Affiliated to Makerere

ASSESSMENT OF HEALTH AND WELFARE OF WORKING DONKEYS (EQUUS

ASINUS) IN HARGEISA CITY, SOMALILAND

BY

MOHAMED HUSSEIN JAMA

REGISTRATION NUMBER: IV/288/15

A SPECIAL PROJECT PROPOSAL SUBMITTED TO MAKERERE UNIVERSITY IN

UGANDA AS PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE AWARD OF DIPLOMA
LIVESTOCK PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP

JULY, 2018

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 DECLARATION
Mohamed Hussein Jama declare here that this is my original work, and has not allowed appearing
anywhere else in any other form except for the reference and literature review.

Student Name

Mohamed Hussein Jama

Signature……………………………….

Date

Supervisor:
Dr. Fred Wesonga (PHD)

Signature ……………………

Date: …………………….

Supervisor:
Dr. Abdideeq Mohamed Yusuf (BVM, MSc)

Signature ……………………

Date: …………………….

ii
 DEDICATION
I dedicated this this special project to my loved parents, my mother Halimo Mohamoud and my
father Hussein Jama. In addition, my brother Khader Mahdi Abdi for his higher contribution
my enjoyable education and respected life and I say ALLAH blesses you all.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First, I would like to thank Allah who made it possible for me to utilize this excellent opportunity.
In addition, I would like to thank highly to my Supervisors Dr Fred Wesonga and Dr. Abdideeq
Mohamed Yusuf who willingly dedicated their time and energy for me to achieve my objectives
of this thesis and my parents for their encouragement and support. ISTVS will remain in my heart;
ISTVS financially supported this special project so I thank you very much for this!

Secondly, I would like to thank Khader Mahdi Abdi who supported me during data collection, and
donkey owners who actively and willingly participated this study.

Last but not the least; I would like to acknowledge my parents, my brothers and sisters for their
continuous support and encouragement.

Contents
Declaration..................................................................................................................................... ii
Dedication ..................................................................................................................................... iii
Acknowledgement ......................................................................................................................... iv
LIST OF TABLE ......................................................................................................................... viii
Table 1. Demographic characteristics of working donkey’s owners………………… ............... viii
Table 2. Welfare problems in working donkeys in Hargiesa city……………………................ viii

iv
LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... ix
Graph1. Shows Number of working days per week ................................................…... .............. ix
Graph2. Illustrated the amount of feed given to working donkeys per day……………. .............. ix
Graph3. Frequency of types of feed for donkeys………………………………………. .............. ix
Graph4. The amount of water given to working donkeys……………………………… ............. ix
Graph5. Use of traditional treatment for working donkeys…………………………….. ............. ix
Graph 6. Sheltering status for working donkeys……………………………………….. .............. ix
Graph 7. Resting donkeys while at work……………………………………………….. ............. ix
Graph 8. Observed attitudes shown by working donkeys……………………………….............. ix
Figure 10. Responses to approach by working donkeys………………………….. ...................... ix
Figure 11. Shows responses of working donkeys to chin contact………………… ..................... ix
Figure 12 prevalence of mucous membrane abnormality ………………………… ..................... ix
Figure 13 show as the Evidence of dental pathology……………………………… .................... ix
Figure 14 show as the percentage of Eye pathology………………………………...................... ix
Figure 15: problems with Coat/ skin condition……………………………………...................... ix
Figure 16 show as the percentage of evidence of diarrhea…………………………. ................... ix
Figure 17: percentage of evidence of respiratory disease…………………………... ................... ix
Figure 18: percentage of present of wounds………………………………………… .................. ix
CHAPTER ONE: BACKGROUND INFORMATION .................................................................. 1
1.0. Background Information .................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Justifications ............................................................................................................................. 2
1.3 objectives .................................................................................................................................. 2
1.3.0 General Objectives ................................................................................................................. 2
1.3.1 Specific objectives ................................................................................................................. 2
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................. 3
2.0 information ................................................................................................................................ 3
2.1 Donkeys is the backbone of rural transport .............................................................................. 3
2.2 Management of working donkeys ............................................................................................. 4
2.2.0 Housing .................................................................................................................................. 4
2.2.1 Access to feed ........................................................................................................................ 4
2.2.2. Access to water ..................................................................................................................... 5
2.3 The hard life of a working donkey............................................................................................ 6

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2.3.0 Life expectancy ...................................................................................................................... 6
2.3.1 Health problems ..................................................................................................................... 6
2.3.2 Improper work equipment and overloading ........................................................................... 6
2.3.4 Treatment of sick donkeys ..................................................................................................... 7
2.4 Assessment of welfare .............................................................................................................. 8
2.5 Donkey disease agents .............................................................................................................. 8
CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY ...................................................................................... 10
3.0 Study Area ......................................................................................................................... 10
3.1 Study design ............................................................................................................................ 10
3.2 Study population ..................................................................................................................... 10
3.3 Sample size ............................................................................................................................. 10
3.4 Data collection and statistical analysis ................................................................................... 11
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS ..................................................................................................... 11
Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 11
4.2 Working days for donkeys ...................................................................................................... 12
4.3 Feeding of working donkeys ................................................................................................... 14
4.4 Watering Frequency ................................................................................................................ 16
4.5 Veterinary service ................................................................................................................... 17
4.6 Sheltering ................................................................................................................................ 18
4.7 Resting donkeys at work ......................................................................................................... 18
4.8 Behaviors of working donkeys ............................................................................................... 19
4.9 Response to approach ............................................................................................................. 20
4.9.0 Response to chin contact ...................................................................................................... 21
CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ................................................ 26
6.1 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 26
6.2 Recommendation .................................................................................................................... 26
REFFERNCES .............................................................................................................................. 27
QUESTIONNAIRE .................................................................................................................................... 30
Appendix ..................................................................................................................................................... 34
.................................................................................................................................................................... 34

