CHAPTER II

PHYSICAL PERSONALITY OF
SINDHUDURG DISTRICT
 CHAPTER II

PHYSICAL PERSONALITY OF
SINDHUDURG DISTRICT

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Location
2.3 Historical Background
2.4 Physiography
2.5 Geology
2.6 Drainage Pattern
2.7 Climate
2.8 Soils
2.9 Vegetation
2.10 Summary
 29

CHAPTER II
PHYSICAL PERSONALITY OF SINDHUDURG
DISTRICT

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Agriculture the most important primary economic activity, is
closely related to physical environment particularly relief, climate and
soils. In any scientific and viable inquiry into agricultural phenomena,
therefore it is perquisite to pay attention to the basic relation between
these physical determinants and agriculture (Singh and Dhillon, 1994).
However, the physical environment plays significant role in determining
the development of agricultural productivity i.e. heterogeneous
environmental conditions lead to diversified nature of agriculture which
further manifests into variations in agricultural productivity. Thus,
physical set up of the region governs the agrarian structure of the region.
An elaborate account of the physical setting is presented in the present
chapter from the viewpoint of a geographer, particularly as the base for
the superimposition of agricultural productivity on the physical
environmental aspects. McHarg (1966) on the basis of principles of
ecological determinism has shown how nature can impose limits, provide
guidelines and assist man in solving environmental planning problems in
a manner which is most compatible with natural problems. Hence efforts
need to be made to qualify the environmental attributes to meet various
for future ecological planning, modification and adjustment. Although
natural factors are far from explaining every thing slope, soil, climate and
hydrological conditions have very important effects on the cultivation of
crops and preference of a particular agricultural system. In Sindhudurg
district the meteorological factors mainly, temperature and rainfall, are
more important as like terrain.
 30

2.2 LOCATION
Sindhudurg District is situated between North 15o 37’ to 16o 40’
latitudes and East 73o 19’ to 74o 13’ longitudes. It is bordered by Arabian
sea on the west, Sahyadri hill ranges and Kolhapur district on the east,
Ratnagiri district on the north, Goa state on the south and Belgaum
district of Karnataka state on the south east. The geographical area of the
district is 5087 sq.km. The topography of the district is as per the Konkan
pattern i.e. approximately 25 km. of portion of land near seashore, is can
be divided into three Sub-regions. The western coastal strip having width
of 20 to 20 km which is traversed by creaks hills known as khalati. The
eastern portion covered by Sahyadri range and its offshoots known has
Sahyadri strip and in between there is a strip of small plateaus and flat
land known as Valati, All the three sub regions are in the north south
direction. Width of the middle portion of land is 25 km and that of
Sahyadri hill range is 15 to 25 km. (map 2.1)
2.3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Sindhudurg District is the Southern part of the greater track which
is known as the ‘Konkan’ which is historical famous for its long coast
line and safe harbors. Sindhudurg District was a part of the Ratnagiri
district, but for administrative convenience and industrial and agricultural
development Ratnagiri district was divided into two districts viz.
Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg with effect from 1st May 1981. Sindhudurg
District now comprises the tahsils of Devgad, Kudal, Kankavli,
Sawantwadi, Vengurla, Malvan carved out from Ratnagiri district and the
new tahsil of Vaibhavwadi created by transfer of 53 villages from Bavada
tahsil of Kolhapur district. A new tahsil Dodmarg is created by
bifurcating Sawantwadi tahsil. However the statistical data available is of
former Sawantwadi tahsil therefore the same has been used in the present
 31

thesis. Sindhudurgnagari at Oros Bk is the district headquarters. The

name of the district has been adopted from the famous sea fort of
Sindhudurg which was built by Chhatrapati Shivaji the great near Malvan
and it literally means “Sea Fort”.
2.4 PHYSIOGRAPHY
Physiography is one of the dominant parameters of physical
environment and its impact on patterns and density of agriculture is
immense (Chouhan T. S., 1987). Agriculture in mountains, plateaus and
plains is different from scarps, pediments valleys, flanks, flood plains
ridges, alluvial flanks, drumlins, monodnocks, levees and dunes.
The relief features are essentially the product of geological past,
the nature of geological composition mantle (Deshpande C. D., 1971). A
number of small bands of crushed conglomerate are noticed especially
between Niwati village and Malvan town (Sahsrabuddhe Y. S.). Relief of
the land influences land use, particularly through the elevation,
ruggedness and slope. Relief also influences farming by modifying
climate and by affecting the ease of cultivation (Sing, 1974). The relief
varies remarkably from place to place and the broad and relief changes
are seen in the west-east direction with local variations. These variations
in land are due to the geographical evolution (Deshpande C. D., 1971).
Konkan zone of Maharashtra state especially the important
physiographic unit. Sindhudurg district is broadly divided into three small
sub-divisions based on the elevation and local topography.
i) The main Sahyadri with its their plateau scarps and hilly
buttresses (Hilly Sahyadri Region),
ii) The low level lateritic plateau (the Central zone or Valati),
and
 32

iii) The riverine and estuarine leveled surfaces. (Coastal zone or

Khalati).
The framework of the physical setting of the study region is
simple. The division of physiographic sub-regions of the study region is
presented in table no. 2.1
Table no. 2.1
Physiographic sub-divisions of Sindhudurg District

Sr. Sub Local Area in % to the total Geographical

No. Region Name Hectare area of the district
1 Coastal Khalati 1,11,978 22.23
2 Plateau Valati 1,83,623 36.43
3 Hilly Sahyadri 2,08,349 41.34
Total 5,03,950 100.00
Source :- Agriculture Technology Management Agency (ATMA) Sindhudurg District 2005.

2.4.1 The Sahyadri Region

The eastern part of Sindhudurg district is covered by Sahyadri
Mountain range. Its coverage height is above 450m. The hilly region
covered 208349 hectares (table 2.1) it means that 41.34 percent of
geographical area of the district. Many spurs and saddles occur in the
area. The Shivgad, Manohargad, Ranganagad, Pargad are the important
forts loacated on sahyadri range. This region is extended into north –
south direction having steep slopes, occupied by spurs and saddles.
Manohargad, Mansantoshgad and Mahadevgad are the important peaks
near Amboli pass east of Sawantwadi town. Prassiddhgad or Rangana
Fort north of Sawantwadi. Kupicha dongar near village Valaval and in the
west are the isolated hills near Vagheri. There are seven chief passes
crossing Sahyadri range and Dodamarg in Sawantwadi (now Dodamarg)
limits, two of them the Amboli ghat and the Ramghat suitable for carts
 33

and five others namely Ghotge, Ranagana, Hanmant, Talkat and Mangeli
are suitable only for foot passengers and pack cattle. Amboli pass about
22 kms. East of Sawantwadi town has a motarale road. It is close to and
nearly on the same old parpoli pass. The Ram pass is located about 46
kms. east of Banda.
2.4.2 Central Zone or Valati
The central zone or the transitional belt covers the middle part of
the region. This plateau region covers 183623 hectares area of the study
region which is 36.43% of total geographical area of the district. The
central zone which is covered by small hills and ridges having height
above 150 meters to 450 meters from the sea level. It includes western
parts of the Kankavali, Kudal and Sawantwadi tahsils and eastern parts of
the Devgad and Malvan tahsils. This part of the study region is locally
known as “Valati”. The general slope of the zone is from east to west and
it is formed by denudation of the rocks. The sub region is well traversed
by the north – south road and rail links.
2.4.3 Coastal Zone or Khalati
The coastal strip of the study region characterized by lowlands,
shoreline, terraces, sand dunes, cliffs, numerous sandy pockets, beaches,
tidal inlets, creeks and estuaries shows a great amount of variability from
the study region has occupied 1,11,978 hectares and 22.23 % of the total
geographical area of the district (Table 2.1 and Map 2.2)
Narrow, flat and low shoreline terraces covered with a thin apron
of coastal alluvium borders the tidal inlets. This zone, which lies on the
west of the central transitional belt is associated with lowlands an
Arabean sea coast. Small hills and lowlands cover the western part of
Devgad, Malvan and Vengurla tahsils. The elevation of the area is below
150 meters and is formed by alluvial soil, which is fertile, locally called,
 34

