and enabled us to resolve that issue more quickly or ​by responding in that way you
seemed to be wanting to impose your opinions o ​ n the rest of the class. Specific
feedback gives more opportunity for learning.

Refer to behaviour that can be changed

It is not likely to be helpful to give a person feedback about something over which
they have no choice or control; in fact, it may be frustrating and even de-motivating.

Seek/offer alternatives
If you do give negative feedback then try to turn it into a learning opportunity by
asking the person what they could have done differently, or, would do differently next
time. It is always more powerful to get ideas coming from the person receiving
feedback, but if they are struggling to think what they could have done differently
then offer some suggestions.

Be descriptive rather than evaluative

This is expanding on 'be specific'. Describing what you saw or heard and/or the
effect it had on you is much more powerful than just giving a judgement i.e. ​the way
you kept calm, quiet and focused during that situation helped everyone cope rather
than ​you handled that situation well.

Own the feedback

It can be easy to say to the other person ​You are… ​ … suggesting that you are
offering a universally agreed opinion about the person rather than an individual one.
It is important that we take responsibility for the feedback we offer. Begin with ​I think
… or I feel that.....​ to avoid being the giver of a general opinion which you don't own.

Leave the recipient with a choice

Feedback which demands change or is imposed on the other person may invite
resistance, and is not consistent with a belief in each of us being personally
autonomous. Skilled feedback offers people information about themselves which
leaves them with a choice about whether to act or how to act. It can help to examine
the consequences of any decision to change or not to change, but does not involve
prescribing change.

7.3 Different Types of Feedback

We can give feedback to individual learners or groups of learners.

Feedback can be oral or written.

Feedback can be linked to formal or informal assessment and can be given to

learners in the classroom or during individual meetings.

We can also write regular feedback in the form of comments, grades or marks on a
learner's record sheet. We can use this feedback when we make our end-of-course
assessment.

When learners give feedback to one another, this is called peer feedback.

Peer feedback is useful for all learners. The learners who give the feedback reflect
on the work of their classmates. The learners who receive feedback are given
information on how they can improve. The learners are often guided by a feedback
observation sheet.
Peer feedback can have a positive effect on classroom dynamics and can help to
train learners in skills they need to become autonomous.

Young learners, though, are not able to give very detailed peer feedback because
they are not yet able to think about their classmates' work very carefully.

Learners can also give teachers feedback about the lessons, activities and materials.
They can tell us when they like what they are doing and when they are not so
interested in the materials or activities, or when they are having problems with the
language. They can also make suggestions for materials and activities to use.

7.4 Correction

In correction, some specific information is provided about aspects of the learner's

language performance: through explanation, or suggestion for a better way to
express something, or through elicitation of these from the learner.

Note that in principle, correction can and should include information on what the
learner did right, as well as wrong, and why something is incorrect.

This said, teachers and learners generally understand the term as more of an
umbrella term referring to the simple correction of mistakes. Students, then, will find
your ‘correction’ even more effective if you further pinpoint what they did right as well
as wrong and indicate the “why”.

7.5 What Is a Mistake? What Is an Error?

Some teachers like to differentiate between the terms ‘error’ and ‘mistake’.

A mistake is often considered to be a spoken or written slip committed by a

non-native or native speaker who, once the slip is pointed out, would be able to
self-correct.

An error, on the other hand, is made by a non-native speaker who does not
recognise the error and is therefore unable to correct it.

In the past, the consensus was that mistakes/errors of any kind were a bad thing.

There has been a shift in attitude to mistakes/errors. Today they are regarded as
indicators that the learner is experimenting with the language, or testing out a new
language hypothesis, or progressing generally.

Teachers can use the mistakes/errors that a learner makes to show him the current
state of his English and to determine the content of future practice.

First you have to decide what the mistake/error is.

Thought-Spot
 What type of spoken errors are exemplified in the following sentences –
grammatical, lexical (vocabulary) or phonological (pronunciation, stress etc.)?

1. He feels himself unhappy today.

2. Are you here a long time?

3. Who did see the robber?

4. We enjoy very much travelling.

5. They leave at 21 High Street.

6. ​Use my pencil​ (the stress point is underlined)

7. ​The woman put off her coat.

8. ​He take French lessons.

Before we share our thoughts, try and identify what’s wrong, what type of
mistake/error has been made and decide whether each is a mistake or error. Please
reflect on this, jot down your ideas in bullet points and then check out what we think
on the next page.

●
●
●

Well done! Here’s what we think.

Well, it looks like at face value that they’re all errors and they are not just slips of the
tongue. Of course, some could be. If we had been there at the time, we might have
said ​Sorry, Manuel, I didn’t catch that. If Manuel then rephrases it correctly, it would
be just a slip of the tongue – a mistake.