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vii
 LIST OF TABLE

Table 1. Demographic characteristics of working donkey’s owners…………………13

Table 2. Welfare problems in working donkeys in Hargiesa city…………………….15

viii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Graph1. Shows Number of working days per week ................................................…...14

Graph2. Illustrated the amount of feed given to working donkeys per day…………….16

Graph3. Frequency of types of feed for donkeys……………………………………….17

Graph4. The amount of water given to working donkeys………………………………18

Graph5. Use of traditional treatment for working donkeys……………………………..19

Graph 6. Sheltering status for working donkeys………………………………………..20

Graph7. Resting donkeys while at work………………………………………………..21

Graph8. Observed attitudes shown by working donkeys……………………………….22

Figure10. Responses to approach by working donkeys………………………….……..23

Figure11. Shows responses of working donkeys to chin contact……………..…………24

Figure12 Prevalence of mucous membrane abnormality ………………….……………25

Figure13 show as the Evidence of dental pathology………………………..……………25

Figure14 show as the percentage of Eye pathology……………………….……………..26

Figure15: problems with Coat/ skin condition…………………………….……………..26

Figure16 show as the percentage of evidence of diarrhea………………….…………….27

Figure17: percentage of evidence of respiratory disease………………….……………...28

Figure18: percentage of present of wounds……………………………….………………29

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LIST OF ABBREVIATION

ISTVS IGad Sheikh Technical Veterinary School

PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

EL Epizootic Lymphangitis

MDGs Millennium Development Goals

ATNESA Animal Traction Network for Eastern and Southern Africa

NGO Non-Governmental Organization

IDPT International Donkey Protection Trust

SPANA society for the protection of animals abroad

DIV Department for International Development,

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 ABSTRACT

Cross-sectional study on the assessment of health and welfare of working donkey in Hargiesa city
were carried out from May to June 2018. The aim of this study was to establish donkey welfare
problems by using physical, feeding and behavioral parameters of working donkeys in Hargiesa
city. Two hundred and three (203) working donkeys and their owners participated this study.

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 CHAPTER ONE: BACKGROUND INFORMATION

1.0. Background Information

There are 44.3 million donkeys worldwide. This number has increased by 15.6 per cent since 1981
(FAO 1992).

The majority of the working animals support people living in the world's poorest communities.
Because of their work requirements, living conditions and handling, many donkeys develop
multiple, acute and chronic health problems (Starkey, 1998).

Donkeys have greater advantages as compared to any other draft animals. This is because they are
affordable, docile, and easy to train and handle (Nengomasha et al., 2000; Mengistu et al., 2005;
Swai and Bwanga, 2008), in addition, donkeys are animal that survives Droughts relatively better
that have ability to consume poor quality foods and have lower feed and water requirements.

Working donkeys play an important role as working animals in rural, peri-urban and urban areas,
employed for carting, packing, riding, tillage and weeding (Pritchard et al., 2005) at a low cost.
Livestock surveys estimate that the donkey population of Somaliland was about 1 million. The main
reasons used the donkeys are for transportation of water, people and goods (43.7%), draught
purpose (8.0%) and for other uses (Department for International Development, 2003).

Although donkeys are contributing the livelihood of thousands of people throughout Somaliland,
welfare problems in the country remain to be high. Horn Society for the protection and Care of
Animals, the only animal welfare organization in the country remain to produce disturbing reports
and images every day, because the attitude of the donkey owners and whole community remain
negative. Therefore, this study will assess the health and welfare of working donkeys in Hargeisa
city.

1.1 Problem statements

Working donkeys in Somaliland are source of livelihood for thousands of Somaliland communities,
but they facing many welfare problems including wounds, lameness, systemic infections,
dehydration and neglected in allocation of resources such as feed, shelter and equipment because
they belong to the poorest members of the community. Therefore, this research will establish and
document the existing animal health and welfare problems in working donkeys

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 1.2 Justifications
The Health and welfare-working donkeys are not seen as a priority at international, national and
local levels, because of the lack of understanding of the link between working animal welfare and
human concerns.

This research will have a significant for animal welfare groups and government to use as baseline
study in future interventions about improving the welfare and health of working animals.

1.3 Objectives

1.3.0 General Objectives

This study will determine the aspects, health and welfare of donkeys used for carting in Hargiesa

city, Somaliland

1.3.1 Specific objectives

 To establish donkey welfare problems by using physical, feeding and behavioral parameters.

 To establish donkey health problems by using health parameters for donkeys.

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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Working donkey information

According to FAO (2011), working animals, especially donkeys, play a pivotal role in the
livelihoods of people, through crop production and transportation, contributing to income
generation, poverty reduction and food security. Despite their positive contribution, animal welfare
practices are not properly followed worldwide (FAO, 2011b).

There is very little information in literature regarding welfare assessment methods in working
donkeys as well as husbandry practices affecting their welfare. The current chapter discusses the
role of working donkeys and husbandry practices affecting their welfare. It also reviews methods
that can be used to assess the welfare of working donkeys

2.1 Donkeys is the backbone of rural transport

The donkey population has declined in most industrialized countries in America and Europe
resulting in the assumption that the donkey population will decrease also in the emerging
industrialized countries, but in Africa, the donkey is still very important in the rural areas and for
transport in the urban areas (Starkey, 1998). During the last ten years the donkey population in
Somaliland has almost doubled from 800 hundred in 2004 to 1400 in 2013, and in the whole Africa
the number of donkeys has increased from 15.6 million donkeys in 2004 to 19.3 million donkeys
in 2013 (FAOSTAT, 2013).