“Khalati Soil”. Cliff formed by wave action and there is a great variety of
shore marks between 2 mts. to 10 meters above sea level (Karlelar, 2000).
The tidal basins are a series of small flat plains.
2.5 GEOLOGY
The succession of geological formation in Sindhudurg district may
be conveniently tabulated in geological order as follow
A. Azoic i) Gneissic (Metamorphic) series
with granitic and trappean intrusions.
B. Upper Secondary ii) Kaladgi series.
iii) Deccan trap and ironclay (laterite)
C. Tertiary iv) Konkan laterite
D. Post Tertiary or v) Alluvial deposits
recent vi) Sub-arial formations and soils.

The geology of Sawantwadi was worked out by Mr. C.J.Wilkinson

formerly of the Geological Survey of India.
The gneissic series in Sindhudurg district include a greater variety
of rocks. In the bed of the rivers and on the spurs south of Pargad and of
the Ram pass south easterly dips are common. The same dip was found
most frequent in the great spurs west of Hanmantgad. Hornblend gneiss
and hornblend schist are very common all around Banda village on the
road between the Ram pass and Vengurla tahsil. Another good section
occurs in the bed of Tilari river west of fort at Permeg, where much
hornblende rocks and light-colored felsparic gneiss are exposed. Between
Asnai and Fukeri on the great spur crowned by the Hanumantgad fort are
‘Platy’ hornblende schist interstratified with sandstones At Fukeri village
white sand stones and green hornblendic schist appear. At Charathe
village a little south-east of Sawantwadi is gneiss associated with
 35

micaceous and hornblendic schist and between Charathe village and

Sanurli villages are schist, quartzite an izenitoid gneiss. Gneiss and mica
schists make up the mass of the hills south-west and north of sawantwadi.
At Devsu, at the foot of the Amboli pass, are mica schists in vertical beds
striking east to west. A little higher up the pass are very crystalline
hornblendic schists containing yellow mica. At Kalmist, north of Devsu,
the river section shows the rocks such as gneiss, dark green, coarse
hornblendic and micaceous schist with interstratified beds of a white
metamorphic rock, some times like sandstones but more frequently
felsparic rock in character. Granitoid gneiss and quartzite beds occure on
the flanks of the high and conspicuous Baravda hills. Great outcrops of
altered sandstone or quartzite, the extension of the quartzite beds
occurring on the Barvada syenite hills may be traced up to and beyond
the Kudal river (map 2.3). At Bambarda gneiss, quartzite and talk rock
occur, the latter forming a hill west of village. East of Mula occur gneiss
a pink quartzo-Felspathic rock and light-coloured banded mica schist.
Valley of the Kudal river is banded mica schist with garnets, granitic-
gneiss, compact siliceous hornblendic rock and dark-colored mica schists
with bands of quartzite. The high hills south-east of Narur village which
from the eastern part of the principal spur branching from the Sahyadri
scarp at Rangna Fort, show fine grained micacious schist, coarse,
syenitic gneiss, light grey gneiss and quartzite.
At Tulsuli village, west of the above section bands of quartzite
form hills immediately west of the village. To the east of Konda village
which stands on the north side of trop-covered spur, north-west by north
of Narur village are micacious schists, quartzo-felsparic schist quartzite.
The last section requiring mention occurs in Ashamat river, a little east of
Harkul village.
 36

Talcose rocks pointed out occur far more frequently in Sawantwadi

than in the gneissic region above the Sahyadries. Besides at Bambarda
village talc rock was observed only at about six places. At the crossing of
the Tilari river by the Ram pass road and west of Kudase village it has the
form of a hard compact blue rock, weathering into a light colored soapy
wall. The same beds pass northward to the top of the spur between Sasoli
and Kumberol. They are interstratified with dark green hornblend schist
and mica schist. Similar blue compact talc rock occurs at Akeri village,
north-west of Sawantwadi as hard nuclei enclosed in a softer mass
formed by weathering. Talcose rock occurs around to the south of Sherli
village west of Banda on the Vengurla – Ram pass road. Talcose schists
occur also at Vankada village a little south of the Ashamat. Actinolite
schist, a rock not met with in the gneiss above the sahyadri was noted by
Mr. Wilkinson in four places.
Intrusive rocks associated with the gneissic series are of two kinds,
viz. trap dykes and granatic veins and bosses. Trap dykes though very
few and small in size are very important. They occur close to Tillari
valley near the foot of the Ram pass (map 2.3). The granite intrusions are
also small in size and of importance. The majority occur in the form of
regular granite veins, crossing dark river at Mandkol village to the south
east and of Mulda village to the east of Kudal. At Mandkol the intrusive
veins consist of grey granite and erudite, cut through beds of gneiss
crossing the river bed. The one important synitic intrusion occurs in the
Baravada hill group, east of Vengurla town. Small intrusions of compact
synite occur among the gneiss in the Majgaon hills south of Sawantwadi
town.
The rocks representing the Kaladgi series in Sawantwadi can only
be regarded as the fragmentary remains of former formations. Denuding
 37

forces of work at various geological periods but chiefly before the

outpouring of Deccan trap flows. Only one small patch of the rocks has
been mapped b Mr. Wilkinson.
The areas south and west of District are to a Considerable extent
covered by numerous outliers at a once continuous sheet of laterite an
extension of the great formations are largely developed in Konkan. Dr.
Carter had in his ‘Geological papers on Western India’. Advanced the
idea that the konkan laterite was an altered volcanic rock. Still it may be
gathered from Mr. Wilkinson’s notes. That parts of the formation are
unquestionably sedimentary. He mentioned hear and there ‘Laterite
Sandstones, ‘Laterite Conglomarates’ and ‘Sheley Laterite’. In the valleys
between the various ridges capped b the typical Konkan laterite.
2.6 DRAINAGE PATTERN
Drainage is one of the most important components of physical
environment which influences the agriculture directly as well as
indirectly. Ground water influent becomes the base flow that maintains
the flow of streams in fair weather. Drainage is a comprehensive
expression in geography. It includes surface as well as ground water.
2.6.1 Rivers
Direction of flow of the rivers in the district is from east to west in
general (map 2.4). The rivers are useful for the agricultural development
but they are mostly dry in dry season. However in monsoon season most
of the rivers are flooded.
1. Devgad river
Devgad River rises in the Sivgad pass. After a comparatively
straight course of about 56km. from east to west reaches the sea at the
fort of Devgad which forms the southern headland about 19km. south of
 38