Here are our thoughts on the errors:

1. ​He feels himself unhappy today.​ (Lexical - unnecessary use of reflexive pronoun
himself)

2. ​Are you here a long time? (Grammatical - the auxiliary verb to be has been used
instead of to have so that Are you … has been used instead of Have you been …

3. ​Who did see the robber? (Grammatical - there is a verb form error in the question
with did see instead of saw)

4. ​We enjoy very much travelling.​ (Grammatical - the student has used the wrong
word order)
5. ​They leave at 21 High Street​. (A pronunciation problem when spoken, with the
student confusing the long vowel sound in leave and the short vowel sound in live;
lexical when written, again with the student confusing the two words)

6. ​Use my pencil.​ (Phonological i.e. the student has mispronounced the word by
placing the stress incorrectly)

7. ​The woman put off her coat. (Lexical - the student has chosen the verb ​put off
instead of ​take off)​

8. ​He take French lessons​. (Grammatical - the student has chosen the wrong tense
take instead of is taking.)

7.6 Correcting Oral and Written Errors Effectively

Having spotted the error, the teacher now has to decide whether, and when, to
correct it.

Oral work

In general, if the exercise is intended to improve the learner’s accurate use of

English, then it would be best to correct the mistakes/errors immediately.

However, correcting mistakes/errors during a fluency exercise might be disruptive

and distracting, not just for the learner being corrected, but also for the other
learners.

Consider whether the mistake is a major or constantly recurring fault? If so,

immediate correction is probably in order; if not then it may be safer to leave it until a
later time for inclusion in a future lesson.

Consider whether it was an error based on a language point that the learner has not
met yet? If so, it may be best to ignore it as the language point will be dealt with
later.

Consider what you hope to achieve by the correction. If you want the learner to
become aware of, and correct the error, then be prepared to spend a little time
explaining it and practising the correct form. If you are merely pointing out the error
with no intention of spending time correcting it, then it might be better not to point it
out at all.

Consider what kind of student are you correcting? If the student is confident and
able, and you feel he will be able to understand and accept your correction, then go
ahead. But if the student is shy and is normally reluctant to speak, then it may be
wiser to withhold the error until a private moment can be found.

You will need to consider who will make the correction and how it will be made:

● Another student corrects the error

 ● The student corrects himself (perhaps after a hint/gesture from the
teacher)
● Small groups of students discuss how to correct the mistake (perhaps
after a hint/gesture from the teacher)

Or you do it by:

● Gesture and facial expressions

● Asking a question about it
● Echoing the sentence and emphasising the word with a change in
intonation to highlight the incorrect word
● Showing a timeline on the board
● Writing the sentence on the board and getting everyone to consider it
● Finger correction - showing one hand to the class and pointing to each
finger in turn as you say each word in the sentence.
● Phonemic symbols
● Referring the student to a reference book (perhaps more for written work)

Written work

Don't become preoccupied with errors: You will want to mark your students' work,
but it would be a pity if your whole focus lay with the grammatical errors that the
students have made, while neglecting the content of their work, or their progress
over the previous weeks.

Don’t overdo the red ink:​ This is very discouraging.

Establish a marking scheme, and stick to it: Establish a marking system of your
own, with symbols, and ensure that the students are familiar with it, e.g. Pu =
punctuation error, Sp = spelling error, S/P = Singular/Plural error etc. This will also
save you time.

Be selective in your marking: Don't try to mark everything. It might be tempting to

mark every error in a piece of writing, but is that the best way to assist the student?
You may find, from time to time, that you can direct the students' attention to
particular problems by specifically marking particular errors.

Keep a note of errors that keep on reoccurring: When a particular error keeps on
reoccurring, take an appropriate opportunity to spend time considering the problem
with the whole class.

Give the students time to check through their work: Give the students time to
look through their marked work in order to study your marking symbols and to try to
self-correct.
Encourage self-correction by the students: This will be easier with a class of ten
adults than with thirty young teenagers but, as far as possible, encourage the
students to get into the habit of correcting their own writing.

Encourage them to work in pairs: After returning their work, you may sometimes wish
to give the students the opportunity to work together in pairs and help each other
with their corrections.

Section 8. Selection and Use of Classroom Texts

8. Selection and Use of Classroom Texts

8.1 What Types of Coursebooks Are Available?

The terms ‘coursebook’ or ‘classroom text’ or ‘textbook’ are used here to mean a
book that the teacher and students use as the primary learning material for the
course. Textbooks are typically used in conjunction with a course syllabus, though
many English-language textbooks, particularly texts which are grounded in CLT
methodology, are embedded with their own general syllabus.