Donkeys are mainly own by small-scale farmers and are used to carry goods on their backs or pull
carts loaded with goods as firewood, animal feed, grains, water and building material. Each day
thousands of donkeys enter Addis Ababa and other urban cities in Ethiopia, carrying different
products (Starkey, 1998). Farmers that can afford cart or pack animals get higher prices for their
crops when transporting it by themselves to markets, because they avoid paying margins to traders
(Anderson & Dennis, 1994).

Compared to motor vehicles, animals are slower and do not have the same carrying capacity, but
the animals have other advantages (Anderson & Dennis, 1994). Donkeys are very appreciated for
their characteristics; they are cheap, hardy, suitable for seven different terrains like dry areas and
hills, resistant to diseases and easy to handle and train. In some parts of Ethiopia, the infrastructure

3
is still not fully developed with low quality roads and in these areas; people depend on their donkeys
(Pearson et al., 1999). Donkeys are also used in agricultural operations, as ploughing (Pearson et
al., 2003).

The donkey is perceived as an unclean animal and due to this, the meat is not eaten (personal
communication, Duguma, 2016), consequently the risk of theft is reduced and the farmer can allow
donkeys to wander un supervised which is another advantage with owning donkeys (Starkey, 1998).
If the donkeys get too sick or injured so they no longer can be used for work, the owners lose their
livelihoods, either temporarily or permanently. To keep donkeys in good condition is not only
important for the welfare of the animals but also for the livelihood for the people who own them
(Kumar et al., 2014).

2.2 Management of working donkeys

2.2.0 Housing
In rural areas in Somaliland, it is common to keep the donkeys together with other livestock, mostly
cattle. At night, donkeys are confined either in stables, in a kraal (enclosure) or at the owner’s home.
If the donkeys are not used for work during the day, they are grazing loose or tethered. Donkeys
can also be tethered without access to pasture; under trees, in houses or kraals during the day
(Pearson et al., 2000).

2.2.1 Access to feed

Wild donkeys spend approximately 14-16 hours per day foraging and feeding (Duncanson, 2010)
and therefore the ideal diet for an equine is a high roughage diet that contains a large amount of
structural carbohydrates. The issue with roughage is that it takes a long time to eat, and time is
something that working donkeys usually do not have. In developing countries like Ethiopia, the
grass is often of poor quality and areas are often overgrazed. Feed that is more suitable for working
donkeys is a balanced diet containing large amounts of long fibres with structural carbohydrate, and
with a supplement of short feed containing non-structural carbohydrates (Duncanson, 2010). For
working donkeys in Ethiopia, the diet is based on grazing on grasslands and roadsides and feed
supplements like crop by-products or concentrates are sometimes provided (Starkey, 1998).

When donkeys are kept at home, the most common feeding regime is grazing with supplement of
straw and grain mixtures and sometimes-household wastes can be feed. At markets there is no

4
access to pasture but some owners feed their donkeys with grain or straw there (Pearson et al.,
2000). When equine handlers were interviewed in Hargiesa, 20% answered that they provided some
form of feed at markets or workings sites (Amante et al., 2014).

Without good feed the donkeys do not grow properly, they get weak, cannot work as hard, get 8
more susceptible to diseases and do not reproduce (Starkey, 1998). However, the donkeys survive
due to their capacity to utilize feed of low quality (Starkey, 1998) and compared to horses, donkeys
can digest high fibre forage diets better (Pearson, 1999). The farmers are usually aware of how to
improve the health and condition of their donkeys but it is the lack of resources (e.g. feed) that’s
constrains them (Starkey, 1998).

2.2.2. Access to water

Like for any animal, water is vital for donkeys and over 60% of an equines body consists of water
(Duncanson, 2010). Donkeys are adapted to arid environments and can conserve body water in
conditions of water deprivation (Yousef, 1991) and absorb any water that is available in the feed.
Even though donkeys are more thirst tolerant than horses and will maintain their appetites in
conditions of water deprivation, they have the same water requirements as horses (Duncanson,
2010).

In a study in Somaliland, where equine handlers were interviewed it was reported that 98.2%
provided water at the home and 10.5% provided water to their donkeys at markets or working sites
(Amante et al., 2014). Even though donkeys are adapted to arid environments and are thirst tolerant
(Duncanson, 2010), heat stress and dehydration can be a serious welfare problem (Pritchard et al.,
2006).

Signs of heat stress can be increased respiratory rate, increased respiratory depth, head nodding,
apathy and flared nostrils (Pritchard et al., 2005). Pritchard et al. (2005) conducted a study in
Afghanistan, Egypt, India, Jordan and Pakistan during the cooler months between December and
April. The result reported that only 2.9% of the working donkeys showed signs of heat stress and
dehydration, but in the summer months, it is expected that the prevalence of heat stress signs would
be much higher. Veterinarians have reported up to 80% prevalence of heat stress signs during the
summer months (Pritchard et al., 2006). In horses, as little as 3% dehydration can reduce the

5
performance capacity (Dahlborn et al., 1995) and therefore it is expected that dehydrated donkeys
will have a decreased work capacity.

2.3 The hard life of a working donkey

2.3.0 Life expectancy

Donkeys can reach an age of 25 years if they are well managed but the life expectancy of a working
donkey in Somaliland is merely 9-13 years (Starkey, 1998). In a study by Kumar et al. (2014), the
average age is mostly 7 years and only 4.4% were older than 15 years. The same study also showed
that young donkeys worked with the same activities as older donkeys, which can lead to poor health
for the young donkeys. This result led to the researcher assuming 9 that people who use donkeys
may only be interested in short term immediate gain, rather than a long term working life of their
donkey (Kumar et al., 2014).