Vijaydurg fort. Several small islands have been formed in the bed of the
river in its tidal section.
2. Achare River
It is a small river taking its name from the village on its left bank.
It rises in a spur of Sahyadri range near the Phonda pass. It has a south-
westerly course of rather less than 47 km. to the sea. The entrance to the
river is narrow. It lies about 22km. south of Devgad.
3. Kalavli River
The river Kalavli rises in the Naradave pass near Bhairvgad. It
receives the waters of a tributary stream, called Gad River. It takes a
southwesterly course passing through Ramgad on the right and Masure on
the left. It reaches the sea in a small bay 4.5km.north of Malvan town.
The river has least agricultural relevance although it is valuable from
local navigational point of view. There are chief ferries between Masure
and Bhagvntgad, Kalavli and Hadi and Sarjekot and Talashil.
4. Karli River
Karli river rises at the village of Shivapur on the sahyadri hills to
the north of Manohagad, after a south-westerly course of about 56 km.
fall into the sea. The main stream of Bel and Hateri join Karli river near
the village of Anav, about 30 km. from its source. Some sub streams of
this river provide considerable fertile land yielding two crops a year and
in patches covered with garden and groves. There are some small islands
in its bed and ferries of Nerur, Sarambal, Valaval, Chendvan and Kavthi.
5. Terekhol River
River Terekhol is also called as Banda River. It rises in the
Sahyadri to the south of Manohargad near the villages of Sangeli, Insuli,
Banda, Kas, Satose, Kavthani and Aronde. The river Terekhol has no
important tributaries, but many mountain streams join the river. During
 39

the rainy season it becomes a very formidable river. For the rest of the
year it is in many places fordable at low tide. Near Aronde there are four
smaller islands viz. Dhonk, Karambal, Jagad and Narayandurg.
6. Talavde River
River Talavade rises at Vijarat it drains the villages Hodavde,
Talavde and Matond and falls into the sea of Mochemad near vengurle
town.
7. Tilari River
River Tilari also called the Kudasi, rises at the Ram pass twice
crosses the great Impirical military road from Belgaum to vengurle and
enters into Goa territory at Maneri.
8. Kalane River
River Kalane takes its rise at the Talkat pass close to Ram pass and
crosses the road at Kalane and it drains into the territory of Goa gate.
There are number of other small streams, which in the rainy
season, owing to the heavy rainfall and the nearness of the Sahyadri,
Suddenly swell into considerable sizes and are difficult and dangerous to
cross.
The eastern escarpment is deeply eroded by the swift flowing rivers
because of the intensive furrowing. There is a succession of drainage
amphitheatres with the residual hills intervening. One who visits Phonda
and Amboli passes can see the contrasting landscapes to the west and east
of these places. To the west there is youthful topography where as to the
east there s gentle undulating topography showing a stage of maturity.
Due to erosion, the western scarp itself is retreating eastward and hence
there are several phenomena of river capture from the tributaries of the
rivers in the plateau areas (Padmanabham N.)
 40

All the main rivers emerge from the eastern scarp margin of the
district and run parallel to each other from east to west till they met the
Arebian sea forming broad creeks at their mouths. The important creeks
from North to South are the creeks of Vijaydurg, Devgad, Achare,
Kalavali, Kolamb, Karli, and Terekhol.
In general there are some seasonal rivers, which are small in length
and are active with flow of water in monsoon season. They act as outflow
drainage channels for the rainwater. These rivers are getting dry in
summer season. However, drainage is one of the most important physical
environment which affects agriculture directly and indirectly.
2.6.2. LAKES
Dhamapur and Pendur lakes are the important lakes in Malvan
tahsil. Dhamapur lake covers and area about 22 hectares with a maximum
depth 12mt. Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation (M.T.D.C.)
has developed this lake as a tourism spot. Pendur Lake covers an area of
21 hectares having maximum depth of 4mt.
Moti Talav is the largest lake at the centre of Sawantwadi town. It
covers an area of 12 hectares, and the average depth is between 2mt. to
3mts. The lake side is an evening rendezvous for the people in the town.
Other four important lakes in the vicinity are located at the villages viz.
Zarap, Mangaon, Bambarde and Matond.
2.6.3. GROUND WATER
Ground water is often called underground water which occurs
below the surface of the earth. Level of ground water is important from
the viewpoint of agriculture. The rise in water-table in any season may be
a fluctuating phenomenon of a short duration. Such a study may be of
limited use in understanding the water balance of the study region. The
study region receives the heavy rainfall. The groundwater is mostly
 41

tapped from percolation in wells and springs. Direction of groundwater is

flow from east to west in the study region. The natural springs are
observed in Bazarwadi, Pimpalwadi, Morgaon and Amboli in
Vaibhavwadi, Devgad and Sawantwadi tahsils respectively.
2.7 CLIMATE
Climatic conditions are of for most importance in determining the
distribution and performance of crops. For healthy growth and good
yields, certain optimum conditions of rainfall, temperature, wind,
sunshine, soil and moisture are essential. Climatic factors exert mainly a
regional influence on plant life, the difference in the behavior area as in a
given state or a group of states may be considered as due primary to
differences in climatic rather than soil condition (Kalges, K.H. W. 1958).
Climate plays an important role in influencing the characteristics of
agricultural economy in a region. It can influence the choice of farming
system indirectly through such as the length of the growing season, the
occurrence of frost and availability of water for crop growth (Shirlaw
D.W.,1971) Three most important factors of climatic conditions for the
standard of plant response are, temperature, water supply and soil as
primary determinants of crop growth (Hildereth A.C. et al 1941).
In large measure climate determines where man may live and
thrive what crops he may raise? What type of home he may appropriately
build? What sort of clothing he may wear? And What pests and diseases
he must combat? (Whitback, R. H.,1932).
The landscape of study region as discussed earlier in the present
chapter has three major morphogenetic zones such as Sahyadri hills
(Hilly), Valati (Plateau) and Khalati (Plains). The climate of the district is
generally humid. The humidity decreases in January and February. There
is not much fluctuation in m the temperature. The climate in the study
 42

region is generally dry except during the south-west monsoon period. The
year can be divided into four seasons.
i. Cold season from December to February.
ii. Hot season from March to May.
iii. South-west Monsoon season from June to September.
iv. Post monsoon season from October to November.
(Retreating Monsoon)
2.7.1 TEMPERTURE
Each crop needs a certain quantity of effective heat units for
germination, growth, stalking, maturity and ripening. This is called as the
thermal constant and it varies from crop to crop. Temperature above the
minimum is therefore, effective in furthering the growth of plant towards
maturity and ripening. The crucial air temperature is 6oC and above
which degree plant grows (Schimper, 1903).
Without suitable temperature conditions, germinations of seed and
growth of plant are retarded. Temperature regulates all the chemical and
physical processes of plant metabolism. The metabolic processes begin at
a certain minimum temperature and increase with rise of temperature
until they reach a maximum at a temperature called the optimum
temperature. Further with rise in temperature above the optimum level,
metabolic activity is slowed down until ceases at a temperature called the
maximum. Each plant species has its own minimum and maximum
temperature beyond which its life activity ceases (Kochhar, 1967). For
the agricultural geographer two of the best indicators of regional
differences in temperature currently available or derived are
i. Length of the growing season.
ii. Accumulated temperature
above the maximum for plant growth (Copock, 1971).
 43

