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Unit 5 Genetics Guided Notes Page 7 Non-Mendellan
Unit 5 Genetics Guided Notes Page 7 Non-Mendellan
4) When he crossed the F1 plants (purple flowers with purple flowers), the F2 generation
resulted in 3 purple flowered plants for every one white flowered plant. In other words,
75% were purple flowered while 25% were white flowered.
5) He realized that the white flowered trait didn’t disappear in the F1 generation, it
was only hidden.
Homologous Chromosomes
with Genes/Alleles: and
Punnett Squares are used to determine all the possible outcomes in offspring when
gametes unite in fertilization.
Example 1: Suppose brown eyes are dominant to blue eyes. Make a Punnett square
to predict the offspring from a cross between a male who is heterozygous for brown
eyes and a female with blue eyes. Give the genotypic and phenotypic ratio. (This
problem is a cross between an organism showing the dominant trait and an organism
that is homozygous recessive so it is called a test cross.)
Example 2: Purple flowers are dominant to white flowers. Make a Punnett square to
predict the offspring from a cross from a homozygous purple flower and a
heterozygous purple flower. Give the genotypic and phenotypic ratio.
Do the Monohybrid practice problems and this chi square for next class.
Chi Square Test and Genetics
A chi square test is often used in genetics to determine if the predicted results from a
cross deviate significantly from what actually occurred. Consider the cross we did on
page 2 of the notes. What was your phenotypic ratio of the F2 generation? __________
If you had 7324 plants in total (5474 purple and 1850 white), would those results be
significantly different from the ratio you expected?
Determine if we should accept or reject the Null Hypothesis.
Round Wrinkled
Observed
Expected
O-E
(O-E)2
(O-E)2/ E
Sum of the last row:____________
If the critical value is 3.84, is our ratio of 3:1 accepted?
Are the results significantly different from the 3:1 ratio?
Do you accept or reject the Null Hypothesis?
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As you can see, doing a Punnett Square with dihybrid cross is very long! If you did a
trihybrid cross, it would be much worse. There would be 64 boxes in the Punnett
Square! Because of this, you will be using a mathematical way to predict the chance
of allele combinations.
For example: If you tossed a coin, you would have ½ chance of heads and a ½
chance of tails. These are independent events.
What is the probability of a gamete getting a b allele if the mother has a genotype of
Bb?
What if you tossed 2 coins simultaneously? This is considered a compound event. You
would have to multiply the probabilities together. This is known as the Rule of
Multiplication. You will always use the rule of multiplication when you have 2
independent events that will happen at the same time. (AND situation)
What is the probability that if you flip 2 coins at the same time, both will lands heads
up?
Now, we want these independent events to happen at the same time so multiply the
probabilities together to get the answer.
You may also have to use the Rule of Addition in some genetics problems.
The Rule of Addition states that the chance of an event that can occur in 2 or more
independent ways is the sum of their individual chances. So, instead of multiplying,
you add probabilities together if it can happen in 2 different ways. (OR situation)
Rule of Addition Genetics Example:
If you cross 2 dogs that have the genotypes Bb, what is the probability that the F1
generation dog will have the Bb genotype?
Offspring 3: rrYY
2) What is the probability that the following 2 parents will produce offspring that are
homozygous dominant (AABBCC) for all 3 traits?
Parent 1: AABbCC Parent 2: AaBbCc
3) Do for next class: What is the probability that the following 2 parents will produce
offspring that are heterozygous (AaBbCcDd) for all four traits?
Parent 1: AaBbCCDd Parent 2: AaBbCcDD
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Nonmendelian Genetics
Everything we have been talking about so far has assumed complete dominance and
basic genetic conditions. Most gene reactions, however, do not work out that way.
1. Dominance may have degrees.
Incomplete dominance: when neither allele is completely dominant over
the others. Example: Red flowers and white flowers produce pink flowers.
Codominance: when both alleles are fully expressed, they both create an
effective product. For example – blood groups and blood types.
2. Multiple Alleles: more than two alleles exist for a particular gene, although
each individual still only gets two. For example – blood groups again.
3. Epistasis: when the product of one gene may modify the phenotypic expression of
another. Basically, genes interact to produce a phenotype. For example – hair
and skin color is a two-step process: step 1 is to make the pigment and step 2 is
to add the color. If there is no step 1, there cannot be a step 2. So the
genotype for trait 2 doesn’t matter because trait 1 masks it.
Albinism is a breakdown of this process and an example of Epistasis.
6. Sex Linkage:
Human females are XX and males are XY. The Y chromosome carries very few
traits, most are on the X. Therefore, if the X chromosome has a mutation on it,
then it will be passed easier to a male and will usually show up in males before
females. It is not impossible for females to have sex-linked traits, just rare.
Remember, since fathers pass the Y chromosome down to their sons, the X
chromosome with the sex-linked trait must come from the mother.
Examples of sex-linked traits: Color blindness, Hemophilia, Muscular Dystrophy,
Adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD – the disease from “Lorenzo’s Oil”),
and white eyes (albinism) in fruit flies
Phenylketonuria (PKU) – the liver cannot break down the amino acid phenylalanine
so it accumulates in the blood. Symptoms include a mousy odor, broad shoulders,
missing skin pigment, difficulty walking, and mental retardation. It is easily
manageable if individuals with PKU do not eat phenylalinine. There are warning
labels on food for them.
Albinism – lack of pigment in the skin and hair. An example of epistasis. Occurs in 1
out of 22,000 individuals.
Tay Sachs – the lysosomes cannot break down lipids so they accumulate in the
brain cells. Babies are normal at birth, become blind by age 1, and are usually
dead by age 5. Affects 1 in 300,000 but is much more common in the Jewish
population.
Achondroplasia – the allele codes for shortened bone growth. This results in a form
of dwarfism where the torso is normal sized but the arms and legs are smaller.
Normal sized individuals are homozygous recessive. Dwarfs are heterozygous.
Homozygous dominant individuals do not make enough bone tissue at all and die
as an embryo. This is known as the dominant lethal allele. This also means it is not
passed down as often as it could be. It occurs in 1 out of 25,000 people.
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Polydactly – extra fingers and toes. Affects 1 in 1,000 on average, but 1 in 200 in
people of African descent. Most extra fingers are on the pinky side, but some can
be on the thumb side or even in the middle.
Red-Green Color Blindness – the cones in the eyes are unable to distinguish
between red and green pigments. A normal person sees 150 colors, color blind
individuals see 25 or less.
Hemophilia – a blood plasma disorder where clotting factors are missing or non-
functioning, causing excessive bleeding.
When studying human disorders, you can’t perform breeding experiments. You need
to analyze the results of matings that have already occurred. To do that we use:
Pedigree Analysis
Autosomal Recessive Autosomal Dominant Sex-Linked Recessive
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