2.3.1 Health problems

The economic impact of disease on productivity of ruminants has been determined for some of the
major diseases that affect livestock in the tropics. In 1984 in Africa for example, trypanosomosis
caused an estimated annual loss of US$ five billion (excluding milk and hide losses) and Theilerosis
killed approximately three million cattle over the year (Murray and Gray, 1984). Chronic
subclinical parasitism, usually accompanied by acute viral and bacterial diseases, may be the most
important economic burden (FAO, 1991; Hansen, 1996). Virtually no information is available on
the economic impact of any donkey diseases. This lack of information hinders development of
policy decisions on disease control and prevention. The acquisition of this type of data provides a
challenge to both economists and veterinarians.

2.3.2 Improper work equipment and overloading

Other common animal welfare problems are improper harnessing, overloading and overworking
the donkeys (Kumar et al., 2014). In a study conducted in Ethiopia by Biffa and Woldemeskel
(2006), 28.7% of the donkeys were overworked and overloaded and 26% of the donkeys suffered
from external injuries due to improper harness and saddles (Biffa & Woldemeskel, 2006).

A properly designed harness allows the working donkey to pull the load to the best of its ability
without risk of injuries On the other hand, a poorly designed or ill-fitted harness will result in
fatigue, discomfort or lesions on the donkey (Pearson et al., 2003) fitted harnessing can lead to skin

6
lesions at the withers, back region and underneath the base of the tail (Kumar et al.2014) Harness
lesions will not only be painful for the animal, it will also increase the risk of secondary infections,
which will reduce the work capacity, and longevity of the donkey (Smith et al., 2014) Thin donkeys
have less natural padding that protects them from friction, pressure and lesion caused by harnessing,
and below score 3 in BCS is correlated with lesions of skin and deeper tissues (Pritchard et al.,
2005) Donkeys are often controlled by halters that can be made from rope, webbing, cotton or
leather, Materials such as wire, chain or other materials that may chafe or cause skin lesions are
unsuitable to use, A saddle can be used when loading products on the donkeys back and are usually
made of wood consisting of two X-shaped pieces attached to two oval support pads When using
this form of saddle, it is important to use padding between the saddle and the animals’ back, to
protect the backbone, Materials that are recommended as padding are cotton, wool blankets and
sheepskin Plastic and synthetic material should be avoided because it will give the donkey lesions
It is also important that the load should be well balanced on both side of the back otherwise, the
donkey will use more energy in carrying it and will get exhausted (Pearson et al., 2003).

2.3.4 Treatment of sick donkeys

When a donkey’s health deteriorates, the owners use different treatment strategies. Studies in
Ethiopia show similar results; most unhealthy donkeys do not receive any treatment but are instead
forced to keep on working Some owners take their donkeys to a nearby veterinary clinic or treat
them traditionally (Biffa & Woldemeskel, 2006; Kumar et al., 2014). An example of traditional
remedies that are used, by the owner or a local healer, is pouring plant juice or oil on the donkey.

According to donkey owners, one constraint of donkeys is the absence of veterinary clinics. If the
donkey is finally taken to a veterinarian, it is usually in a progressed stage of illness and has usually
been subjected to numerous traditional remedies (Kumar et al., 2014). Biffa and Woldemeskel
(2006) reported from southern Ethiopia, that when the donkeys were sick, 58.8% of owners still
used their donkeys continuously regardless of the severity of the injuries, 25.6% gave the donkeys
short term relief and 9.7% gave the donkeys long term rest until it was recovered. It was also
reported that when the donkeys’ health deteriorates, 8.6% of owners left them by the road to fend
for themselves (Biffa & Woldemeskel, 2006). Another study from Somalia showed some different
results; 10.6 % used traditional medicine, 88.2% took their equines to a veterinary clinic and only
0.5% left the animal untreated (Amante et al., 2014).

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2.4 Assessment of welfare
Indicators of welfare would be useful to monitor donkey welfare, and the effects of changes in
work practices and methods of husbandry. An indication of the physical welfare of a donkey
population can be gained by a combination of clinical examinations, including a visual assessment
of body fat scores, and assessment of average age by examination of teeth. A greater understanding
of the behavior of donkeys might also provide a useful indicator.

The behavior of a working animal are modified by its work and husbandry regime. Although
donkeys appear adaptable, it are not known to what extent they are able to compensate by behavioral
modification, and how stressful the resulting changes are to the donkey. There is a need for basic
research into the behavior of donkeys under human management, drawing on behavioral research
on feral or wild donkeys. Research comparing the effects of good and bad management and work
practices on aspects of donkey behavior and temperament would also be interesting and useful.

2.5 Donkey disease agents

Donkeys harbor myriad infectious and parasitic agents, not all of which have been thoroughly
investigate in this animal. Identification and treatment is often taken from knowledge of the disease
in the horse. However, susceptibility or resistance to the effects of disease agents is not necessarily
the same in the donkey as in the horse. The trypanosomes are some of the most important protozoa
organisms affecting the well-being of livestock in the tropics. Horses do not survive long in the
presence of infected tsetse flies, whereas donkeys are more tolerant of testes transmitted
trypanosomes and frequently appear to thrive in lightly infested habitats (Connor, 1994).

Nevertheless, Trypanosoma brucei causes acute disease in donkeys, as well as being a serious
pathogen of horses. Donkeys, together with horses, mules and zebras, are susceptible to both the
protozoan organisms Babesia equiand Babesia caballi (De Waal and van Heerden, 1994, Sahibi and
Bakkoury, 1994), the South African vector the red-legged tick Rhipicephalus evertsi vertsi is often
observed on donkeys (De Waal and van Heerden, 1994). (Vercruysse, Harris, Kaboret etal, 1986.).