The temperature and other metrological data at agricultural

research station at Mulde in Kudal tahsil may be taken as a representative
of the conditions over the district as a whole. Average temperature from
1991 to 2005 of the study region are shown in table no. 2.2
Table 2.2
Average Temperature in Sindhudurg District (From 1991 to 2005)
Sr. Months Temperature Temperature
No. Maximum Minimum
1 January 33.5 16.6
2 February 34.4 17.1
3 March 35.0 20.0
4 April 35.7 23.0
5 May 34.9 24.9
6 June 31.6 24.6
7 July 29.1 24.1
8 August 29.1 24.0
9 September 30.2 23.6
10 October 32.9 22.9
11 November 33.9 20.6
12 December 33.5 17.4
Average 32.8 21.6
Source :- Agricultural Research Station, Mulde, Kudal,
District - Sindhudurg.
The above table reveals the January is the coldest month with the
mean daily minimum temperature at 16.6 degree C and mean daily
maximum at 33.5 C. The temperature is slightly low in December and
February. In the month of January mean daily minimum lowest
temperature is recorded 16.6 C. (fig. 2.5)
 44

The period from March to May is one of the increase in both day
and night temperatures. April is the hottest month with mean daily
maximum temperature at 35.7 C. The averages mean daily maximum
Temperature at 32.8 C and mean daily minimum temperature at 21 oC
(Table 2.2 and fig.2.5).
The lowest average daily maximum temperature is 29.1oC &
during the month of July and August. The highest mean daily minimum
temperature is recorded as 24.9oC in the month of May where as the
lowest mean daily minimum temperature recorder at 16.6 oC in the month
of January.
2.7.2 RAINFALL
Rainfall as the primary ecological parameter has created a variety
of farming enterprises types or systems in the world. It is dominant Single
weather element influencing the intensity and location of farming system
and the farmer’s choice. It also becomes a climatic hazard to farming
when it is characterized with scantiness, concentration, intensity,
variability and unreliability. Thus variations in rainfall characteristics
affect agriculture as a whole. Moisture conditions affected to the stages of
crops at sowing, germination, shooting, stalking and heading maturing,
harvesting and threshing. It is all the more important in the minimal
regions, here average or normal rainfall is generally necessary for
successful crop production. In such areas the system of crop production
must be correlated more or less to the moisture factor (Klages, 1958).
Rainfall has control and for this reason is a seasonal rhythm of conditions
influencing the patterns of land use (Simkins Ethal, 1933).
Table no. 2.3 shows the rainfall records of 25 years for the seven
tahsils in the study region. The co-efficient of rainfall variation for the
district is calculated based on the data for 25 years average from 1981 to
 45

2006. One may note some leading variations from the normal accurance
of the rainfall in terms of daily fall and intensity.
Table No. 2.3
Rainfall Distribution in Sindhudurg District
(From 1981 to 2005-06)

Sr. Vaibhav- Kanka Ven Sawant-

Year Devgad Malvan Kudal
No. wadi vali gurla wadi
1 1981-82 2074 5957 3347 2042 3088 4419 1615
2 1982-83 3125 6369 5042 2941 3738 5220 1960
3 1983-84 1789 5098 3119 1361 2413 3583 2964
4 1984-85 3185 5536 3535 2364 3851 4629 4410
5 1985-86 1251 4657 2530 1222 1992 2746 2688
6 1986-87 2405 3330 3088 2021 2796 3649 2411
7 1987-88 2405 3330 3088 2021 2796 3649 2411
8 1988-89 2445 6663 3809 2275 2971 4285 4405
9 1989-90 2181 3933 4554 1882 2683 3591 4032
10 1990-91 1668 2794 4756 2434 2617 3017 3357
11 1991-92 2517 3306 3667 2483 2579 3015 4096
12 1992-93 2881 4169 4389 2450 2541 3298 3745
13 1993-94 2002 3715 3555 1997 2434 3021 4250
14 1994-95 2002 3715 3555 1997 2434 3021 4250
15 1995-96 2226 4300 3400 2098 9714 3273 3700
16 1996-97 2426 4378 3500 2498 2914 3473 3760
17 1997-98 2661 4217 3678 2640 3031 3711 3894
18 1998-99 2423 5645 3827 2383 3251 3027 4072

19 1999-00 2489 4909 3529 2620 3291 3266 4497

20 2000-01 2964 3328 2891 3313 3489 2824 3926
21 2000-02 1740 3233 2480 2684 2159 2404 3067
22 2000-03 2137 3096 2275 2337 2198 2132 2937
23 2003-04 2289 4049 2509 2617 2694 2785 3198
24 2004-05 2553 4405 2670 2463 2874 2916 3671
25 2005-06 2524 4272 3246 2001 2425 2218 4028

Source: Socio Economic Absrtact of Sindhudurg District (1981 to 2007).

 46

(i) The commencement of monsoon varies from the first to even the
last week of June.
(ii) The annual and monthly rainfall varies considerable.
(iii) Daily rainfall amount varies considerably within the same month.
(iv) There are frequent dry spells.
(v) There is a possibility of total rain Failure. No wonder that these
rainfall characteristics deeply influence the traditional agriculture,
which is dependent on rainfall in the absence of irrigation facilities.
(Tawade, 1976).
The rainy season is due to the south-western monsoon, that is June
to September. The rainfall is very high in Vaibhavwadi followed by high
rainfall recording at Kankavali, Kudal, Swantwadi above rainfall was
found. Below average rainfall of study region is found in Devgad,
Malvan and Vengurle tahsils (fig.2.6)
2.7.2.1 Rainfall Variability
Standard deviation is an absolute measure of dispersion but it fails
to give us a precise idea about the Variability without reference to the
central tendency of the series. The co-efficient of Rainfall Variability is
calculated by using the following formula.
S. D.
Coefficient of Rainfall Variability = -------- x 100
X
Where,
S.D. = Standard Deviation
X = Mean of rainfall during last 25 years.
In general the Variability is high where the rainfall is less (Das,
1969). But this statement is not perfect match to this study region because
the co-efficient of rainfall Variability is high in Vaibhavwadi tahsil and
 47

