Journal of Public Affairs Volume 3 Number 4
Passage to cyberactivism: How dynamics of
Journal of Public Affairs
Vol. 3 No. 4, 2003, pp. 326–337
& Henry Stewart Publications,
ISSN 1472-3891
Page 326
activism change
Laura Illia
Received: 4th November, 2002
Institute for Corporate Communication, Via Giuseppe Buffi 13, University of Lugano, Switzerland;
tel: +41 91 912 4632; e-mail: laura.illia@lu.unisi.ch
Laura Illia is a researcher at the Institute of
Corporate Communication (ICA), University of
Lugano, Switzerland. In 2000 she co-authored
the paper ‘Global Issues Management in the New
Economy’, presented at the Public Relations
World Congress 2000. Her masters thesis won
the ‘Angelika Meyer Terlizzi Award’ in 2001,
awarded by the Swiss–Italian chapter of the
Swiss Public Relations Society (SPRG), and the
‘Jos Willems Award’ in 2002, awarded by Eur-
opean Public Relations Education and Research
Association (EUPRERA).
ABSTRACT
The boost to activism to which the internet has
largely contributed has been underlined by financial
and image issues growing from hacker attacks and
the online promotion of activist groups. Emergency
corporate counteractions with regard to these cyber
threats have not analysed this new phenomenon.
The state of the research in this area has consis-
tently remained at the period before the develop-
ment and widespread use of the internet.
Cyberactivism, therefore, is a cyber phenomenon
without a clear meaning or a clear definition.
In order to understand cyberactivism, it is impor-
tant to understand that it is much more than
simply about hacking and activists’ online promo-
tion. It is a new phenomenon, growing out of
activism but changing the pressure on corporations.
With the internet, new dynamics of issue selection
have been established and a different aggregation
within groups has taken place. A new organisa-
tional set-up among activist groups puts new
pressure on corporations, which must develop new
strategies concerning online rules. Cyber actions are
originated by individuals triggering a spontaneous
relationship between many users. The pressure is
no longer the result of a long aggregation into
association, but of an immediate and spontaneous
network of relationships.
KEYWORDS: activism, dynamics of cyber-
activism, rogue websites, online forum,
hacking, environmental changes, cyber-
issue lifecycle
WHAT IS CYBERACTIVISM?
Cyberactivism follows a process similar to
activism, but is the result of new dynamics
that definitively change the pressure on
corporations.
The redefinition of the concept of acti-
vism, considering public relations, issue man-
agement, politics, philosophy and sociology
— systemic theory — shows that activism
grows around issues selected by a group of
individuals. The pressure on corporations is
the result of aggregations in a protest move-
ment (Luhmann 1992: 58–72), as well as
organisational systems being given mass
media coverage (Grunig 1992; Regester and
Larking 1997; Luhmann 1992: 58–72; Kym-
licka 1996). Issues selection has a territorial
limit, and pressure is achieved through a long
process (Grunig 1992: 510; Holtz 2000:

176), which stretches from flyers distributed
on the streets and meetings to campaigns and
media coverage, and includes the collection
of financial and human resources. Such a
process might last for several months, or even
years.
Following the introduction of communi-
cation technologies (CT), information
technology (IT) and the internet, the
environment within which organisations and
activists deal with each other changed. Pres-
sure is now no longer the outcome of an
aggregation into organisational systems but
rather the result of relationships established.
Cyberactivism grows around issues selected
through the interconnection of many kinds
of players: traditional pressure groups that go
online, spontaneous aggregation, and indivi-
duals. As a timeless, location-free and agency
medium (Gregory 1999: 9; Lévi 1999: 124;
Bettetini and Colombo 1996: 15; Maiocchi
2000: 34), the internet moves the emphasis
from a territorial to a functional selection of
issues. This means that the issue selection —
having a functional logic in itself — is
empowered by the loss of territorial limits.
Since the advent of the internet, the environ-
ment is a plural network in which many to
many communication (Clark and Lapiski
1999; Gregory, 1999) allows individuals to
be either sender or receiver, modifying and
elaborating information. This new intercon-
nection of the flow of communication opens
up a new concept regarding time limits and,
more importantly, causes the loss of control
(Holtz 2000) on the part of corporate com-
munication. The cyberactivism process no
longer necessitates a long time in develop-
ment; it can now even be the outcome of an
instant action, and cyberactivists’ visibility
needs mass media coverage only to reach
public policy results (Wernli and Frank
2000).
This development, as shown in Table 1, is
the result of many changes at the business
and governmental levels. There is a higher
responsibility and participation of individuals
Illia
within society and there has been a develop-
ment of local grassroots campaigns (Kelly
1996). New players enter into the negotia-
tion process at an international level, and a
new regulation regime is now needed to
manage the severe heterogeneity of pressures
and issues since the advent of the internet
(Schwartz and Gibb 1999: 1-9, 131–47). All
of these changes point to major complexities
within the world of activism: a new kind of
active behaviour relating to technical attacks
(Becca 2000: 45; Schwartau 2000); a change
within corporation–stakeholder relationships
leading to a major participation of each node
within the plural network (Siegel 1999;
Rifkin 2000); the need for a customised
behaviour of corporations, increasing the
involvement of the core public in the deci-
sion-making process (Siegel 1999); the rise in
new issues relating to cyberspace and the
new economy as the commercialisation of
culture (Rifkin 2000); security and privacy
problems (Schwartau 2000; Dr K 2000);
disparity of access with consequent economic
disparity between countries (Negrine 1997:
54).
Overall, these basic elements produce four
typologies of cyberactivism, which are
the result of a construction of relationships
producing synergies between the different
typologies.
Online activist groups born before the advent
of the internet
A web-based analysis1 conducted in 2000
shows that activist groups have a website
structure following the online communica-
tional dynamics (Holtz 2000: 16–32), similar
to the e-business solutions. Websites are not
only catalogues informing about issues and
events — typical e-commerce structure (Sie-
gel 1999: 21–25) — but rather are places
where relationships are established. The
web-based analysis showed that 33 per cent
of websites publish strictly personalised infor-
mation — receiver-driven communication
(Holtz 2000: 29; Kurzmeyer 2000) —
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Passage to cyberactivism: How dynamics of activism change

Table 1: Cyberactivism: How dynamics of activism change

Activisma Cyberactivismb

1 Originates from society’s complexity and
pluralism
2 Originates from the heterogeneity of society
3 Grows from an issue selection caused by failed
expectation related to corporate social
responsibility (CSR)
4 There is a tendency to rise and focus around
an issue. The selection of the issue has a
functional logic that is limited by a territorial logic that is empowered by the functional logic of
boundary
5 Activism consists of a protest of two or more
individuals. The aggregation into a group of
people is a prerogative of activism
6 Activism expresses and reaches a situation of
pressure on a corporation into a movement of
protest or an organisation. Pressure on
corporations is reached within the aggregation
7 Visibility is reached due to a mass media coverage Visibility is reached through both mass media and
that contributes to the increase in pressure
Originates from an increase in the complexity of
society that is due to the loss of communication
control within the plural network
Originates from a greater heterogeneity due to two
characteristics of the internet: agency and
mutability
Grows from an issue selection caused by a failed
expectation related to a major responsible public
opinion in regard to CSR issues and non-CSR
issues
There is a tendency to rise and focus around an
issue. The selection of the issue has a functional
the issue development in cyberspace
Cyberactivism consists of a protest of a single
individual or two or more individuals. The
aggregation is not a prerogative of cyberactivism
Cyberactivism expresses in spontaneous
aggregations, individual actions, movements of
protest taking place off- and online, and
organisations that operate off- and online. The
pressure on corporations is reached within every
singular relationship
the internet. Both contribute to gain visibility, but
a public policy result can be achieved only if there
is a mass media coverage.