The challenge to the veterinarians is to establish whether this difference reflects the host’s response
to the parasites, the high fecundity of some worm species or simply an ability of the donkey to
tolerate higher worm burdens without ill effect than can the horse. The latter explanation would
mean that the donkey resembles the zebra, which seems to have a high tolerance for internal

8
parasites. Large numbers of blood-sucking worms are present in all zebra species in southern Africa
and inhabit many of their organs including the liver.

Whether this indicates a high tolerance to these worms or some symbiotic relationship that may
exist in the zebra between the host and the parasites remains to be investigated (Scialdo-Krecek,
1983; Krecek etal, 1987). Further research to identify differences between donkeys and the other
equids in their tolerance of common diseases would seem to be appropriate and would help in the
development of low cost treatment

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 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

3.0 Study Area

The study was conducted between May and June 2018, in different locations in Hargeisa town,
Hargeisa is the capital city of the Republic of Somaliland, its located in the North West of
Somaliland.

Figure one map of study Area

Hargeisa Somaliland

3.1 Study design

Cross sectional study was carried out on 203 working donkey and their owners from May to June
2018.

3.2 Target Population

The target population of this study was all working donkeys in Hargeisa City.

3.3 Sample size

Two hundred and three working donkeys were assessed during this study and their owners were interviewed.

The sample size had been determined according to the formula given:

n=N/1+N [E]*2

n=sample size N=population size E= sampling error

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3.4 Data collection and statistical analysis
a) Direct assessment

A structured direct assessment format was developed and data was collected by direct physical
examination of the animals. This will be includes general health parameters such as Age profile of
donkeys, body condition score, wound/physical injury, lameness and other limb abnormalities,
parasites and skin problems, behavior of the animal, problems of physical mucous membranes and
eye conditions, type of the work

b) Indirect welfare assessment

Semi-structured questionnaires was developed to collect data on the major constraints in utilizing
donkeys, veterinary service program and diseases management system. These was obtained by
interview made with randomly selected 203 donkey owners to generate some information that will
be missed during the direct assessment of the animal.

c) Data analysis

The data collected from the 203 donkeys and interviews made with 203 owners will be entered into
Microsoft excel spreadsheet and analyzed using SPSS version20 statistical software. Descriptive
statistics was to quantify the problems. In all calculations, the confidence interval will be set at 95%
and statistical significant differences will be consider,

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS

Introduction
Welfare and health assessment of working donkeys was conducted in Hargiesa. During this
assessment, 203 working donkeys were interviewed and their animals were assessed by using health
and welfare parameters.

11
4.1 Demographic characteristics of working donkey owners
Demographic characteristics of working owners are summarized in the table below
Table1. Demographic characteristic of working donkey’s owners

Variable Respondents Frequency Percentage

Sex male 203 100.0
Marital status single 78 39
Married 125 61
# of children = 0 75 36.8
1-4 76 37.3
Above 5 52 25.5
Age group 20-25 56 27.2
26-35 41 20.1
36-45 67 32.8
46-55 39 19. 1
# of donkeys Own 1 153 75.0
2 50 24.5

The working donkey owners were virtually male; therefor this business of using working donkey
was male business. Among the donkey owners, 61 % were married with children. The average
number of children for married donkey owners were More than 70 % of the working donkey
owner’s interview were between the ages of 20 to 45 years old.

This study also revealed that 75 % of the responding donkey owners had only one working donkey
while only 25 % of the donkey owners had more than one donkey, this could result the use of
working donkeys even when they are sick or tired. More than 98 % of the working donkeys owners
interviewed were working in water transport. According to our observation, working donkeys were
playing and important role in delivering water to a city that there is scarcity of clean water.

4.2 Working days for donkeys

As shown in the data illustrated in the below graph regarding the number of working days of
donkeys per week, majority (45 %) of working donkeys work 6 days in the week, with Friday being
the only resting day throughout the week. 26% of them said that they work 5 days. On the other

12
hand, another 26 % of the working donkeys work all the seven days in a week, meaning that they
are not rested a single day in the whole week. This was due to fact that working donkeys are their
only source of income for their families.

NUMBER OF DAYS WORKING DONKEYS WORK

PER WEEK

50%
45%
45%
40%
35%
30% 26% 26%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5% 1% 2%
0%
3 days 4 days 5 days 6 days 7 days

Graph1. Shows Number of working days per week

This study also reveal the number of working hours for working donkeys, the majority of working
donkeys assessed during this study work more than 6 hours as indicated by the below table.

13
 Number of Working
Frequency Percent
Hours
10 hours 27 13.3
5 hours 11 5.4
6 hours 53 26.1
7 hours 57 29.6
8 hours 34 16.7
9 hours 18 8.9
Total 203 100

This study revealed that some of working donkeys start working as early as 3 years old, the
majority of the working donkey owners use their donkeys to work when they are 4 years old, in
this age donkeys are still young and this may reduce their growth and longevity of their work.

4.3 Feeding of working donkeys

This assessment indicated that 67.5 %, 23% and 9.5% of working donkeys are fed thrice, twice
and more than thrice a day respectively. Although majority of the respondents indicated that they
feed their animals 3 times or more but the average amount that more than 60% of the respondents
are giving their animals only 2 kilo of feed per day as illustrated by the below data presented in
graph2.

Graph2. Illustrated the amount of feed given to working donkeys per day.

14
The donkey owners to feed their working donkeys, the most common feeds they use are maize;
sorghum and grass use several kind of feeds.