also the rainfall is high. Average annual rainfall and co-efficient of

Rainfall Variability in Sindhudurg district is given in table no. 2.4.
To compare between two or more distributions which are
expressed in different units or even when expressed in the same units
having widely diffused means. In this case, we take help of some relative
measures of dispersion. The most commonly used measures of relative
dispersion are the co-efficient of variation. It is an established fact that
any departure from the normal rainfall for a definite period will inevitably
upset the characteristic water balance for that area leading to reduce yield
or crop failure. A variability of rainfall is as high as 20 per cent of normal
implies a great risk in farmin (Williamson,1925).
Table no. 2.4
Average Annual Rainfall and Co-efficient of Rainfall Variability in
Sindhudurg District (1981-2006)
Sr.No. Tahsils Average Annual Co-efficient of
Rainfall in (m.m.) Rainfall Variability
(%)
1 Devgad 2334.48 19.55
2 Vaibhawadi 4336.16 23.80
3 Kankavali 3441.56 20.25
4 Malvan 2285.76 19.18
5 Vengurla 2798.92 16.37
6 Kudal 3226.88 21.62
7 Sawantwadi 3729.81 19.33
District 3164.79 20.01
Source :- Socio Economic Absrtact of Sindhudurg District (1981 to 2006).
Rainfall Variability is calculated here by computing the rainfall
data for 25 years (1980-81 to 2005-06) at various stations in the study
region. Rainfall Variability is important in crop agronomy. Table 2.4
 48

indicates the coefficient of Rainfall Variability in Sindhudurg District. It

is clear from the table and the map that the variability of rainfall in the
study region ranges from 16.37 per cent to 23.80 per cent in Vengurla and
Vibhavwadi tahsils respectively. Rainfall Variability is below 20 per cent
is in Vengurle (16.37 %), Devgad (19.55 %), Malvan (19.18 %), and
Sawantwadi (19.33 %) and it is 20 per cent to 25 per cent in Kankavali
(20.25 %), Kudal (21.62 %) and Vaibhavwadi (23.80 %) tahsils.
2.7.2.2 Intensity of Rainfall
Rainfall Intensity of the rain- storms is not always the same.
i. Uniform intensity pattern type - the rainfall intensity remain nearly
constant throughout the rain spell.
ii. Advanced pattern – The rainfall intensity reaches its peak value
suddenly and then intensity decreases slowly by step till it becomes
zero.
iii. Delayed pattern – The rainfall intensity increases I step till it takes
its peak value and thereafter sometime the intensity suddenly
reaches zero value.
iv. Intermediate Pattern – The rainfall intensity is the combination of
advanced and delayed pattern these four types of rainfall intensity
patterns occurred in specific region during specific period.
Rainfall intensity is important as it determines the intensity of
soil erosion. The term ‘intensity’ refers to intensity during 24 hours
period. It is calculated by employing the following formula used by
Monkhouse and Wilkinson (1971).
A
I = -------
n
Where,
I = Intensity of Rainfall
A = Annual Rainfall
n = Number of rainy days.
 49

Table 2.5
Tahsilwise Intensity of Rainfall in Sindhudurg District (2006-07)
Sr.No. Tahsils Rainy Days Rainfall Average Rainfall
(mm) Intensity (%)
1 Devgad 79 2030 25.69
2 Vaibhawadi 93 3110 33.44
3 Kankavali 89 2423 27.22
4 Malvan 84 2154 25.64
5 Vengurla 87 2340 26.89
6 Kudal 86 2373 27.59
7 Sawantwadi 96 3075 32.03
District 614 2500 28.35
Source : - Socio Economic Absrtact of Sindhudurg District.

Table 2.5 indicates that intensity of rainfall varies from tahsil to

tahsil in the study region. Below 30 per cent intensity of rainfall is
observed in Devgad (25.69 %), Kankavali (27.22 %), Malvan (25.64 %),
Vengurla (26.89 %) and Kudal tahsil(27.59 %). Where as above 30 %
intensity of rainfall is noticed in Vaibhavwadi tahsil (33.44 %) which is
highest rainfall intensity and Sawantwadi tahsil it is 32.03 %. Table 2.5
gives a clear cut idea about the intensity of rainfall is increasing from the
coastal area towards the hilly region, i.e. from west to east of the study
region.
2.4.3 HUMIDITY
Water vapor in the atmosphere is known as humidity. Water from
different water bodies like oceans, sea, river, lake and snow and soil
moisture is evaporated continuously. Similarly, water is transpired and
subsequently evaporated from the plants, trees and forest vegetations. The
percentage of water vapor in the atmosphere is highly variable and
 50

changes according to season and place. Normally 1% moisture is

assumed in the atmosphere; however, it can be up to 4% by volume. The
ratio of actual vapor pressure to saturated vapor pressure under fixed
conditions of temperature expressed in the percentage is known as
“Relative Humidity” which is used universally as a measure of humidity.
Humidity is one of the prominent elements of weather from the farmers’
point of view and plays a significant role in changing agro climatic
conditions from place to place.
Fortanier (1957) has found that the rate of flowering of peanuts
increase with increase I humidity. High humidity at night is considered
most beneficial to the growth and maturity of plants. During the dry
summer, crops often exhibit a distinctly different growth response to
showers that are by low humidity (Chang, 1968). Humidity, cloudiness
and frost conditions are interrelated elements of climate influence fruit
farming. Frost at the time of flowering is injurious to plants. A Mango
trees does not bear adequate fruit if humidity is high through out the year
(Ranjit Singh 1969).
Table 2.6 show the average mean of humidity in Sindhudurg
District (1991 to 2006). It is clear from table 2.6 that average of
maximum humidity in Sindhudurg District was 88.6 per cent and average
of minimum humidity as 58.31 per cent. In case of monthly average of
humidity, in the month of August average mean of maximum humidity
was 94.3% which was the highest average mean of maximum humidity,
where as in the month of April average mean at maximum humidity was
83.4 per cent which was the lowest figure of minimum average mean of
maximum humidity.
 51

Table 2.6
Average Humidity in Sindhudurg District
(1995 to 2006)
Sr.No. Months Maximum Minimum
Humidity in % Humidity in %
1 January 88.1 38.5
2 February 87.1 38.9
3 March 86.7 45.3
4 April 83.4 51.7
5 May 84.2 57.1
6 June 89.8 72.9
7 July 93.3 82.4
8 August 94.3 81.5
9 September 92.5 74.6
10 October 90.0 63.2
11 November 87.0 50.6
12 December 87.5 42.4
Average 88.6 58.3
Source :- Agricultural Research Station, Mulde, Kudal,
Dist. Sindhudurg.

In the case of minimum average mean at humidity in Sindhudurg

District, in the month of July it was 82.4% which was the highest figure
of average mean of minimum humidity and in the month of January it
was 38.5% which was the lowest figure of minimum average of mean at
humidity.
The normal humidity between 50% to 60% is favorable for the
agricultural crops as well as plants. But all over the Picture of study
region is normal and above normal at humidity situation. If it is high
humidity, favors plant diseases and pests and low humidity increases the
 52

saturation deficit and accelerates transpiration. When the transpiration is

high, the water that reaches the leaves is not sufficient for them even
when there in no dearth of moisture in the soil. Because of this excessive
transpiration the stomata close and photosynthesis is interrupted. When
the saturation deficit is extreme, most of the plants wilt and some are
even killed because of physiological drought. Thus the proportion of
humidity is under normal and above normal helps to harms the fruit
farming of Mango, cashew and other agricultural plants in the study
region.
2.7.3 SUNSHINE
Sunlight is a factor of great physiological importance to plants
because it helps in the formation chlorophyll and accelerates the process
of photosynthesis, involves production of special sugar based substances
that keep the plants alive on sunlight. It is generated by the action of
sunlight on chlorophyll in leaves. The plants dependent on sunlight for
their food and growth. The total amount of light that falls on the earth
varies from place to place.
It has been recorded in the study region that the average monthly
sunshine throughout the year is 7 hours/day. Table 2.7 and fig. 2.9
indicate the daily mean lowest sunshine in the month of July is
2.3hours/day to 2.6hours/day.The highest daily mean sunshine in the
month of February is 9.6 hours/day and during April it is 9.4 hours/day.
Sunshine helps to increase the growth of evergreen plants in the study
region Average sunshine in Sindhudurg District given in the following
table 2.7.
Sunshine is relevant climatic consideration in crop growth. On the
whole there is adequate warmth and bright sunshine almost throughout
the year to provide ripening conditions for food and other crops in study
 53

region. Only during the monsoon, skies are heavily clouded or overcast.
But in the rest of year skies are very clear or very lightly clouded.
Table 2.7
Average Sunshine in Sindhudurg District (1995 to 2006)