a
These seven key characteristics are the result of activism redefinition through an analysis that integrates three
disciplines studying activism: public relations (see eg Grunig 1992; Regester and Larkin 1997; Holtz 2000), politics’
philosophy (see eg Kymlicka 1996), systemic theory of Luhmann, cybernetic approach to the systems theory (see eg
Luhmann 1992; Luhmann and De Giorgi 1996).
b
These seven key characteristics are the result of the revision of activism’s characteristics in the light of changes that
have been brought about by the internet within the environment where activists and non-activists interact. The
analysis has been conducted at three levels of change: business (see eg Siegel 1999; Rifkin 2000; Kelly 1996),
governmental (see eg Negrine 2000; Schwartz and Gibb 1999) and communication (see eg Clark and Lapiski 1999;
Gregory 1999; Holtz 2000; Lévy 1999).

oriented to the pull dynamic. Information
packages and web sections help users to find
and pull the information they are interested
in. Furthermore, 26 per cent of websites
establish many partnerships — market sample
of one communication (Holtz 2000: 34;
Neustifter 2000) — in order to reach other
sites’ users who are tied to one’s issue.
Partnerships are drivers of a target of users.
Finally, 7 per cent of websites collect finan-
cial resources with online forms and online
auctions, and 17 per cent create interactivity
with mailing lists and discussion groups. This
relationship structure orientation does not