The Below graph3 is used to present the data regarding the frequency of usage of different feeds
for donkeys.

Graph3. Frequency of types of feed for donkeys

According to this assessment, dry grass is the most common feed, together with maize and
sorghum. Some of the donkey owners collect food leftover from hotels and give to their animals.

15
4.4 Watering Frequency

This assessment indicated that working donkeys in the study area are watered on several times
during the day. The majority (90%) of the interviewed donkey owners give water to their animals
2 or 3 times per day. In addition, the amount of water given to the working donkey per day is
illustrated in the below graph.
`

Graph4. The amount of water given to working donkeys

According to this assessment , the least amount of water given to donkeys are 10 liters while
majority of donkey owners give their donkeys between 15 to 20 liters of water per day.

16
4.5 Veterinary service
Working donkeys are mainly neglected, and do not have access to many basic services including
veterinary services. During this assessment, 52 % of working donkeys indicated that they do not
seek veterinary care while the remaining 48 % responded that they seek veterinary care when
required. The study revealed that owners get veterinary care for their animals from limited sources.
Of the 48 % of the working donkey who seek for veterinary services for their animals when they
become sick, 60 % of them indicated they receive free of charge services from Horn SPCA, while
the rest receive veterinary service from private pharmacies and some other veterinary organizations
in the study area.
Since more than 52 % do not receive conventional medicine from veterinary service providers they
tend to use traditional medicine as indicated in the below pie chart1. Regarding to the use of
traditional medicine.

Use of Traditional Medicine

No
31%

Yes
69%

Graph5. Use of traditional treatment for working donkeys

17
Donkey owners including Ash, oil engine for wounds and cooking oil for digestive problems use
different traditional medicines. This may not be traditional remedies as they are not sourced from
medicinal plants but this is what many of the owners practice when the need arises.

4.6 Sheltering

Shelter provision is one of the major issues faced by working donkeys in Hargiesa. As the below
chart shows, the large majority of donkey owners do not provide shelter for their animals and thus
are exposed to the extreme weather conditions, especially during the severe cold winter-nights
and high daily temperatures during the spring and autumn seasons.

Shelter provision for donkeys

48%
52%

yes no

Graph 6. Sheltering status for working donkeys

4.7 Resting donkeys at work

As indicated by the below chart, almost half (51%) of the interviewed donkey owners revealed
that they allow their animals get rest at least once during the day while at work. However, the
remaining other half (49%) said that they do not rest their donkeys while working.

18
 Resting conditions

49% 51% yes

no

Graph 7. Resting donkeys while at work

4.8 Behaviors of working donkeys

Attitude
As can be seen in the figure below, most of the donkeys (75%) in this assessment were alert and normal.
Only 25% showed depressed (dull) attitude on observation.

19
Graph 8. Observed attitudes shown by working donkeys

4.9 Response to approach

Most of the donkeys assessed showed positive responses when approached as shown in the
following graph. 150 out of the 200 animals assessed responded positively when approached,
while only 50 (n= 200) of them showed negative responses when approached. The negative
responses are reflective of beating experience of the donkey by the owner.

20
Figure 10. Responses to approach by working donkeys

4.9.0 Response to chin contact

As the below figure suggests, slightly more than half (52%) of working donkeys showed
avoidance of chin contact, while 48% had no problem when chin contact was made by the
assessment team.

21
 avoidance of chin contact

no, 47.8, 48% 52%

yes no

Figure 11. Shows responses of working donkeys to chin contact

4.9.1 Health assessment results

The following frequency table summarizes the results of the health assessment of working
donkeys in the study area. The health parameters assessed includes mucous membranes status,
evidences of dental and eye pathology, diarrhea, hair coat condition, wounds and respiratory
problems.
Most animals had normal mucous membranes with pinkish colour (175, n=200), while only as
few as 10 and 15 donkeys had cyanotic and reddish discolorations of the mucous membranes
respectively.
On the other hand, slightly more than half (52%) of the donkeys in the assessment had dental
problems, including teeth breakage, swollen gums and other dental damages. The remaining 48%
had no dental conditions whatsoever.
As can be understood from the frequency distribution table, evidences of observed eye problems
were as few as 5%. The large majority (95%) of the donkeys had no pathological issues in their
eyes.
When it comes to the hair coat status, almost 50% (100, n=200) had rough hair coat, while the
remaining 30% and 20% had fair and shiny hair coats respectively.

22
Evidences of diarrhea and respiratory problems observed in this assessment were relatively of low
magnitudes. As the below frequency distribution reveals, 22% of the assessed animals had
evidences of diarrhea, while the remaining larger proportion (78%) had no evidences of diarrhea.
Similarly, as few as only 4% of the donkeys in the current assessment were suffering from
respiratory problems, with the overwhelming remaining majority (94%) showing no notable signs
indicative of respiratory illnesses.

Figure 13 show as the Evidence of dental pathology of working donkeys in Hargiesa city while
the out of (52%) out of 203 has problem of dental pathology and (48%) are normal

23
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
The working donkey owners were virtually males, which makes this business of using working
donkey as male business. This male domination could be explained because the job involves
handling heavy things such as goods and water that women can hardly handle. (Mohamed, 1991)
has documented similar studies in Ethiopia.

The findings of the current study showed that over 70% of donkey owners aged between 20 to 45
years. Again, the hardships involved in this tiresome work requires strong and vibrant personnel to
handle, and the dominant age category (20-45 years) could be described as men’s prime age- when
men are at their strongest stage in their life time- and thus justifies the need for strength and
endurance for this type of work.