Sr. No. Months Sunshine (Hours)

1 January 9.0
2 February 9.6
3 March 9.1
4 April 9.4
5 May 8.5
6 June 4.8
7 July 2.3
8 August 2.6
9 September 4.8
10 October 6.8
11 November 8.0
12 December 8.6
Average 7.0

Source :- Records of the Agricultural Research Station, Mulde, Kudal,

Dist. Sindhudurg.

2.8.5 WIND
Wind has many direct and indirect influences on crops. Winds are
very strong and are mainly westerly or southwesterly during the
monsoon. The direct effect of strong winds is entirely of mechanical
nature, i. e. in the form of crop uprooting and logging. Strong winds may
also give an asymmetrical appearance to the plants (Particularly to
horticultural crops) leaving few or no-branches and leaves on the
 54

windward side. Sindhdurg district is famous for the horticultural crops

like Alphanso mango and cashew nuts. During the rest of the year winds
blow from north-east in the morning and west-north-west in the
afternoons. During the pre and post monsoon months the district
generally experiences strong winds sometimes reaching very high
velocity.
Heavy rains are received along with cyclonic storm. Storms and
heavy showers causes heavy damage. These storms prove to be hazardous
to the garden crops in the study region.
The average daily mean of wind speed per hours in the study
region is 2.8 km/hrs. From October to December winds are generally the
speed of wind below 2 km/hrs but sometimes strong in November and
blow from directions between north-east and south-east. From October to
May it increase up to 3.7 km/hrs. but in the month of June and July the
wind speed takes place strong nature, it increases up to 4.1 km/hrs. in the
study region. Thunderstorms occur in April and May.
2.7.6 Evaporation
Total evaporation of water from soil surface and transpiration by
vegetation is termed as, ‘evapotranspiration’. The daily mean evaporation
average in study region is 4.2mm.in the year. Table 2.8 shows that the
evaporation continuously increases from Aug. to May. The highest
evaporation rate is observed in the month of April which is 5.8mm. And
the daily mean lowest evaporation is 3.4mm in the month of August and
December. The daily mean evaporation recorded in table 2.8 in the study
region.
 55

Table 2.8
Mean of Evaporation in Sindhudurg District
(1991 to 2006)
Sr. No. Months Rate of Evaporation
(mm)
1 January 3.7
2 February 4.4
3 March 5.0
4 April 5.8
5 May 5.6
6 June 4.4
7 July 3.6
8 August 3.4
9 September 3.6
10 October 3.6
11 November 3.5
12 December 3.4
Average 4.2

Source :- Record of the Agricultural Station Mulde, Kudal,

Dist. Sindhudurg.
2.8 SOILS
Soils are important natural resource. They not only form the base
for agriculture and sustain forests and pasture land but also provide the
material for brick making and other industrial activities. Soils provide
essential material on which agriculture is based and therefore any
comprehensive survey of the geography of agriculture, should include a
fairly good treatment of soils. Even at the beginning of his work on
political geography, Ratzel made a statement of great significance and
insight : “Jeder statt 1st ein stuck menschheit.” i. e. every nation is a bit of
 56

soil and humanity (Quoted by Klages 1958). Therefore no student of

civilization can afford to forget even for an instant the crucial importance
of soils. These are the source of practically the entire stock of mans food,
clothing and ever increasing list of other needs. So that man gets nearly
all of his food from the soils less than one per cent of what he eats being
fish. Of the long list of natures gifts to man productive soils and water are
the most basic to human life. Upper layer of soils has an average
thickness of between 15cm. to 20cm. depending upon local conditions.
The agricultural significance of soils also depends on climatic
conditions. In areas of heavy rainfall, loss of nutrients through leaching
can be offset only heavy inputs of lime and fertilizers which place a
considerable strain on farmers resource (Coppock, 1971). Soils constitute
the most important basic resource for agriculture (Bennet, 1955). Besides
climatic consideration the texture and depth of soil, its ingredients,
salinity or alkalinity status, drainage conditions and the position of
ground water table all go to determine the crops which would be suitable
for an area and the mode and extend of irrigation to be applied to them
(Government of India, 1976). The study of soils of a region including the
mechanical and chemical properties and process of formation is essential
for understanding its agricultural land use and production dynamics
(Sharma T.C., 1999).
1. Lateritic Soil
The lateritic soils are highly infertile. These are the soils developed
on laterite, which is itself derived from the basalt trap. They are
composed of a little clay and much gravel of red sandstone rocks.
Although there is no agreement among soil scientists as regards the origin
of laterite, it is widely accepted that the process of laterization conditions.
The lateric soils are as a rule, very poor in phosphoric acid which is the
 57

most important plant food. Due to heavy rainfall the base is leached away
along with the silicic acid and hence the residual rock material is acidic
and contains high proportion of iron and aluminum oxide. These oxides
lend the red color that is so typical of these soils
The laterite soil is the predominant soil in the district. Extensive
spreads of laterites are noticed throughout the district. Regionally these
laterite soils gets mixed with trappean soils in the hilly areas while along
the coast they form of banks of loams mixed with alluvium and sand.
They vary in color from red to brownish red, owing to the preponderance
of hydrated iron oxides. They are fairly well supplied with nitrogen and
organic matter. Their texture is loamy. They are porous and not moisture
retentive. The acidity and porosity on these soils have posed a problem
for the agricultural development in the study region. These soils are found
in several grades, the main being rice soils and varkas soils. Both these
soils are available on the slopes of the hills. Paddy, the principal crop of
the district grows in these soils and more than 50 per cent of the area is
under this crop. The balance land is traditionally cultivated for ragi, vari,
nagli etc. but this practice is being abandoned and there is a definite shift
towards horticultural crops in the recent years. The district is famous for
its mango fruits especially the world renowned – ‘Alphanso’. There has
been rapid increased in the area varkas soil being brought under
plantations. Entire landscape is also covered with Coconut, Kokum,
Arecanut and Jackfruit trees which thrive well in these soils and climate.
Spices like black pepper and other pulses are also cultivated in the study
region.
2. Alluvial Soil
Soils in the study region depend almost entirely on the character of
the bed rock. The Sindhudurg alluvial deposits are formed by the sea as
 58