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mean that cyberactivists have an e-business
strategy. It means that they go online utilising
the potential of the internet at the commu-
nications level, which permits them to focus
their own communication on establishing a
relationship.
Rogue websites and individuals within group
of discussions
Rogue websites publish arguments concern-
ing corporations (Holtz 2000: 183). As in the
first typology of cyberactivism, they have a
structure oriented to relationships. They dif-
ferentiate from the first typology because
they are published by individuals or by teams
that grow spontaneously from partnerships
among the cyberactivist online aggregation.
There are both fan sites, publishing positive
information, and suck sites (Kassel 2000a),
publishing negative information.
Despite providing publicity for corp-
orations, fan sites are a big problem for
companies, especially for those working
within the entertainment industry. Copy-
right problems are core issues relating to
these sites. The International Trademark As-
sociation confirms that during the year 2000,
there was a 22 per cent decrease in sales
because of copyright infringement (Nua Sur-
veys, 2000). An example of a fan site problem
is the Mattel and Barbie dolls collectors case
(Gellene 1997; Millican 1999–2000; Holtz
2000: 182–83), which shows communica-
tional as well as corporate identity issues tied
to a legal counteraction.
By contrast, attack sites publish informa-
tion with the aim of damaging the corporate
image. In 2000, more than 5000 attack sites
were published by ‘disgruntled consumers
and disaffected employees’ (Kassel 2000a).
Disappointed consumers or individuals pur-
suing a cause achieve pressure due to syner-
gies created with online partnerships. Either
image of financial problems can be the result.
Examples of attack sites are The Flaming
Ford owners (Bradsher 1996; Association of
Flaming Ford Owners; Solheim and Hen-
Illia
ning 1998) and Cokespotlight attack sites
(Piro 2000a). In 1996, Ford announced the
recall of 8.7 million cars and trucks equal to a
loss of US$300m and in 2000, Coke changed
its distribution channels. These are direct and
indirect consequences of cyber actions origi-
nated by individuals triggering spontaneous
relationships between many users.
Users publishing rogue websites some-
times use the cross-related communication
potential of discussion groups. Individuals
lurk — passive membership within the vir-
tual community — and participate within
discussion groups in order to sensitise others
on an issue they are involved with (Solheim
and Henning 1998; Holtz 2000). Every mes-
sage published creates a relationship having
an exponential diffusion due to the cross-
related communication between virtual
communities and the logic of the online
grapevine (Siegel 2000: 101) and the trust
between members of the communities. In
this way, individuals with agendas using
vertical virtual communities follow the viral
and permission marketing logic of online
communities. The potential of this logic is
huge. The Nutrasweet case (Holtz 2000) has
shown that 500 messages posted by a user can
give rise to an 80 per cent increase in
messages within virtual communities (Holtz
2000: 181). Other examples of this typology
of cyberactivism are the Intel Pentium case
(Regester and Larkin 1997: 55–62; Holtz
2000: 216; Rodger 1996) — in 1995, Intel
replaced the Pentium chip, giving rise to a
loss of £306m — and frauds within financial
virtual communities (Torresan 2000: 49;
Beccalli 2000: 4).
Hacking
Hackers represent a new kind of active be-
haviour related to technical attacks. There
are many kinds of hackers, with different
grades of criminality. Some of them — Elite
Uber hackers, Ethical Hackers and White
Hats (Schwartau 2000: 38–61; Winkler
2000) — do not have criminal intent, since
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Passage to cyberactivism: How dynamics of activism change
their hacking consists only of finding IT
systems and software weaknesses. Others —
Black hats, Prackers, Hacker gangs, Wan-
nabes and Push button (Schwartau 2000:
38–61; US Department of Defense 1996) —
have a middle to low degree of criminal
intent, since they penetrate IT systems to
prove their technical ability. Another cate-
gory — Warez Durez, Crackers, Terrorist
hacking and Criminals (Schwartau 2000:
38–61; Winkler 2000; Introvigne 1999) —
have a high degree of criminal intent, since
they penetrate systems and decrypt messages
in order to steal information and cause da-
mage. The limiting factor in distinguishing
cyberactivism, criminal activity and hacking
relates to the purpose of each hacker. Cyber-
activism can arise whenever there is a failed
expectation, whether or not it is mixed with
criminal intent. It is not possible to compare
cyberactivism and hackers, however, when
there is only a criminal intent or a lack
thereof. The limit between criminal activity
and this typology of cyberactivism becomes
even less clear when different typologies of
hackers interact and share information. In
this case, non-criminal hackers contribute
indirectly to criminal hacker attacks.
Corporations have to learn how to manage
hackers, not only because hacker attacks have
a large impact at the financial and corporate
image levels, but also because corporations
indirectly contribute to hacker attacks. In
order to carry out the external mapping of IT
architectures and to identify a system’s weak-
nesses — hacker strategy (Schwartau 2000:
185) — hackers collect a huge amount of
information on the corporation they want to
attack. In addition to the unofficial informa-
tion which hackers exchange with each
other, there is also official information, pub-
lished both by IT system corporations and
the target corporation itself, which is useful
for hackers (Winkler 2000). Furthermore,
corporations have great responsibility in pre-
venting hacker attacks because they are indir-
ectly responsible for social engineering as
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well (Dr K 2000: 78–80; De Rada 2001:
103): collecting information from employees,
hackers turn employees into indirect accom-
plices to hacking. Finally, corporations have
to be aware that employee dissatisfaction can
lead to hacking against corporations: 35 per
cent of hackers are internal employees (Noak
2000). The analysis showed that hacker
attacks follow many techniques (Ahuja 1997;
Schwartau 2000; Becca 2000; Dr K 2000;
MXM 1997). Some are oriented towards
credit card hacking — password hacking,
sniff, Trojan hacking, war dialling, crypto-
hacking — and others towards IT systems
hacking — denial of services, hacking for
evidence, stenography, viruses, anonymity.
Hybrid expressions
Domain squatting, cybergraffiti, hacktivism
and net strike are all hybrid expressions of
cyberactivism resulting from a synergy be-
tween the other three.
Domain squatting consists of a domain
name registration having two functions: to
gain money — the domain name will be
offered and sold to a corporation interested
in that name (Damiani 2000: 4); or re-route a
famous website’s traffic to the domain name
registered — in this case, clients and users
will come across a website criticising cor-
porations or issues related to it instead of
reaching the corporation website itself (Bes-
son 2000: 14–15). An example of this is the
etoy/E-toys case (Piro 2000b).
Cybergraffiti consists of the substitution of
an original website page — usually the web
page — with a message relating to activist or
cyberactivist causes (Schwartau 2000: 25–
32). On the websites http://www.attrition.
com and http://www.2600.com, one finds
many examples of such cybergraffiti.
Hacktivism (Schwartau 2000: 69–72) is a
type of political hacking leading to a use of
the internet for civil disobedience. An exam-
ple of this is the online information of anti-
global activist groups. Net strikes comprise
denial of services (IT systems breakdown —