This study also revealed that 75 % of the responding donkey owners had only one working donkey
while only 25 % of the donkey owners had more than one donkey, this could result the use of
working donkeys even when they are sick or tired. These findings are indicative of the poor status
hood of working donkey owners.

In this assessment, approximately 98% of the interviewed owner’s work involved water
transportation. Only 2% of them use their donkeys for the transportation of other materials and
goods. This is so because donkeys play a crucial role in delivering water to a city with a population
of over one million, which has been suffering from extreme water scarcities, with the demand of
water actually being very high.

As far as the number of working days is concerned, the study findings suggest that in a seven days
week, 26%, 45 %, 26% and 3% of working donkeys work throughout the week (7 full days per
week), six days, five days, and four days respectively, with resting days being Fridays or Fridays
and Thursdays. This means over 70% of them get rested at least one day in a week. On the other
hand, over 74% of working donkeys in this assessment work 7 hours and below, while only around
26% of them 8 hours and beyond. The current findings are not in line with the results documented
by Abdulrazak et al. (2015) who reported 68% of working donkeys in Hargeisa carry load for more
than 9 hours in a day.

24
Almost half (51%) of donkeys in the current assessment are given resting at work, while the
remaining half did not have the privileges to get resting at work. These findings are against the
Prevention of Cruelty to Draught and Pack Animals Rule (1965), which states that no person shall
use any animal for drawing any vehicle or carrying any load for more than 5 hours continuously
without break or rest for animals.

Around 52% of the owners interviewed in this study admitted that they do not seek veterinary care
for their animals while sick, while 48% do seek veterinary care for their animals. In addition, the
study reveals that almost all the 52% who do not seek for conventional veterinary treatments for
their animals when sick suggested that they use traditional medicines to treat their donkeys if they
become sick. The current results are similar to the findings by Ashinde et al. (2017) who reported
that roughly 55% of donkeys in Hawassa either were given traditional treatment or left to self-
healing when they are sick.

Around 25% of the donkeys assessed were depressed on observation, while almost similar (25%)
figures showed negative response when approached. This could be reflective of negative experience
(e.g, beating, hunger, thirst, disease, overworking and overloading) of donkeys from the owners.
The study is in line with that of Kumar et al. (2014) who found that roughly 20% of working
donkeys in Makelle showed depressed behavior.

The major health issues of working donkeys documented by the current study are abnormal
discoloration of mucus membranes (15%), dental problems (52%), eye problems (5%) diarrhea
(22%), rough hair coat (50%), wounds (39%) and evidence of respiratory problems (4%).
The higher prevalence of dental problems may be due to fights with other donkeys, type of feed,
owner’s ignorance on dental management and mainly as a result of metal mouth gags used for
aggressive donkeys. Similarly, high percentage with wounds and rough hair coat could be due to
lack of proper harness, beating, improper loading, improper tail straps and mouth gags. The study
findings regarding the overall wound prevalence (39%) resemble that of Morka et al. (2014), who
reported a prevalence of 38.4% in and around Nekempte town in Ethiopia. However, the findings
are lower than those reported by Helen (2001) and Kumar et al (2014) reported an overall wound
prevalence of 47% and 49% respectively in Makalle.

25
CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

6.1 CONCLUSION
Working donkeys in the present study area were experiencing multiple welfare problems and the
major constraints that contribute for poor welfare treatment were lack of good management
practices, and high prevalence of body wounds as a result of harnessing problem, over loading and
over working, improper feeding, ectoparsites as well as many other health problems and in adequate
of veterinary services, and lack of enough feed. Although animal welfare organizations like Horn
SPCA are working closely with donkey owners but because of their financial limitations they are
not making fast impact on improvement of animal welfare issues of working donkeys in Hargeisa
city.

6.2 RECOMMENDATION
On base of the results, the following important recommendations are suggested

 The ministry and Animal welfare organizations like HORN SPCA should increase animal
welfare awareness among donkey owners.
 Government should be Training and educating of the donkey owners in modern veterinary
service awareness
 To Train and educate donkey owners on proper harness, feeding and caring of working
donkeys.
 Ministry of livestock and Horn SPCA is recommended to open clinics for Working donkeys
 To establish a donkey sanctuary for caring and keeping donkeys. The sanctuary could be
used to become center for studying animal welfare and health issues of donkeys.
 Further studies are suggested to determine the prevalence, incidence and economic impact
of donkey diseases

26
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Africa (ATNESA). ACP-EU Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation
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7) Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO)., 2011. Equine number and welfare within
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8) Ibrahim, N., Berhanu, T., Deressa, B. and Tolosa, T., 2011. Survey of Prevalence of
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Veterinaria, 6:223-227.

9) Mengistu, A., Smith, D.G., Yoseph, S., Nega, T., Zewdie, W., Kassahun, W.G., Taye, B.
and Firew.T., 2005. The effect of providing feed supplementation and anthelmintic to

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 donkeys during late pregnancy and lactation on live weight and survival of dams and their
foals in Central Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health Production, 37:21-33.

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donkey power into the next millennium. In: Kaumbutho, P. G., Pearson, R. A. and
Simalenga, T.E. (eds). Empowering Farmers with Animal traction. Proceedings of
workshop of the Animal Traction Network for Eastern and Southern Africa (ATNESA) held
20-24 September 1999, Mpumalanga, South Africa. 344p.

11) Passantino, A., 2011. Welfare issues of donkey (Equus asinus): a checklist based on the five
freedoms. Journal of Consumer Protection and Food Safety, 6:215-221

12) . Pearson, R. A., Alemayehu, M., Tesfaye, A., Allan, E. F., Smith, D. and Asfaw, M., 2001.
Use and management of donkeys in peri-urban areas of Ethiopia, Phase 1. University of
Edinburgh and Ethiopian agricultural research organization collaborative project, Centre for
Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Draught animal power technical report 5.