well as the rivers but neither is significant in extent. The shell beds along
the north side of Malvan and Devgad estuaries belong to coastal alluvial.
That soil in the river valley region. That soil in found in river basins. It is
fertile soil and is generally used for paddy cultivation.
Coastal alluvial soils or ‘pulanvat’ lands with coarse sandy loam,
support vegetables, coconuts and banana. On the whole it can be said that
the soils in the study region are influenced by the climate, physiography
and forest (map 2.10)
3. Coastal Saline Soil
The coastal saline soils are situated on the flat, leveled land near
the sea usually along the creeks which penetrates into the coastal
alluvium at several places in both the broad zones. The saline soils are
formed due to the deposition of silt from the sea or from lands reclaimed
from the sea and are usually flat, clay to clay loam in reddish or yellow
grey in color locally these marshy soils are known as “Khar” or ‘Khajan’
lands constituting the problem soils of study region, requiring protection,
improvement and reclamation.
2.8.1 Tahsilwise Fertility Index of Soils in Sindhudurg District
Soil fertility refers to the nutrients supplying properties of soils
(Raychoudhari, 1966). In fact the plant is biological factory which require
number of raw materials for the usual growth. Out of them nitrogen,
Phosphorous and potash are much important and their quantities in a soil
usually determine, its fertility. A detailed report about the soil fertility
status of Sindhudurg district is not available; hence the present discussion
of these nutrients in the soils of the region is based on the data provided
by Department of Agriculture Survey and soil testing laboratory in
Sindhudurg district given in table no. 2.9.
 59

Table 2.9
Soil Fertility Index in Sindhudurg District
Sr.No. Tahsil Organic Phosphorous Potash
Carbon
1 Devgad 2.41 1.48 0.69
2 Vaibhawadi 3.00 1.30 1.90
3 Kankavali 2.26 1.37 1.57
4 Malvan 2.08 1.41 0.65
5 Vengurla 2.24 1.46 0.82
6 Kudal 2.58 1.55 0.77
7 Sawantwadi 2.59 1.61 1.90
Source :- Department of Agriculture, Soil Testing Lab. Sindhudurg . 2005-06.

Table 2.9 and fig. 2.11 indicate the organic carbon in soils in the
study region. Medium high fertility index is found in Malvan and
Vengurle tahsils i.e. 1.76 to 2.25 and above medium high soil fertility
index i.e. 2.26 to 2.75 is observed in Devgad, Kankavali, Kudal,
Sawantwadi and Vaibhavwadi tahsils.
Study of proportion of Phospharous percentage in the soils in the
study region, as presented in table 2.9 and fig. 2.11 shows that medium
fertility index i.e. 1.26 to 1.75 is observed in Devgad, Kankavali, Kudal,
Malvan, Sawantwadi and Vengurle tahsils in other words all the tahsils of
Sindhudurg district have medium fertility index of the soils.
The study of potash contains in the soils in the study region presented
in table 2.9 and fig. 2.11 indicate that Devgad, Kudal, Malvan and
Vengurle tahsils have low fertility index of soils i.e. o.76 to 1.25 and
remaining tahsils have medium fertility index of the soils i.e. 1.26 to 1.75.
 60

2.8.2 VEGETATION
Vegetations are very important to maintain the ecological balance
of nature and they play a vita role in the economy of the study region.
Forests are the only source of timber and other construction materials,
including many minor forests produce like fuel, medicinal herbs, fodder,
and different kinds of fruits. They also provide raw materials for many
forest based industries in the study region. Vegetation helps to reduce
pollution, maintain humidity and good rains. Apart from all the above
uses, the primary importance of the tree is that it takes in carbon dioxide
and gives back oxygen which is essential for the life of mankind as well
as animals (Singh and Sadhu, 1991).
Forest is the greatest renewable natural resource and also of the
most striking feature of the landscape. Indirectly the forest ameliorates
the extremes of climate, regulates the flow of rivers and checks soil
erosion, controls floods and other determining factors affecting the soil.
Thus, no one can deny the importance of forest in the regional ecology as
well as in the economy (Mamoriya, C.B., 1973).
The forests are spread over disconnected bits from the seashore
to the hills. Forest under government Management have a limited and
uneven distribution most of which are situated on steep and precipitous
slopes along the mountain sides, in the upper reaches of valleys and in
inaccessible folds of mountains. The lower slopes, flat hill tops and
terraces are either under cultivation or under some sort of degraded tree
growth as ‘Malki’ or Inam’ lands. (Tirpude 1971).
The total forest area is covered by Tropical wet evergreen, Tropical
Semi-evergreen and south Indian tropical moist deciduous. Further area
divided into forest having laterite red soil and forest with Sandy looms.
The study region is included in tropical region. Due to the high rainfall
 61

ranges from 2600mm. to 3800mm. and on an average 101 rainy days.

Temperature is minimum 19oC to maximum 41oC. This climatic
condition is favorable for growing varieties of vegetation. More than 200
spcies of trees, shrubs, climbers, bamboos and grasses are seen in the
study region.
1. Tropical Wet Evergreen
The western higher flanks of the Sahyadries contain some of the
best tropical, wet evergreen forests. The average rainfall here is as heavy
as about over 3000mm. and humidity being very high with humus-rich
soils. The resultant moisture in the climate promotes luxuriant vegetation
consisting of very dense evergreens.
2. Tropical Semi – Evergreen
The lower western flanks of Sahyadries have and average rainfall
of 3000mm. There is apparent transition in the forest type in this region
from the evergreen to the moist deciduous.
3. Tropical Moist Deciduous
In the study region with an average rainfall of about 1400 mm. and
fairly long and distinct dry period, condition is suitable for the growth of
existing tropical moist deciduous forests. These forests are high with
predominantly deciduous species, the canopy is irregular with some
evergreen completely scrubby undergrowth, patches of bamboos and
heavy climbers including cane are important feature of the landscape.
(Hande, B.R. 1996).
The high Sahyadri ranges with their uneven terrain supports rich
tropical monsoon forest cover. Patches of evergreen forests are in hollows
having a perennial water supply and rich soils with humus and thin
vegetation cover exists on the steep scarp with poor and thin soils. The
traverse hill chain of coastlands with the irregular Crestline and eroded
 62

flanks now support a forest cover that is tropical monsoonal but not rich
in its quality.
The main species of trees in Sindhudurg district are
1. Adhatoda (Rasica) Adulsa
2. Arundinaria (Wightima) Chivar
3. Antiaris (Innoxia) Jasund
4. Acacia (Procera) Kinai
5. Anacardium (Occidentale) Kaju
6. Areca (Catechu) Pophal
7. Artocarpus (Indegrifolia) Phanas
8. Alstonia (Scholaris) Satvin
9. Albizzia (Lebbek) Siras
10. Bauhinia (Racemosa) Apta
11. Banbusa (Stricta) Bhovarbet
12. Buchanania (Latifolia) Char
13. Briedlia (Chebule ) Harda
14. Bigninla ( Zylocarpa) Kharsing
15. Banbusa (Arundinaria) Mango
16. Butea (Frondosa) Palas
17. Buchanania ( Latifolia) Phalya
18. Cassia ( Fistula) Bava
19. Caryota ( Urens) Bherlamad
20. Canarium ( Strictum) Dhup
21. Carya ( Arbored) Kumbya
22. Caeslpina ( Sappan) Patang
23. Calyeassion ( Longifolium) Surang
24. Dalbergia ( Latifolia) Sisav
25. Emblica ( Officinalis) Avli
 63