eg May 1996, Usenet newsgroup alt.religion.
scientology) or online strikes (e-commerce
blocks — eg Adbusters, Buying nothing
day).
HOW TO MANAGE CYBERACTIVISM
In managing the pressures created by cyber-
activism, it is important to envisage activities
which support strategic planning by consid-
ering relationships, participation and loss of
control as main elements within the environ-
ment.
The analysis of Grunig and Repper’s mod-
el of public relations strategy (Grunig and
Repper 1992) in the light of the new envir-
onment underscores that in each stage of
communication planning, there are new ele-
ments which need to be taken into consid-
eration.
Stakeholder stage
The introduction of the internet has made it
necessary to change the concept of stake-
holder mapping.
Communication planning at this stage
aims to identify corporate stakeholders (or
players influencing and influenced by corpo-
rate operations) in order to promote a pre-
vious communication to them (Grunig and
Repper 1992). Stakeholder mapping follows
a logic in which corporations are the central
element that can control relationships be-
tween corporation and stakeholder and be-
tween stakeholder and stakeholder.
With the introduction of the internet,
however, the management of relationships
needs to be handled even more carefully than
before these changes to the environment. In
an e-communication where the channel is
used ‘to transform, alter, correct, attack, sup-
port a message’ (Gregory 1999: 9), commu-
nication is completely transformed. The
many-to-many communication substitutes
traditional models of information processing
(Lévi 1997: 124-26; Holtz 2000: 89-194;
Gregory 1999). In addition, the anonymity
and the loss of control alter the equilibrium
Illia
within the communication flow (Lévi 1997:
79; Esposito 1995; Luhmann and De Giorgi
1996: 102). Finally, a higher participation
changes the rules of the game (Bettellini and
Colombo 1996: 15). All together, these new
elements show how new activities aimed at
monitoring e-communication have become
more important for managing relationships.
They must be considered as activities that
require a stakeholder mapping which no
longer portrays the corporation at the centre
of the stakeholder map.
Public stage
With the introduction of the internet, it has
been necessary to consider new factors to be
taken into consideration within Grunig’s
Situational Theory of Communication Behavior.
Communication planning at this stage
aims to identify which stakeholder is a public,
or which player is aware of the influence he
can exert on a corporation and is therefore
likely to be active (Grunig and Repper 1992;
Grunig 1997). The purpose of communica-
tion planning is to involve the public in the
decision-making process. The Situational
Theory of Communication Behavior identifies
three independent variables (problem recog-
nition, constraint recognition and level of
involvement), which allows one to under-
stand if the communication behaviour of
individuals is inclined to be information
seeking (dependent variable of active search
of information) or information processing
(dependent variable of passive information
acquisition). Depending on the degree of
each independent variable and its influence
on the dependent variables, different kinds of
interest groups emerge: non-public, latent,
aware and active.
Since the introduction of the internet, it is
important not only to identify these interest
groups and to communicate with the active
or ‘aware’ ones — these are the ones most
likely to seek and process the information. It
is equally important to identify the transition
from one interest group to another and to
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Passage to cyberactivism: How dynamics of activism change
construct a corporate communication struc-
ture permitting corporations to adapt to
changes (Cozier and Witmer 2001: 615–28).
Put another way, if constraint recognition
decreases, whereas the level of involvement
and of problem recognition increases, the
consequence is that it is necessary to keep an
eye on non-public groups and on the transi-
tion from latent to aware and active. This
means that it is necessary to stress more than
before the flexibility of the communication
structure in order to reach a higher adapta-
tion to changes. The pressure against cor-
porations attained with the interconnected
flow of communication causes a continuous
potential alteration of the degree of problem
recognition, constraint recognition and level
of involvement.
Issue stage
With the introduction of the internet, it has
become necessary to consider new factors to
be taken into consideration within the issue
lifecycle.
Communication planning at this stage
aims to identify issues relating to interest
groups and their degree of development
(Grunig and Repper 1992). Following
Hainsworth’s and Meng’s concept of the
issue lifecycle (Regester and Larking 1997),
the proportion of each issue’s phase is the
consequence of the important role of mass
Figure 1: Stakeholder mapping: from a control of relationships to a control of environmental
changes
Page 332
media coverage within the issue develop-
ment. In fact, the potential and emerging
phases are longer than the current, crisis and
dormant ones.
With the introduction of the internet, this
balance has changed because of e-memory
(Wernli and Frank 2000) and relationship
pressures attained by synergies among cyber-
activists. As can be seen in Figure 2, the
potential and emergent phases are shorter,
since the increase in the mass media coverage
area (due to an e-memory) causes an expo-
nential growth within them. E-memory has
to be considered as a double-edged factor
which, apart from being a pressure item, is
the basis for an increase in the issues manage-
ment area. Consequently, issues management
finds new challenges and opportunities that
have to be considered and managed by the
corporation communication structure.
Monitoring activities
To manage the whole strategic planning
process, cyberbridging activities are neces-
sary, or monitoring operations contributing
to a decision-making process and following a
two-way symmetrical approach to commu-
nication (Grunig and Kornegay 1998). In this
way, it is possible to include interest groups
and issues within the decision-making pro-
cess and thus manage the whole planning
process, not only in the late stages, but also
 Illia