There are many different types of commercial textbooks available on the market
today. These can be divided into comprehensive course series, which are intended
to provide the basic syllabus and core of materials on which a course is based.

A comprehensive multilevel course series contains numerous components. They

typically include a student's book, teacher's manual, audio CD or cassette tape, and
student's workbook.

Some may contain a supplementary grammar or vocabulary workbook. Most series

these days also contain a video or DVD, CD, and an assessment programme.

Supplementary textbooks generally consist of one or two levels. These usually

contain a student's book, an answer key if there is no teacher's manual, and some
kind of audio or software component.

Both types of resource can be used in many different ways. The extent to which
teachers draw upon and depend on commercially produced materials will depend on
the teachers' training, the context and environment in which they are working, the
institutional philosophy of the school in which they teach, and the needs and
interests of the students.

In all cases, there is a greater variety of published material for teaching and learning
English than ever before.

8.2 Pros and Cons of Using an Assigned Textbook in Class

Pros
Here are some advantages:

Framework: A classroom text provides a clear framework. The teacher and learners
know where they are going and what is coming next. In this sense, a text provides a
sense of structure and progress.

Syllabus: In many places the classroom text serves as a syllabus. If it is followed

systematically, a carefully planned and balanced selection of language content will
be covered.

Ready-made texts and tasks: The classroom text provides material and learning
tasks which are likely to be of an appropriate level for most of the class. This saves
time for the teacher who would otherwise have to prepare his own material and
exercises.

Economy: A book is the cheapest way of providing learning material for each
learner. Alternatives such as kits, sets of photocopied papers, or computer software,
are likely to be more expensive relative to the amount of material provided.

Convenience: A book is a convenient, self-contained package. It is light and small

enough to carry around easily and it does not depend on hardware or a supply of
electricity to be able to use it.

Guidance: For teachers who are inexperienced or occasionally unsure of their

knowledge or what to do next, the classroom text can provide useful guidance and
support.

Autonomy: ​The learner can use the classroom text to learn new material, and
review and monitor progress with some degree of autonomy. A learner without a
classroom text is more teacher-dependent.

Cons

Here are some disadvantages:

Inadequacy: Every class – in fact, every learner – has a particular set of learning
needs: no one textbook can possibly meet these satisfactorily.

Irrelevance, lack of interest: The topics dealt with in the textbook may not
necessarily be relevant or interesting for your class.

Limitation: A textbook is confining: its set structure and sequence may inhibit a
teacher's initiative and creativity, and lead to boredom and lack of motivation on the
part of the learners.

Homogeneity: Textbooks have their own rationale and chosen teaching/learning

approach. They do not usually cater to the variety of levels of ability and knowledge,
or of learning styles and strategies that exist in most classes.
Rote Teaching: Teachers find it too easy to follow the textbook uncritically, as if
following a conveyor-belt process, instead of using their initiative. Teachers may find
themselves functioning merely as mediators of its content instead of as teachers in
their own right.

8.3 Criteria for Evaluating Language Textbooks

Whether or not you elect to base your course on a classroom text (maybe you will
have to), it is worth thinking about how to recognise a good one when you see it, and
on what grounds you might reject or criticise the text.

Materials: It should contain lively and interesting materials. There should be

appropriate visual materials available, and ample listening material (CD; audio).

Progression: It should provide a sensible progression of language items, clearly

showing what has to be learned.

Objectives: These should be explicitly set out in an introduction and implemented in

the material.

Layout: This should be clear and attractive, and the print should be easy to read.
The content should be clearly organised and graded, sequenced by difficulty.

Topics: There should be a variety of interesting topics and tasks. Such topics and
tasks should provide for different learner levels, learning styles, interests, etc.

Instructions:​ These should be crystal clear.

Syllabus:​ There should be a systematic coverage of the syllabus.

Tests:​ There should be periodic review and test sections.

Skills coverage and practice: There should be ample authentic language and
realia, ample pronunciation presentation and practice, ample vocabulary
presentation and practice, ample grammar presentation and practice, and ample
fluency practice in all four skills.

Learner encouragement: Learners should be encouraged to develop their own

learning strategies and to become independent in their learning.

Teacher:​ There should be adequate guidance for the teacher.

Textbook availability and cost: The textbook should be readily available and not
overly expensive.

Remember! Using a course textbook does not preclude your bringing in your own
teaching materials. Indeed, there may be situations where supplementing the main
text is desirable, even necessary. Balance is the key.
We’ll be considering supplementary materials in the next Module – amongst lots of
other interesting topics!

Tip: ​Apart from our recommendations in the course introduction, feel free to search
YOUTUBE for - TEFL: Using the Board or TEFL: Feedback and Corrections