26. Egle (Marmelos) Bel

27. Eugenia ( Jambolana) Jambhul
28. Eugenia ( Vulgaris) Jamb
29. Epicarpus ( Oientalis) Kharvat
30. Flacortia ( Montana) Atak
31. Ficus ( ordifolia) Payar
32. Ficus ( Religiosa) Pimpal
33. Glycycarpur ( acemosus) Amberi
34. Hydnocarpus ( Inebrians) Kavathi
35. Jonesia (Asoca) Ashok
36. Lagerstroemia ( Regine) Taman
37. Mangifrra Indica ( Linn) Amba
38. Memecylon ( Adule) Anjan
39. Mimusopa (Elengi) Bakul
40. Mimusops ( Hexanda) Khirni
41. Musa ( Ornata) Chavai
42. Nauclea ( Cordifolia) Hed
43. Nauclea ( Parviflora) Kadamb
44. Nirum ( Odorum) Kanher
45. Nauclea ( Cadamba) Nhiv
46. Nyetanthes (Arbortristic) Parjatak
47. Nephelium ( Langanum) Vomb
48. Olea ( Dioica) Karamb
49. Pongamia ( Glebra) Karanji
50. Plumerica ( Acuminata) Kudchapha
51. Spondias ( Mangifera) Ambada
52. Semicarpus ( Anacardium) Biba
53. Syzygium ( Caryophylleum) Jambal
 64

54. Strychnos ( Nuxvomica) Kajara

55. Stephegyne ( Parviflora) Kalam
56. Sapota ( Tomentosa) Kumbal
57. Streculia ( Fetida) Nagalkuda
58. Salacia ( Prionoides) Nisalbonda
59. Stereospermum ( Chelonoides) Padhri
60. Sapindus ( Laurifolius) Ringiritha
61. Salmalia ( Mlabarica) Savar
62. Sterculia ( Villosa) Saykanda
63. Terminalia ( Chebula) Harda
64. Terminalia ( Belerica) Hela
65. Tamarindus Indica(Tamarind) Chinch
66. Terminala ( Glabra) Ain
67. Terminalia ( Paniculata) Kinjal
68. Tricasanthes ( Aanguina) Padali
69. Terminalia ( Glebra) Sajan
70. Tectona ( Grandis) Sagvan
71. Urostigma ( Bengalense) Vad
72. Venguria ( Edulis) Alu
73. Xanthoxyion ( Rhetsa) Tirphal
74. Xylia ( Dalabriformis) Jamba

Beside these plants there are many more varieties of the plants in
the study region.
Tahsil wise distribution of forest area in Sindhudurg District is
presented in table no. 2.10. The total forest area of study region is
covered by different sub-types of forests but their regional distribution is
markedly uneven. Forests at present occupy an area about 38,220 hectares
 65

in the study region, about 7.64 per cent of the total geographical land
areas against the required 33.33 per cent of area under forests according
to National Forest Policy of 1952. It is clear that the area under forest is
very low as per the requirement of the NFP in the study region.
Table No. 2.10
Distribution of Forest Area in Sindhudurg District
(1980 - 85 and 2000 - 2005)
Sr.No. Tahsil Area in Area in
Hectares Hectares
1980 - 85 2000 - 2005
1 Devgad - 2480
(3.22)
2 Vaibhawadi 3300 2560
(7.91) (6.14)
3 Kankavali 8520 9040
(11.3) (11.83)
4 Malvan 300 300
(0.47) (0.48)
5 Vengurla 640 860
(2.22) (2.84)
6 Kudal 8060 10080
(9.83) (12.77)
7 Sawantwadi 12100 12900
(9.10) (9.60)
District 29,753 38220
(6.46) (7.64)
(Figures in the brackets indicate Percentage)
Source :- Socio – Economic Abstract of Sindhudurg District,
1980-85 and 2000-2005.

Table 2.10 and map no. 2.12 indicate the uneven distribution of
area under forest in Sindhudurg District. The total area under forest is
estimated to be 38,220 hectares, covering only 7.64 percent of the total
geographical area of the study region. Out of this area 40% is under
timber trees, 40% forest area under fuel wood trees and remaining 20 %
 66

forest area under miscellaneous forest trees. Kudal tahsil ranks first with
12.77 per cent area under forest cover, followed by Kankavali 11.83%,
Sawantwadi 9.60%, Vaibhavwadi 6.14%, Devgad 3.22%, Vengurla
2.84%, and Malvan tahsil with only 0.48% to the total geographical area
of the Sindhudurg District. There is increase in area under forest in 2000-
2005 However the increase not considerable compared to the year 1980-
85 in the study region.
2.8.3 SUMMARY
The Study region in Maharashtra covers an area of about per cent
of the total area of the state. This comprises 8 tahsils in study region but
Dodamarg tahsil is included in Sawantwadi tahsil. This comprises tahisls
from Sindhudurg district viz. Devgad, Vaibhavwadi and Dodamarg
The eastern part of the study region is covered by Sahyadri
Mountain range. The hilly region covered 41.34 percent of geographical
area of the study region. Many spurs and saddles occur in the area.
Central zone or Valati is covered by small hills and rides having height
about 150 meters to 450 meters from sea level and 36.43 percent of total
geographical area occupied of the study region. The physiography of
study region indicates that at least 77.77 percent of the region comprises
with hilly and plateau area Due to steep slope, rugged topography it is
very difficult to cultivate these area.
Sindhudurg district of Maharashtra is high rainfall region as
compared to the drought prone region of Maharashtra but due to the steep
slope, rivers are mostly dry in dry season. The river valleys of Devgad,
Achara, Klakvli, Karli, Terekhol, Talavade, Tilari and Kalane and their
tributaries are favorable for some soil patches on their banks where the
agricultural activities are concentrated.
Rainfall variability below 20 percent is in Vengurla, Devgad,
Malvan and Sawantwadi tahsils and above 20 per cent is observed in
 67

Kankavali, Kudal and Vaibhavwadi tahsils. Rainfall Variability indicated

the guarantee of rainfall but not guarantee of crop production due to the
dry rivers in summer season.
The intensity of rainfall is increasing from the coastal area towards
the hilly region i.e. from west to east in the study region.
The district of Sindhudurg is one of the agriculturally under
developed area of of Maharashtra. This is mainly because major area
belongs to rugged topography and steep slope in the study region. Soils in
the study region depended entirely on the character of the bed rock. The
lateritic soils are highly infertile. These are developed on laterite, which
is itself derived from the basalt trap. The coastal saline soils are suitable
of flat, leveled and near the sea usually along the creeks which penetrates
into the coastal alluvium of several places. In short these soils are
agriculturally poor.
From the point of view of natural vegetation is maintaining rainfall
and provide wood for agriculture. Total forest area of study region is
38220 hectares in 2000-2005 covered by tropical wet evergreen, tropical
moist deciduous. Area under forest is low as per the requirement of
National Forest Policy of 1952.
 68

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