Figure 2: Online conception of issues lifecycle

E-Memory

Physical activism
Pressure

Lobbying
Formal constraint
e
at
ip
r tic eed Information
pa sp Coordination
to t ’ s
n ity en Direction
tu m Mobilization
or lop
pp ve Hacktivism
O de
Domain squatting
Rogue websites
Networked newsgroups
E-publishing:
dedicated issue
websites- first
rogue websites

E-mail network
coalition

Community
expression

Issue management and early issue identification Mass media coverage

Issue and
Potential Emerging Current and crisis Dormant cyberactivism
phase 1 phase 2 phase 3 phase 4 lifecycle

Source: This chart is the result of the integration of the Hainsworth and Meng issue lifecycle
and Wernli and Frank’s (2000) cyber issues development.

from the moment that the first symptoms of and clip management. Taken all together,
issues arises and the actions of interest groups these elements have to support the construc-
become noticeable. tion of an e-memory of the corporation in
Monitoring activities can be done by out- order to manage issues, interest groups and
sourcing (Kassel 2000a; Kassel 2000c; Gre- environmental changes from the beginning.
gory 1999), with internal staff or through By contrast, in-house monitoring activities
web clipping services (Middleberg 2001; have to be implemented in three areas: web
Arnold and Colson 2000; Funke 2000; Holtz page monitoring conducted with search en-
2000; Viali 2000; Thoniel 2000). gines, directories or human expert search
Web clipping services can simply offer engines (askme.com, expercentral, Exp.com,
web monitoring (Webclipping, Cyberalert) Frenzi.com, Knowpost.com, Keen.com,
or they can provide consultation regarding Askjeeves.com); discussion groups monitor-
the issues found (Net current, E-watch, M3, ing with Web forum, Usenet newsgroups
Delaye group, Cyveillance). Depending on (Newsmonger, Dejanews, title.net) or mail-
the service provided, the selection of web ing lists (litz, topica, title.net); and, finally,
clipping services can follow eight criteria online media monitoring through database
(Kassel 2000b): automation, coverage, search information aggregators (Lexis-Nexis, Dia-
frequency and depth, selectivity, timeliness, log, Factiva) and content aggregators
search specification or definition, relevance (Screaming media, Moreover, Isyndicate).