13) Pritchard, J.C., Lindberg, A.C., Main, D.C. and Whay, H. R., 2005. Assessment of the
welfare of working horses, mules and donkeys, using health and behaviour parameters.
Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 69:265-283.

14) Smith, D.G. and Pearson R.A., 2005. A review of the factors affecting survival of donkeys
in Semi-arid regions of Sub-Saharan Africa. Tropical Animal Health Production, 37:1-19

15) Solomon, T., Bogale, B., Chanie, M. and Melaku, A., 2012. Ocuurrence of Lungworm
Infection in Equines and Their Associated Risk Factors. Global Veterinaria, 8:35-38

16) Starkey, P., 1995. Animal traction in South Africa: empowering rural communities.
Development Bank of Southern Africa, Halfway House, South Africa.160p

17) Swai, E. S. and Bwanga, S. J .R., 2008. Donkey keeping in northern Tanzania: socio-
economic roles and reported husbandry and health constraints. Livestock Research for Rural
Development. 20. http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd20/5/swai20067.htm, (Accessed 24 May 2013).

18) James, M. and Krecek, R. C., 2000. Management of drought animals: a welfare and health
perspective in South Africa. In: Kaaumbutho, P.G., Pearson, R.A. and Simalenga, T. E. 8
(eds). Empowering Farmers with Animal traction. Proccedings of the workshop of the
Animal Traction for Eastern and Southern Africa (ATNESA) held 20-24 September 1999,
Mpumalanga, South Africa.344p.

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19) Wells, D. and Krecek, R .C., 2001. Socio-economic, health and management aspects of
working donkeys in Moretele 1, North West Province, South Africa. Journal of South
African Veterinary Association, 72:37-43.

20) Whay, H.R. and Pritchard, J.C., 2004. Assessing the Welfare of Equines Working in
Afghanistan.http://animalsininternationaldevelopment.org/aiid/Publications_files/Wh
ay%20%26%20Pritchard%20Chile%202004.pdf, (Accessed 2 June 2013).

21) Wold, A.G., Tegegne, A. and Yami, A., 2004. Research needs of donkey utilisation in
Ethiopia. In: Fielding, D and Starkey, P (eds). Donkeys, people and development. A
resource book of the Animal Traction Network for Eastern and Southern Africa (ATNESA).
ACP-EU Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA), Wageningen,
The Netherlands. 244p.

29
QUESTIONNAIRE
General information

Pastoralist’s name: __________________Sex:_______ Location: _____________________

Age: _______ Marital Status__________ Level of Education_________________

Donkey’s sex: ______________ Age of Donkey: _______ Body Weight estimation (kg) ______

Type of Work: _________________

1) How many donkeys do you own?

A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4

2) Skin Lesions: Type of wound

a) Back lesion b) Girth lesion c) Leg lesion d) Tail lesion e) Bit lesion f) Others lesions

3) Number of wounds/sores per donkey

a) Only one sore _______________

b) 2 sores / lesion______________

c) 3 sores_____________

d) More than three sores _____________

4) No sores Other Health problems based on physical examination

a) Hoof abnormalities a) Yes b) No

b) Limb abnormalities a) Yes b) No

c) Eye abnormalities a) Yes b) No

d) Nasal discharges a) Yes b) No

e) Teeth abnormalities a) Yes b) No

30
f) Hair coat abnormalities a) Yes b) No

5) Body Condition score

a) BCS 1 b) BCS 2 c) BCS 3

6) What do you do if your donkeys sick?

1) Take the animal to a veterinary clinic 2) Traditional medicine 3) Do nothing

7) Is the donkey vaccinated against the disease?

a) Yes b) No
8) Is the rope padded somewhere on the donkey’s body to protect is from sores?

A) Yes b) No

8). Do you own or hired the donkey...

a) Own
b) Hired

9) Do you have access to veterinary services/traditional healer?

a) Yes
B) No
10) How often fed in 24 hours

a) Once in 24 hours
b) Twice in 24 hours
c) Three times in 24 hours
d) More than 3 times in 24 hours

11) What Type of feed are given

a) Dry grass

b) Maize straw

31
c) Sorghum straw

d) Fodder

12) Quantity of feed given per day

a) Less than 1kg

b) One kilogram
c) 2 kilograms
d) More than 2 kilograms

13) Watering frequency

a) Less than once per day

b) Once daily
c) Twice daily
d) More than twice per day

14) A Does the donkeys have shelter at night. A) Yes B) No

B) What kind of shelter?

______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________15
) how often is the donkey used for transporting goods.
a) Everyday
b) 4-5 days/week
c) 1-2 times/week
d) Once every second week
e) Once/month

16) At what age does your donkey start working?

a) 3 year b) 4year

17) Do you rest donkey the when they retire?

a) Yes b) No

18) Does the donkeys kept in shelter and is feed when they become retire?

32
a) Yes b) No

Observations of
behaviour No Yes
19. Depressed attitude

20. Negative response to

approach
21. Avoidance of chin
contact

Observations of health
21. Body Condition
Score
No Yes
22. Mucous membranes
abnormal
23. Evidence of dental
pathology

24. Eye Pathology present

25. Problem with

coat/skin condition
26. Evidence of diarrhoea
27. Prolonged skin tent –
point of shoulder
28. Evidence of
respiratory
disease

33
Appendix
Figure 1. this fiugre indicates questioning donkey owner on the donkey status

Figure 2. shows assesment of physical conditons of the donkey

Figure 3. Indicates general observation donkey related to the work done

34
35