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Passage to cyberactivism: How dynamics of activism change
CONCLUSION
The analysis of cyberactivism leads to the con-
clusion that it is much more than a faster
typology of activism. The internet has chan-
ged the dynamics of activism into a new form
of pressure that is the result of different
dynamics of pressure on corporations. The
establishment of relationships and its dialogue
construction permits cyberactivists to gain
visibility — and to reach objectives without
the prerequisite of group aggregation. The
synergies arising from the relationship con-
struction between the four typologies of cy-
beractivism (online traditional activists, rogue
websites and discussion groups, hackers and
hybrid forms) show how spontaneous aggre-
gations and individuals are important players
within the area of cyber pressure. The con-
struction of relationships grows from a deep
orientation to web potentials. This means that
cyberactivists make excellent use of the web
by following online dynamics and logic and by
utilising the internet as a relationship medium
as well as an information medium.
The analysis of the management of cyber-
activism leads to the conclusion that the
public relations role is defined by commu-
nication planning and programming con-
cerning the management of many elements
within the corporate organisation:
• Public relations has a function in the
implementation of the corporate culture
and employee education, core elements
to face social engineering as well as
employee dissatisfaction.
• Public relations has an important function
in the implementation of corporate social
responsibility. Cyberbridging activities
permit public relations to manage issues
from the outset and to develop with
cyberactivists the corporate social respon-
sibility and issues relating to the com-
pany. In other words, public relations has
an important role in implementing the
double edge of the e-memory in order to
manage relationships with a two-way
symmetrical approach.
Page 334
• Public relations has a function in the
integration of online and offline commu-
nication. It is important to manage cyber-
activist and activist visibility, as well as
the corporate online presence. These two
objectives are reachable with a concept of
control related to the ‘control of changes’
instead of the ‘control of relationship’.
An adaptive approach to communication
has to be added to a relationship structure
of the website. Public relations has to
turn websites into places of dialogue
where relationships are developed, facing
the loss of control of the communication
flow with a strong line in official infor-
mation and communication.
Within these functions, the main challenge
of public relations lies in the definition of
flexible communication oriented to environ-
mental changes, permitting an offline and
online relationship construction. Therefore,
public relations has to consider communica-
tion planning principally as an effort of
coordination which allows control of the
environmental changes to be attained
through information and communication.
This means that each communication med-
ium has to be considered as a relationship
medium, rather than an information med-
ium.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to thank Francesco Lurati
for his supervision during the research, Jorge
Wernli for his helpful comments, and Robert
Hangartner for his support.
NOTE
1. Each website has each element (packages and
sections, partnership, market sample of one,
online financial resources collection, interac-
tivity) in a different proportion. The web-
based analysis methodology followed three
phases. First phase: definition of research ques-
tions, evaluation variables, evaluation grids,
selection criteria, mapping, selection and first
navigation. Second phase: second navigation of

websites (description of each website: 2 to 6
pages). Third phase: evaluation within grids,
mapping, and results. The web-based analysis
comprises the following 42 websites: RAN;
Greenpeace; Terre des hommes; WWF; Am-
nesty International; PETA; Adbusters; Ruckus
Society; DAMN; Indymedia; Freespeech In-
ternet television; Project underground; A-infos
Radio Project; Protest.net; Private.net – Con-
sumer.net; Privacypage; Consumer Union;
National Consumer League; ICO; Complain-
domain.com; CIVICUS; Mobilization for glo-
bal justice; Seattle WTO; IFG; ZPG; The
public eye on Davos; PGA; 1TM ark; ICG;
eactivism.com; Net_institute; Allstate insur-
ance sucks; Association of Flaming Ford Own-
ers; ChaseBanksucks; Cokespotlight; Radio
LoRa and the alternative information on the
WEF 2000 Davos; Mcspotlight; Mission Possi-
ble International & Betty Martini; NO to
WTO (Ireland); ora-ito; overcoming consu-
merism; Revolt against the empire.
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